27

CHAPTER 4
BASICS OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION TECHNIQUE AND
ULTRASONIC TECHNIQUE

4.1

BASICS OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION TECHNIQUE

AET is an unconventional Non-Destructive Technique (NDT)

gaining ground in different fields as an online monitoring method for

detection, location and characterisation of various kinds of active defects.
This method has also made an impact as a tool for structural integrity
evaluation and for failure prediction.
Acoustic emission is the class of phenomenon where transient
elastic waves are generated by rapid release of energy from localised sources
within a material. Emission occurs as a result of a series of short impulsive
energy packets. The energy thus released travels as a spherical wave front and
can be picked up from the surface of material using highly sensitive
transducer usually electro mechanical, placed on the surface of the material.
AE equipment consists of signal detection, data acquisition, and processing
systems with analysis unit.
Materials "talk" when they are in trouble. With acoustic emission
equipment, one can "listen to the sounds of cracks growing, fibres breaking
and many other modes of active damage in the stressed material. Small-scale
damage is detectable long before failure, so AE can be used as a NonDestructive Technique to find defects during structural proof tests and plant

28

operation.

AE also offers unique capabilities for materials research and

development in the laboratory. Finally, AE equipment is adaptable to many

forms of production QC testing, including weld monitoring and leak
detection. The schematic diagram of description of AE generation process is
shown in Figure 4.1 (Mistras 2005).

Figure 4.1 Acoustic Emission generation process (Courtesy by Mistras 2005)

4.1.1

AE Process Chain
As shown in Figure 4.2, mechanical stress has to be produced within

the test object, which is usually done by applying external forces. The
behavior of the material and the starting point of the release of elastic energy,
e.g. by crack formation, are influenced by the material properties and the
environmental conditions. The elastic wave propagating through the material
is detected and converted into the electrical AE signal by the AE sensors. The
AE system processes the AE signal, converts the detected bursts into data
sets, determines the source locations, calculates statistics, and displays them
graphically, and numerically in real time (Vallen 2002).

29

External load
(Pressure, force)

Material properties

Mechanical stress

Material
behaviour

Stimulation of AE
source (e.g. crack
formation by release of
elastic energy)

Environmental
conditions
(Temperature, Noise)
Sensor

Propagation of Wave

Detection of AE Signal

AE System
AE Channel
Personal
Computer
Parametric
channel

Evaluation report

Figure 4.2 AE process chain (Courtesy Vallen 2002)

4.1.2

Sources of Acoustic Emission

All solid materials have certain elasticity. They become strained or

compressed under external forces and spring back when released. The higher
the force and, thus, the elastic deformation, the higher is the elastic energy. If

30

the elastic limit exceeds, fracture occurs immediately if it is a brittle material,

or after a certain plastic deformation, in case of ductile material. If the
elastically strained material contains a defect, e.g. a welded joint defect, a
non-metallic inclusion, incompletely welded gas bubble or similar, cracks
may occur at heavily stressed spots, by rapidly releasing elastic energy within
the material by a fast dislocation. This rapid release of elastic energy is called
as an AE event. It produces an elastic wave that propagates and can be
detected by appropriate sensors and analysed. The impact at its origin is a
wideband movement (up to some MHz). The frequency of AE testing of
metallic objects is in the range of ultrasound, usually between 100 and 300
kHz (Ravishankar and Murthy 2000).
The sound of breaking glass is widely known, but the tiny cracks in
other solid materials emit very intense ultrasound bursts. AE testing detects
and interprets the acoustic events resulting from these crack processes and can
identify, locate, and display the damage that occurs in the tested object within
a very short time.
During plastic deformation, dislocations move through the crystal
lattice. These movements also produce AE but most of these processes
(except for twinning) only have very low amplitudes, which can be measured
reliably only at a short sensor distance and in laboratory environment. Most of
these processes produce continuous signals rather than short bursts. Bursts are
pulses or short wave packets, the type of signals AE testing is based on.
AE testing is a passive, receptive technique analysing the ultrasound
pulses emitted by a defect right in the moment of its occurrence. In contrast to
the ultrasound technique one does not measure the response to an artificial
and repeatable acoustic excitation of the test object. Instead, the sound signals

