CHAPTER 2

Static Modeling of Transmission Line with FACTS Controllers

2.1 Introduction
The limitation of a power transmission network arising from environmental, right-ofway and cost problems are fundamental to both bundled and unbundled power systems.
Patterns of generation that results in heavy flows tend to incur greater losses, and to threaten
stability and security, ultimately make certain generation patterns economically undesirable.
Hence, there is an interest in better utilization of available power system capabilities by
installing new devices such as Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS). FACTS are the
name given to the application of Power electronics devices to the control of flows and other
quantities in power system. Development based on semiconductor devices first established
High Voltage DC Transmission (HVDC) technology as an alternative to long distance AC
transmission. HVDC, in turn has provided the basis for the development of FACTS
equipment, which can solve problem in AC transmission.
FACTS devices provide new control facilities, both in steady state power flow control
and dynamic stability control. The possibility of controlling power flow in an electric power
system without generation rescheduling or topological changes can improve the performance
considerably. Using controllable components such as controllable series capacitors, phase
shifters and unified power flow controllers, line flows can be changed in such a way that
thermal limits are not violated, losses minimized, stability margin increased, contractual
requirement fulfilled etc, without violating specified power dispatch. The increased interest
in these devices is essentially due to two reasons. Firstly, the recent development in high
power electronics has made these devices cost effective and secondly, increased loading of
power systems, combined with deregulation of power industry, motivates the use of power
flow control as a very cost-effective means of dispatching specified power transactions.
Several emerging issues in competitive power market namely, as congestion management,
enhancement of security and available transfer capability of the system, transmission pricing,

Page 16

etc have been restricting the free and fair trade of electricity in the open market. FACTS
devices can play a major role in these issues. Moreover, it is important to ascertain the
location for placement of these devices because of their considerable costs.
In this chapter static modeling of FACTS controllers (SVC, UPFC and TCSC have
been developed [17].
2.1.1 Basic Types of FACTS Controllers
In general, FACTS controllers, whose general symbol is shown in Fig. 2.1(a), can be
divided into four categories:

Series Controllers: [Fig. 2.1(b)]. The series controller could be variable impedance,
such as capacitor, reactor, etc., or power electronics based variable source of main
frequency, sub-synchronous and harmonic frequencies to serve the desired need. In
principle, all series controllers inject voltage in series with the line. Even variable
impedance multiplied by the current flow through it, represents an injected series
voltage in the line. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current,
the series controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other
phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

Shunt Controllers: [Fig. 2.1(c)]. As in the case of series controllers, the shunt
controllers may be variable impedance, variable source, or a combination of these. In
principle, all shunt controllers inject current into the system at the point of
connection. Even variable shunt impedance connected to the line voltage causes a
variable current flow and hence represents injection of current into the line. As long
as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the shunt
controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase
relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

Combined Series-Series Controllers: [Fig. 2.1(d)]. This could be a combination of
separate series controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner, in a multiline transmission system, or it could be a unified controller, in which series
controllers provide independent series reactive compensation for each line but also
transfer real power among the lines via the power link.

Page 17

e
Line

Line
i

(b)

(a)

(c)

e
Line
i
AC Lines

DC link

Coordinated
control
(d)

(e)
e
Line

DC power link
(f)

Fig. 2.1. Basic type of controllers: (a) General symbol for FACTS controller; (b) Series
controller; (c) Shunt controller; (d) Unified series-series controller; (e)
Coordinated series and shunt controller; (f) Unified series-shunt controller.

The real power transfer capability of the unified series-series controller, referred to as
interline power flow controller, makes it possible to balance both the real and reactive
power flow in the lines and there by maximize the utilization of the transmission

Page 18

system. Note that the term unified here means that the DC terminals of all
controller converters are all connected together for real power transfer.

Combined Series-Shunt Controllers: [Fig. 2.1(e) and 2.1(f)]. This could be a
combination of separate shunt and series controllers, which are controlled in a
coordinated manner, or a unified power-flow controller with series and shunt
elements. In principal, combined shunt and series controllers inject current into the
system with shunt part of controller and voltage in series in the line with the series
part of the controller. However, when the shunt and series controllers are unified,
there can be a real power exchange between the series and shunt controllers via the
power link.
In the present thesis work, the two FACTS controllers such as unified power flow
controller (UPFC), Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC) and SVC have been
considered for the study. In the next section, the transmission line has been modeled with and
without FACTS controllers..

