Capital University of Science and

Technology

Project Report

by

M. Hassan Khan Lodhi (BME143016)

Faizan Basharat (BME143044)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

CUST, Islamabad
2nd Jan, 2017

Contents:
Problem Definition:................................................................................................ 3
Literature review:................................................................................................... 3
Columns:............................................................................................................ 3
Beams:............................................................................................................... 4
Types of beams:.................................................................................................. 4
1) Based on geometry:.................................................................................... 4
2) Based on equilibrium conditions:................................................................4
3) Based on type of supports:.........................................................................5
Types of loadings on a beam:............................................................................. 6
Shear force in beams:......................................................................................... 6
Bending moment:............................................................................................... 6
Shear force diagram:.......................................................................................... 6
Bending moment diagram:................................................................................. 6
Flexure formula:................................................................................................. 7
Criteria and constraints:........................................................................................ 7
Alternative solutions:............................................................................................. 8
Analysis:................................................................................................................ 8
Design 1:............................................................................................................ 8
Design 2:.......................................................................................................... 14
Design 3:.......................................................................................................... 18
Discussion:........................................................................................................... 21
Specifications:..................................................................................................... 22
Contribution:........................................................................................................ 22
Scope of the project:............................................................................................ 23
Bibliography:........................................................................................................ 24

Problem Definition:
Design and analyze traffic signal/sign poles.

Literature review:
To understand the analysis of traffic poles, it is important to know about the technical
terms that are necessary to understand the analysis. Brief information about the terms is given
below:

Columns:
Columns are essentially vertical members responsible for supporting compressive
loads from roofs and floors and transmitting the vertical forces to the foundations and subsoil.
The structural work performed by the column is somewhat simpler than that of the beam,
because the applied loads are in the same vertical orientation. Although columns are normally
considered to be vertical elements, they can actually be positioned in any orientation.
Columns are defined by their length dimension between support ends and can be very short
(e.g., footing piers) or very long (e.g., bridge and freeway piers). They are used as major
elements in trusses, building frames, and substructure supports for bridges. Loads are
typically applied at member ends, producing axial compressive stresses. Common terms used
to identify column elements include studs, struts, posts, piers, piles, and shafts, as shown in
Figure 9.1. Virtually every common construction material, including steel, timber, concrete
(reinforced and pre-stressed), and masonry, is used for column construction. Each material
possesses characteristics (material and production) that present opportunities and limitations
on the shapes of cross-sections and profiles chosen. Columns are major structural
components that significantly affect the buildings overall performance and stability and,
thus, are designed with larger safety factors than other structural components. Failure of a
joist or beam may be localized and may not severely affect the buildings integrity; however,
failure of a strategic column may be catastrophic for a large area of the structure. Safety
factors for columns adjust for the uncertainties of material irregularities, support fixity at the
column ends, and take into consideration construction inaccuracies, workmanship, and
unavoidable eccentric (off-axis) loading.
Case: One End Free and One End Fixed
Lateral translation possible (develops eccentric column load).Examples
3

K = 2.0

Le =2.0 L
2 EI
Pcr = 2
l
2

EA
Pcr =
l 2
r

()

The slenderness ratio of a column is adjusted by a K factor to incorporate the end support
conditions.
slenderness ratio=

KL
r

Where K is the multiplier for converting the actual length to an effective buckling length
based on the end conditions.

Beams:
A beam is a structural member used for bearing loads. It is typically used for resisting
vertical loads, shear forces and bending moments. [1]
OR
A beam is a bar subjected to forces or couples that lie in a plane containing the
longitudinal section of the bar. [2]

Types of beams:

1) Based on geometry:

Straight beam Beam with straight profile

Curved beam Beam with curved profile

Tapered beam Beam with tapered cross section

2) Based on equilibrium conditions:

Statically determinate beam For a statically determinate beam, equilibrium

conditions alone can be used to solve reactions.

Statically indeterminate beam For a statically indeterminate beam, equilibrium
conditions are not enough to solve reactions. Additional deflections are needed to
solve reactions.

3) Based on type of supports:

Simply supported beam

Cantilever beam
Overhanging beam
Continuous beam
Fixed beam

Simply supported beam:

A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and roller
support at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing and bending.
Cantilever beam:
A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end.
Overhanging beam:
An overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending beyond its
supports.
Continuous beam:
A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout its length.
Fixed Beam:
Fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed. [1]
The beam which will be used in the analysis will be the cantilever beam.