31

produced by defects are evaluated; every growth of a defect is a unique event

and cant be exactly reproduced again.
The AE analysis is a dynamic technique. AE occurs when a crack
grows or when crack borders rub against each other, e.g. when a crack closes
after relaxation of the test object. Usually, the test object must be stressed
exceeding the operating level in order to have the local defects grow and emit
acoustic emission. Therefore, AE analysis is the appropriate technique
especially in those cases, where test objects are anyway stressed more than
under normal conditions, e.g. the first proof test or re-qualification tests of
pressure vessels.
Also corrosion, e.g. at the bottom of oil tanks, produce burst AE that
propagates through the liquid oil to the tank wall, where it can be detected.
With leakages, AE is produced by turbulent flow in the leak itself or by
particles rebounding from the tank support. Burst AE from leakages will
occur mainly at high pressure. Small pressure differences mainly cause
laminar flow that emits continuous AE with low amplitudes and small
propagation distances.
Also, if due to mechanical loading composites de-laminate, glue
joints detach, fibre reinforcements break, etc. AE is produced, which can be
analysed for testing or monitoring these structures (Bhat and Murthy 1992).
4.1.3

AE Signals and Parameters

AE signals are transient in nature. The transducer output can be

modeled crudely as a decaying sinusoid. This model is applicable only for

signals, which can be identified as individual bursts with discernable time gap
between two successive events. If burst rate is very high, events may occur

32

very close to one another and sometimes even overlapping, in which case it is
termed as continuous emission as the individual bursts are not identifiable.
Thus we can broadly divide AE signals into Burst type and Continuous type.
The AE Hit waveform is shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3 AE Hit Waveform (Courtesy Bhat and Murthy 1992)

Acoustic Emission:
Elastic waves generated by the rapid release of energy from sources
within a material (AE).
Activation (AE):
The onset of AE is due to the application of a stimulus such as force,
pressure, heat etc.
Activity (AE):
A measure of emission quantity usually is the cumulative energy
count, event count, ring down count, or the rates of change of these
quantities.

33

Amplitude (AE):
The largest voltage peak in the AE signal waveform is customarily
expressed in decibels relative to 1 microvolt at the preamplifier input (dbae).
Amplitude Distribution:
A display of the number of AE signals at (or greater than) a
particular amplitude, plotted as a function of amplitude.
Attenuation:
Loss of amplitude with distance as the wave travels through the test
structure.
Burst emission:
It is a qualitative description of the discrete signal related to an individual
emission event.
Channel (AE):
A single AE sensor and the related equipment components for
transmitting, conditioning, detecting and measuring the signals.
Continuous emission:
It is a qualitative description of the sustained signal level
produced by rapidly occurring acoustic emission events.
Counts:
The number of times the AE signal crosses the detection threshold is
also known as ring down counts or threshold crossing counts.

34

dbae:
A unit of measurement for AE signal amplitude A, defined by A
(dbae) = 20 log Vp where Vp is the peak signal voltage in micro volts referred
to the preamplifier input.
Detection (AE):
It is the recognition of the presence of signal (accomplished by
signal crossing the threshold).
Event (AE):
It is a local material change giving rise to acoustic emission.
Event Data Set (AE):
The set of numbers used to describe an event, pursuant to data
processing that recognizes that a single event can produce more than one hit.
Event Description:
A
one

or

digital

more

(numerical) description

signal

descriptions

of

an

event, comprising

and/or information extracted from

them or calculated from them.

Event Energy (AE):
The total elastic energy (in the wave) released by an acoustic
emission event.
Felicity Effect:
(The reverse of the Kaiser effect) The presence of AE at stress
levels below the maximum previously experienced.