2.2 Simple Transmission Line Modeling

Fig. 2.2 shows a simple transmission line represented by its lumped - equivalent
parameters connected between bus-i and bus-j. Let complex voltages at bus-i and bus-j are
Vi i and V j j respectively. The real and reactive power flow from bus-i to bus-j and
bus-j to bus-i (Pij, Qij, Pji, and Qji) can be derived as follows:
Power Flow from bus-i to bus-j (Fig. 2.2):

I ij = Vi i V j j Yij + Vi i . jBsh

(2.1)

S ij = Vi i .I ij*

(2.2)

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Bus i

G ij + j Bij

j Bsh

Bus j

j Bsh

Fig. 2.2. Model of a simple Transmission line

Substituting eq. (2.1) in eq. (2.2) the apparent power flow equation can be written as:

S ij = Vi i {Vi i V j j (Gij jBij ) jBshVi i }

[
= (V
= {V

= Vi 2 ViV j ij (Gij jBij ) jBshVi 2

ViV j cos ij jViV j sin ij )(Gij jBij ) jBshVi 2

i
2

} {

Gij ViV j (Gij cos ij + Bij sin ij ) + j Vi 2 (Bij + Bsh ) ViV j (Gij sin ij Bij cos ij )

= Pij + jQij
The real and reactive power flow equations from bus-i to bus-j can be written as:
Pij = Vi 2 Gij ViV j (Gij cos ij + Bij sin ij )

(2.3)

Qij = Vi 2 (Bij + Bsh ) ViV j (Gij sin ij Bij cos ij )

(2.4)

Power flow equation from bus-j to bus-i (Fig. 2.2):

I ji = V j j Vi i Yij + V j j . jB sh

(2.5)

S ji = V j j .I *ji

(2.6)

S ji = V j j {V j j Vi i (Gij jBij ) jBshV j j }

[
= (V
= {V

= V j2 ViV j ij (Gij jBij ) jBshV j2

2
j
2
j

ViV j cos ij + jViV j sin ij )(Gij jBij ) jBshV j2

} {

Gij ViV j (Gij cos ij Bij sin ij ) + j V j2 (Bij + Bsh ) + ViV j (Gij sin ij + Bij cos ij )

= Pji + jQ ji
The real and reactive power flow equations from bus-j to bus-i can be written as:
Pji = V j2 Gij ViV j (Gij cos ij Bij sin ij )

(2.7)

Q ji = V j2 (Bij + Bsh ) + ViV j (Gij sin ij + Bij cos ij )

(2.8)

Page 20

Fig. 2.3 shows a simple transmission line with a regulating transformer having ratio
1:a and is represented by its lumped - equivalent parameters connected between bus-i and
bus-j. The ratio of regulating transformer a is a real quantity if it represents transformer off
nominal tap settings and will be a complex quantity a = a when it represents a phase
shifter. In case of off nominal taps = 0 and a is variable, where as in case of phase

shifters a is constant and is variable. The transformer with off nominal tap setting (turns
ratios n) can also be represented by equivalent - model shown in Fig. 2.4 with values of
series and shunt legs marked on it in terms of Yij its series admittance and voltage ratio n.
Let complex voltages at bus-i and bus-j are Vi i and V j j respectively. The real and
reactive power flow from bus-i to bus-j and bus-j to bus-i (Pij, Qij, Pji, and Qji) can be derived
as follows:

Bus i
1:a

G ij + j Bij

Bus j

j Bsh

Fig. 2.3. A simple transmission line with regulating transformer.

Bus-i

Bus-j
nYij =n(G ij + jBij)

jBsh

n(n-1)Yij

jBsh
(1-n)Yij

Fig.2.4. Model of simple transmission line with regulating transformer having off nominal
tap ratio n.

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Power flow from bus-i to bus-j (Fig. 2.4):

I ij = (Vi i V j j )n(Gij + jBij ) + Vi i n(n 1)(Gij + jBij ) + jB sh

(2.9)

S ij = Vi i .I ij*

(2.10)

Substituting eq. (2.9) in eq. (2.10) the apparent power flow equation can be written as:

S ij = Vi i {(V i i V j j )n (G ij jB ij ) + V i i n (n 1)(G ij jB ij ) jB sh

]}

= V i 2 V iV j cos ij jV iV j sin ij n (G ij jB ij ) + n 2Vi 2 G ij nV i 2 G ij

j n 2Vi 2 Bij nV i 2 B ij + Vi 2 B sh

= n 2Vi 2 G ij nV iV j (G ij cos ij + Bij sin ij )

+ j Vi 2 n 2 B ij + B sh nV iV j (G ij sin ij Bij cos ij ) = Pij + jQ ij

The real and reactive power flow equations can be written as:
Pij = n 2Vi 2 Gij nViV j (Gij cos ij + Bij sin ij )