Types of loadings on a beam:

1. Concentrated Loads
2. Uniformly Distributed Loads
3. Uniformly varying loads
4. Applied couple

Shear force in beams:

Shear force is the force in the beam acting perpendicular to its longitudinal (x) axis.[3]
Bending moment:
A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an
external force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. [4]

Shear force diagram:

A Shear Force Diagram (SFD) indicates how a force applied perpendicular to the axis (i.e.,
parallel to cross-section) of a beam is transmitted along the length of that beam.

Bending moment diagram:

A Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) will show how the applied loads to a beam create
a moment variation along the length of the beam.

Flexure formula:
The flexure formula gives the internal bending stress caused by the external moment on the
beam. Flexure formula is written as [5]:

max =

Mc
I

Here
max = the maximum normal stress in the member, which occurs at a point on the cross
sectional area farthest away from the neutral axis.
M = the resultant internal moment, determined from the method of sections and the equations
of equilibrium, and calculated about the neutral axis of the cross section.
c = perpendicular distance from the neutral axis to a point farthest away from the neutral axis.
This is where max acts.
I = moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the neutral axis.

Criteria and constraints:

The analysis mainly involves the determination of bending moments and stresses

caused by the wind force on the traffic sign poles.

The vertical segment on which the sign is attached is considered as a beam/column as

required.
The traffic signal/sign boards must be designed to promote the safety and welfare of

the public.
The proposed design shall be cost-effective, durable and shall minimize post-

construction, maintenance and repair costs.

At the start of our project we assume 2D structure for assumptions of our
dimmensions.

Alternative solutions:
Our designs will be different from each other as each design is used for different
application. So, there will be no alternative solutions.

Analysis:
The analysis of the designs is as follows:

Design 1:

A sign board is supported by a hollow

circular pipe having outer diameter
120mm and inner diameter 100mm. The
dimensions of sign are 1m 0.5m. The
main purpose is to find the max. shear
stress at the base and critical load for the
design.
Calculations:
The outer diameter = do = 0.12m
Inner diameter = di = 0.1m
Thickness of pipe =

d od i
2

= 0.01m

The length of the pole L=6m

The moment of inertia for hollow circular pipe is given by

I=

(d o4 d i 4)
64
I = 5.26 10-6 m4

The polar moment of inertia for hollow circular pipe is given by

Ip = 2I
Ip = 1.052 10 -5 m4
Q=

1
( d o 3d i 3)
12

Q = 6.06 10-5 m3
For sign,
A = 0.5m2

h= 5.5+

0.5
2

h=5.75 m

where, h is the height from the base to the center of gravity of the sign.
b = 0.56m
where, b is the horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the sign to the axis of the
pipe.
Wind Pressure:
Wind pressure is given by [6]
P=0.613 V

Here, we assume the wind velocity is 40m/s. So, the pressure is

9

P = 980.8 Pa
Shear force due to wind on pole is
Fpole = PACd
where, Cd is the drag coefficient for pole and its value is 1.20. [7]
Fpole = 980.8 N/m2 (6m 0.12m) 1.2
Fpole = 847.411 N
Shear force due to wind on pole is
Fsign = PACd
Fsign = 980.8 N/m2 (1m 0.5m) 1.28
Fsign = 627.71 N
Total force on sign board is
Ftotal =F pole + F sign
Ftotal =1475.12 N
Moment due to wind force is
M pole=F pole L
Where, M pole is the moment of pole and its unit is Nm.
M pole=5084.46 Nm
M sign=F sign h
M sign=3609.33 Nm
Total moment on the sign board is

10

M total=M pole+ M sign

M total=8693.79 Nm
Torque due to the force act on sign is
T =F sign b
Where, T is the torque and its unit is Nm.
T =351.51 Nm
Shear force on the pole is
V shear =F total=1475.12 N
Stress:
There is no force acting along the x-axis so the
x =0

y=

M total d o
2I

y =99.16 MPa
The shear stress on the sign board is
xy =

T do
2Ip

xy =2.004 MPa
The maximum shear stress is

max =

x y 2
+ ( xy )2
2

11

 max =49.62 MPa

MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS AT POINT A

Now calculation for the point B is
x =0
y =0
The shear stress on the sign board is
xy =

T do
VQ

2 I p I (2t )

xy =1.4716 MPa
The maximum shear stress is

max =

x y 2
+ ( xy )2
2

max =1.4716 MPa

12

MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS AT POINT B

Now calculation for the point C is
x =0
y =0
The shear stress on the sign board is
xy =

T d o VQ
+
2 I p I (2 t)

xy =2.5364 MPa
The maximum shear stress is

max =

x y 2
+ ( xy )2
2

max =2.5364 MPa

MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS AT POINT C

13

Critical load:
An ideal column is one that is perfectly straight, homogeneous, and free from initial stress.
The maximum load, sometimes called the critical load, causes the column to be in a state of
unstable equilibrium; that is, the introduction of the slightest lateral force will cause the
column to fail by buckling
Pcr =