35

Frequency:
Frequency of an oscillating signal or process is the number of cycles
occurring in unit time.
Guard Sensors:
Guard Sensors are sensors whose primary function is the
elimination of extraneous noise based on arrival time differences.
Hit (AE):
The detection and measurement of an AE signal on a channel.
Hit Data Set:
The set of numbers representing signal features and other
information.
Intensity (AE):
A measure of the size of the emission signals detected, such as the
average amplitude, average AE energy or average counts.
Kaiser Effect:
The absence of detectable acoustic emission is at a fixed sensitivity
level, until previously applied stress levels are exceeded.
kHz Kilohertz:
An SI unit of frequency, 1000 cycles per second
Location:
Relating to the use of multiple AE Sensors for determining relative
positions of AE sources

36

Noise:
Non relevant indications; signals produced by causes other than
AE, or by AE sources that are not relevant to the purpose of the test.
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT):
The development and application of technical methods to examine
components in ways that do not impair future usefulness and serviceability in
order to detect, locate, measure and evaluate flaws; to assess integrity,
properties and composition; and to measure geometrical characteristics.
Parametric Inputs:
Environmental variables (e.g. load, pressure, temperature) that can
be measured and stored as part of the AE signal description.
Rise time:
The time from an AE signal first threshold crossing to its peak.
Duration:
The elapsed time is between the first thresholds crossing to the last.
Sensor (AE):
It is a device that contains a transducing element that turns AE wave
motion into an electrical voltage.
Signal (AE):
The electrical signal that comes from the transducing element and
passing through the subsequent signal conditioning equipment (amplifiers,
frequency filters).

37

Signal Description:
The result of the hit process: a digital (numerical) description of an
AE signal and/or its environmental context.
Signal Features:
Measurable characteristics of the AE signal, such as amplitude, AE
energy, duration, counts, rise time, that can be stored as part of the AE signal
description.
Signal Strength (AE):
It is the strength of the absolute value of a detected AE signal and
also known as Relative energy", MARSE" or "Signal strength".
Source (AE):
The physical origin of one or more AE events, which occurs by
stimulating an element (Mistras 2005).
4.1.4

Applications
Acoustic emission is a very versatile, non-invasive way to gather

information about a material or structure. Acoustic Emission testing (AET)

is applied to inspect and monitor pipelines, pressure vessels, storage tanks,
bridges, aircraft, and bucket trucks, and a variety of composite and ceramic
components. It is also used in process control applications such as monitoring
welding processes (www.ndt-ed.org). A few examples of AET applications
are as follows.
Fibre-reinforced polymer-matrix composites, in particular glassfibre reinforced parts or structures (e.g. fan blades)

38

Monitors the health of the Aerospace structures

Monitors the growth of micro fissures and larger cracks in
welds
Material research (e.g. investigation of material properties,
breakdown mechanisms, and damage behavior)
Inspection and quality assurance, (e.g. wood drying processes,
scratch tests)
Real-time leakage test and location within various components
(small valves, steam lines, tank bottoms)
Detection and location of high-voltage partial discharges in
transformers
Railroad tank car and rocket motor testing
4.2

BASICS OF ULTRASONIC TECHNIQUE

Ultrasonic testing (www.ndt-ed.org) is a Non-Destructive method in

which beams of high frequency sound waves are introduced into materials for
detection of surface and subsurface flaws in the materials. The sound waves
travels through the material with some attendant loss of energy (attenuation)
and are reflected at interfaces. The reflected beam is analysed to define the
presence and location of flaws and discontinuities. The degree of reflection
depends largely on the physical state of materials forming the interface and to
a lesser extent on the specific physical properties of the material.
Cracks, laminations, shrinkage cavities, bursts, flakes, pores,
disbonds and other discontinuities that produce reflective interfaces can be
easily detected. Inclusions and other inhomogeneties can also be detected by

39

causing partial reflection or scattering of the ultrasonic waves or by producing

some other detectable defect on the ultrasonic waves.
Most of the ultrasonic instruments detect flaws by monitoring one or
more of the following:
1.