Pcr =

2 EI
L2

3.14 2 (210 109 )(5.26 106 )

62
Pcr =299 kN

Factor of safety:
It is the ratio between yield stress and allowable stress.
So,
F . O. S=

yield
allow

F . O. S=

440
99.16

F . O. S=4.43

Design 2:
The second design is the traffic signal having a long pole of length 6m and
the pole arm of 3m. The diameter of the pole and arm is same as the use
in the above design. Same wind force acting on the signal which cause
bending and torque. The main objective is to find the maximum stress at
the base and also find the factor of safety and critical load.

14

Calculation:
Assume the weight of the arm is 667.7 N and the weight of the attached
signal is 196 N.
First analyze the pole arm of the signal the free body diagram of the arm
is

According to the equilibrium forces in y-axis,

F y =0

R=667.6 N +196 N

Where, R is the reaction force.

The shear force on the arm is
V shear =863.7 N

15

From the calculation the bending moment which is caused by the weight
and reaction force.
M arm =1589.55 Nm
The total wind force on the pole arm is
F wind=F signal + Farm + F pole
F wind=(P A c d )signal +( P A c d )arm +( P A c d ) pole
F wind=( 980.8 ( 0.03657 ) 1.28 )signal + ( 980.8 0.36 1.2 )arm + ( 980.8 ( 0.72 ) 1.2 ) pole
F wind=1345.2 N
Moment due to the wind force is
M wind =6 1345.2
M wind =8071.26 Nm
The total moment which is causing bending
M total= M arm2 + M wind 2

M total=8226.29 Nm
The angel of incidence due to the moments in x and y direction is
=

M arm
M wind

=11.14

The maximum bending stress due to the moment by using flexure formula
at the base is

16

 x =0

y=

M total d o
2I

y =93.8 MPa
The torque produced by the wind load is
T =F wind b
T =497.8 3
T =1493.4 Nm

The maximum shear stress due to the wind load

xy =

T do
2Ip

xy =8.5 MPa
The maximum shear stress is

max =

x y 2
+ ( xy )2
2

max =47.66 MPa

The factor of safety is
F . O. S=

yield
allow

F . O. S=

440
141.46

F . O. S=3.11
17

Critical load:
An ideal column is one that is perfectly straight, homogeneous, and free from initial stress.
The maximum load, sometimes called the critical load, causes the column to be in a state of
unstable equilibrium; that is, the introduction of the slightest lateral force will cause the
column to fail by buckling
Pcr =

Pcr =

2 EI
L2

3.14 2 (210 109 )(5.26 106 )

62

Pcr =299 kN
Maximum bending moment in pole:
For pole which is acting as one end fixed column the maximum bending moment by
eccentrically loaded column occurs at midpoint where the deflection is maximum
M max=Pe sec

( )

P
P cr

M max=103. 52 Nm
Critical stress:
Under these condition the maximum load is the critical load and the
corresponding maximum stress is called critical stress
cr =

cr =

Pcr
A
299000
2
d o ( d o2 t )2 ]
[
4

cr =86.522 MPa
18

The maximum deflection can be calculate by using this formula

[ ( ) ]

=e sec

P
1
P cr

Where, e is he eccentricity and P is the applied load and

Pcr is the critical load.

So, the deflection is

[ (

=0.12 sec

863.7
1
299000

=0.119 m

Design 3:
Wind force is acting on a sign board and the
resulting moment required to resist bending
is calculated. Moreover, maximum shear stress at the base and factor of safety has also been
calculated.

Calculations:

19

Wind force can be calculated using the

following formula [6]
F = APCd
For sign board,
A = 0.6096 0.6096 = 0.3716 m2
P = 0.613V2 N/m2
P = 0.613(27.8 m/s)2 N/m2 = 473 N/m2
Cd for flat plate is 1.28 [8].
Fboard = (0.3716 m2) (473 N/m2) (1.28)
Fboard = 224.98 N
For pole,
Frontal area can be taken as A = diameter
height
A = 0.2m 2m = 0.04 m
Cd for pole is 1.2 [9].
Fpole = 0.04m 473 N/m2 1.2
Fpole = 227.04 N
The force on the plate is acting at point A on the pole.
The wind load on the pole is acting at center.

Sectioning between points A and B,

20

 Fx

=0

224.98 + Vx = 0
Vx = - 224.98 N

=0

Mx 224.98(x) = 0
Mx = 224.98x

Section AB

Sectioning between points A and C,

Fx

=0

224.98 N + 227.04 N + Vx = 0
Vx = -452.02 N

=0

Mx (224.98 x) 227.04 (x 1) = 0
Mx = 224.98x + 227.04x -227.04
Mx = 452.02x 227.04
Moment is maximum when x = 2
Mx = 452.02(2) 227.04 = 677 Nm
The moment of inertia for hollow circular pipe is given by

I=

4
4
(d o d i )
64

21

I =2.7 10

m4

There is no force acting along the y-axis so,

y =0

x=

M x do
2I

x =2.5 MPa
The shear stress on the sign board is
xy =

VQ
I (2t)

xy =151.9 kPa

The maximum shear stress is

max =

x y 2
+ ( xy )2
2

max =1.26 MPa

Factor of safety =

F.O.S =

yield
allow

440 MPa
( 2.5+ 0.15 ) MPa

F.O.S = 166.03

Discussion:
22

For material selection, mild steel is preferred due to its various advantages compared to other
materials as listed below:
a. Other than maximum limit of 2 % carbon in the manufacture of carbon steel, the
proportions of manganese
(1.65%), copper (0.6%) and silicon (0.6%) are fixed, while the proportions of cobalt,
chromium, niobium,
molybdenum, titanium, nickel, tungsten, vanadium and zirconium are not.
b. A high amount of carbon makes mild steel different from other types of steel. Carbon
makes mild steel stronger and stiffer than other type of steel. However, the hardness comes at
the price of a decrease in the ductility of this alloy. Carbon atoms get affixed in the interstitial
sites of the iron lattice and make it stronger.
c. Low-carbon steels have less than 0.30 percent carbon and are the most commonly used
grades. They machine and weld nicely and are more ductile than higher-carbon steels.
d. The calculated average industry grade mild steel density is 7.85 gm/cm3. Its Young's
modulus, which is a measure of its stiffness is around 210,000 Mpa.
e. Mild steel is the cheapest and most versatile form of steel.
f. The high amount of carbon, also makes mild steel vulnerable to rust.

The strength to weight ratio is better for hollow beam than a solid one.

Specifications:

Low Carbon/Mild Steel

Medium Carbon Steel
High Carbon Steel

AISI 1018 grade steel

Mild steel 1090

Yield Stress
(MPa)

Elastic Modulus(E)
(GPa)

Ultimate Tensile Strength

(MPa)

250 - 395
305 - 900
400 - 1155

200 - 215
200 - 215
200 - 215

345 - 580
410 - 1200
550 - 1640

Yield strength
(MPa)
370
248

23

Ultimate Tensile Strength

(MPa)
440
841

Result and Conclusion

Factor of safety depends on what component you are designing, its cost of manufacturing and
it durability. If you want conponents to be durable then select the greastest factor of safety,
but cost of manufaturing will increase. If you want the component to be less durable then
consider lesser factor of safety and manufacturing cost will be reduced.we have choose
design no 3 as our best design because its factor of safety is higher than other two alternatives
and it is more durable.It is cost effective but we are considering factor of safety for our design
criteria.

Contribution:
Design 2 is done by Faizan Basharat and Design 3 is done by Hassan Lodhi whereas
design 1 and report is made by both the members.

Scope of the project:

The scope of the project is limited to the calculation of reaction moment required to
resist wind load and the Factor of Safety. Other values are calculated as required (e.g; shear
stress, deflection etc.)

24

Bibliography:

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2016. [Online]. Available: http://mechteacher.com/beam/
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Review", Mathalino.com, 2016. [Online]. Available:
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[3]. "Shear Force and Bending Moment", People.virginia.edu, 2016. [Online]. Available:
http://people.virginia.edu/~pjm8f/engr162/beam/shear_force_and_bending_moment.htm
[4]. "Bending moment", En.wikipedia.org, 2016. [Online]. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bending_moment
[5]. R. Hibbeler, Mechanics of Materials, 9th ed. United States of America: Pearson Prentice
Hall, 2014, p. 291
[6]. "How to Calculate Wind Load", wikiHow. [Online]. Available:
http://www.wikihow.com/Calculate-Wind-Load
[7]. "Drag coefficient", En.wikipedia.org, 2016. [Online]. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_coefficient
25

[8]. "Shape Effects on Drag", Grc.nasa.gov, 2015. [Online]. Available:

https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/shaped.html
[9]. G. Bruschi, T. Nishioka, K. Tsang and R. Wang, "DRAG COEFFICIENT OF A
CYLINDER", sv.20file.org, 2003. [Online]. Available: http://sv.20file.org/up1/916_0.pdf

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