Reflection of sound from interfaces consisting of material

boundaries or discontinuities within the material itself

2.

Time of transit of a sound wave through the test piece from

the entrance point at the transducer to the exit point at the
transducer.

3.

Attenuation of sound waves by absorption and scattering

within the test piece.

4.

Features in the spectral response for either a transmitted or a

reflected signal.

Most of the ultrasonic inspection is done at frequencies between 0.1

and 25 MHz well above the range of human hearing which is about 20 Hz to
20 kHz. Ultrasonic waves are mechanical vibrations; the amplitudes of
vibrations in parts being ultrasonically inspected impose stresses well below
the elastic limit, thus preventing permanent effects on the parts. Ultrasonic
inspection is one of the most widely used methods of Non-Destructive
Inspection. Its primary applications in inspection of materials is the detection
and characterisation of internal flaws, surface flaws, to define bond
characteristics, to measure the extent and thickness of corrosion and less
frequently to determine physical properties, structure, grain size, and elastic
constants.

40

4.2.1

Sound Wave Terminology

Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or

vibrations in materials, which is generally referred to as acoustics. All

material substances are comprised of atoms, which may be forced into
vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions. Many different patterns
of vibrational motion exist at the atomic level, however, most are irrelevant to
acoustics and ultrasonic testing. Acoustics is focussed on particles that
contain many atoms that move in unison to produce a mechanical wave.
When a material is not stressed in tension or compression beyond its elastic
limit, its individual particles perform elastic oscillations. When the particles
of a medium are displaced from their equilibrium positions, internal
(electrostatic) restoration forces arise. It is these elastic restoring forces
between particles, combined with inertia of the particles, which lead to the
oscillatory motions of the medium.
In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that
are based on the way the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as
longitudinal waves, shear waves, surface waves, and in thin materials as plate
waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes of propagation most
widely used in ultrasonic testing. The particle movement responsible for the
propagation of longitudinal and shear waves is illustrated in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Propagation of Longitudinal and Shear Waves

41

In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal

direction or in the direction of wave propagation. Since compressional and
dilational forces are active in these waves, they are also called pressure or
compressional waves. They are also sometimes called density waves because
their particle density fluctuates as they move. Compression waves can be
generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the
atomic structure by a series of compressions and expansion (rarefaction)
movements.
In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at right angle
or transverse to the direction of propagation. Shear waves require an
acoustically solid material for effective propagation, and therefore, are not
effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or gases. Shear waves are
relatively weak when compared to longitudinal waves. In fact, shear waves
are usually generated in materials using some of the energy from longitudinal
waves.
4.2.2

Ultrasonic Testing Techniques

The two major methods of ultrasonic inspection are the transmission

method and the pulse echo method. The primary difference between these two
methods is that the transmission method involves only the measurement of
signal attenuation while the pulse echo method can be used to measure both
transit time and signal attenuation.
The pulse echo method which is most widely used ultrasonic
method involves the detection of echoes produced when an ultrasonic pulse is
reflected from a discontinuity or an interface of test piece. This method is
used in flaw location and thickness measurements. Flaw depth is determined
from the time of flight between the initial pulse and echo produced by the
flaw. Flaw depth may also be determined from the relative time of flight

42

between the echo produced by the flaw and the echo from the back surface as
shown in the Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 Principle of Ultrasonic Testing Technique

4.2.3

Data Presentation
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of

different formats. The three most common formats are known in the NDT
world as A-scan, B-scan and C-scan presentations. Each presentation mode
provides a different way of looking at and evaluating the region of material
being inspected. Modern computerised ultrasonic scanning systems can
display data in all three presentation forms simultaneously.
A-scan Presentation:
The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic
energy as a function of time. The relative amount of received energy is plotted
along the vertical axis and the elapsed time (which may be related to the
sound energy travel time within the material) is displayed along the horizontal
axis. Most instruments with an A-scan display allow the signal to be

43

displayed in its natural Radio Frequency form (RF), as a fully rectified RF

signal, or as either the positive or negative half of the RF signal. In the A-scan
presentation, relative discontinuity size can be estimated by comparing the
signal amplitude obtained from an unknown reflector to that from a known
reflector. Reflector depth can be determined by the position of the signal on
the horizontal sweep.

Figure 4.6 A-scan Presentation

In the illustration of the A-scan presentation in Figure 4.6, the initial
pulse generated by the transducer is represented by the signal IP, which is
near time zero. As the transducer is scanned along the surface of the part, four
other signals are likely to appear at different times on the screen. When the
transducer is in its far left position, only the IP signal and signal A, the sound
energy reflecting from surface A, will be seen on the trace. As the transducer
is scanned to the right, a signal from the backwall BW will appear later in
time, showing that the sound has travelled farther to reach this surface. When
the transducer is over flaw B, signal B will appear at a point on the time scale
that is approximately halfway between the IP signal and the BW signal. Since

44

the IP signal corresponds to the front surface of the material, this indicates
that flaw B is about halfway between the front and back surfaces of the
sample. When the transducer is moved over flaw C, signal C will appear
earlier in time since the sound travel path is shorter and signal B will
disappear since sound will no longer be reflecting from it.
B-scan Presentation:
The B-scan presentation is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the test
specimen. In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound energy is
displayed along the vertical axis and the linear position of the transducer is
displayed along the horizontal axis. From the B-scan, the depth of the
reflector and its approximate linear dimensions in the scan direction can be
determined. The B-scan is typically produced by establishing a trigger gate on
the A-scan. Whenever the signal intensity is great enough to trigger the gate, a
point is produced on the B-scan. The gate is triggered by the sound reflecting
from the backwall of the specimen and by smaller reflectors within the
material.

Figure 4.7 B-scan Presentation

45

In the B-scan image above (Figure 4.7), line A is produced as the

transducer is scanned over the reduced thickness portion of the specimen.
When the transducer moves to the right of this section, the backwall line BW
is produced. When the transducer is over flaws B and C, lines that are similar
to the length of the flaws and at similar depths within the material are drawn
on the B-scan. It should be noted that a limitation to this display technique is
that reflectors may be masked by larger reflectors near the surface.
C-scan Presentation:
The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of the location
and size of test specimen features as shown in Figure 4.8. The plane of the
image is parallel to the scan pattern of the transducer. C-scan presentations
are produced with an automated data acquisition system, such as a computer
controlled immersion scanning system.
Typically, a data collection gate is established on the A-scan and the
amplitude or the time-of-flight of the signal is recorded at regular intervals as
the transducer is scanned over the test piece. The relative signal amplitude or
the time-of-flight is displayed as a shade of gray or a color for each of the
positions where data was recorded. The C-scan presentation provides an
image of the features that reflect and scatter the sound within and on the
surfaces of the test piece.

46

Figure 4.8 C-scan Presentation

4.2.4

Applications of Ultrasonic testing

Some of the major types of equipment that are ultrasonically

inspected for the flaws are:

1. Mill components: Rolls, shaft drives and press columns
2. Power equipment: Turbine forgings, generator rotors, pressure
piping, weldments, pressure vessels, nuclear fuel elements, and
other nuclear components
3. Jet engine parts: Turbine and compressor forgings, and gear
blanks
4. Aircraft components: Forging stock, Frame sections and
honeycomb sandwich assemblies
5. Machinery materials: Die blocks, tool steels and drill pipes
6. Rail road parts: Axles, wheels, and welded rail.
7. Automotive parts: Forgings, ductile castings, and brazed and/or
welded components.