(2.11)

Qij = Vi 2 n 2 Bij + Bsh nViV j (Gij sin ij Bij cos ij )

(2.12)

Power flow from bus-j to bus-i(Fig. 2.4):

I ji = (V j j Vi i )n(Gij + jBij ) + V j j (1 n )(Gij + jBij ) + jBsh

(2.13)

S ji = V j j .I *ji

(2.14)

Substituting eq. (2.13) in eq. (2.14) the apparent power flow equation can be written as:

]}
+B ]

S ji = V j j {(V j j Vi i )n(Gij jBij ) + V j j (1 n )(Gij jBij ) jBsh

(
= {V

[
) + nV V (G

= V j2 ViV j cos ij + jViV j sin ij n(Gij jBij ) + (1 n)V j2 Gij jV j2 (1 n) Bij

2
j

} {

Gij nViV j (Gij cos ij Bij sin ij ) + j V (Bij + Bsh

2
j

ij

sh

sin ij + Bij cos ij )

= Pji + jQ ji
The real and reactive power flow equations from bus-j to bus-i can be written as:
Pji = V j2 Gij nViV j (Gij cos ij Bij sin ij )

(2.15)

Q ji = V j2 (Bij + Bsh ) + nViV j (Gij sin ij + Bij cos ij )

(2.16)

Where
S ij , Pij , Qij : Complex Power, Real power, and reactive power flow from bus-i to bus-j

respectively.
S ji , Pji , Q ji : Complex Power, Real power, and reactive power flow from bus-j to bus-i

respectively.

Page 22

Vi , V j , ij : Voltages at bus-i and bus-j , angle difference between bus-i and bus-j.
Gij , Bij , B sh : Conductance, susceptance of line connecting bus-i and bus-j, line charging

susceptance.
n : Off nominal tap ratio of regulating transformer.

2.3 Transmission line modeling with SVC

2.3.1 Static representation of SVC
The Static Var Compensator (SVC) is a shunt connected Var generator or absorber
whose output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or
control specific parameters of the electric power system, typically bus voltage. It includes
separate equipment for leading and lagging Vars. A simple connection diagram of SVC has
been given in Fig.

Fig. 2.5: SVC connection to a bus

The main types of SVC controllers presently used are as follows:
Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR):
In this type of SVC a reactor with thyristor valves is incorporated in each phase.
Reactive power is varied by controlling the current through the reactor using the thyristor
valves. This type of SVC is characterized by smooth and continuous control.

Page 23

1. Fixed capacitor Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR):

In this type of SVC a TCR is used in combination with a fixed capacitor
bank when reactive power generation is required. This is often the optimum solution
for sub-transmission and distribution applications. The main characteristics of this
type of SVC are smooth and continuous control, elimination of harmonics by tuning
the fixed capacitors and compact design.
2. Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC):
In this type of SVC a shunt capacitor bank is divided into an appropriate
number of branches. Each branch is individually switched on or off through antiparallel connected thyristors. The main characteristics of this type of SVC are step
and smooth control, no harmonics, low losses and flexibility.

3. Thyristor Controlled ReactorThyristor Switched Capacitor (TCRTSC):

In this type of SVC the TCR and the TSC is combined to get an optimum
solution in many cases. With a TCRTSC SVC, continuously variable reactive
power can be obtained across the entire control range, with full control of both the
inductive and the capacitive parts of the compensator. The principal benefit is
optimum performance during major disturbances in the system such as line faults
and load rejections. This type of SVC is characterized by continuous control,
elimination of harmonics through TSC control, low losses, redundancy, and
flexibility.
Shunt FACTS device has been represented as injection at one node to which it is
connected whereas a series FACTS device is generally taken as power injection at two nodes
connected at both the ends of a line in which series FACTS controller exists.
In the active control range, the susceptance (Bsvc) and, hence, the reactive current is
varied according to the voltage regulation slope characteristics shown in Fig. 2.3. The slope
value depends upon the desired voltage regulation, the desired sharing of reactive power
among various sources and other needs in the system. Typically, it varies between 1-5%. The

Page 24

SVC behaves like a shunt capacitor of maximum value (BCsvc) at the capacitive limit, and as
fixed shunt reactor at minimum value

(-BLsvc) corresponding to the inductive limit. These

limits are reached when there are large variations in the bus voltage. The inductive limit is
reached when the bus voltage exceeds the upper limit, whereas the capacitive limit is reached
when it falls below the lower limit.

Fig. 2.6: SVC output characteristics

The SVC can be represented by its shunt current injection model. The current
injection (ISVC) into the bus, where the SVC is connected, can be written as,

ISVC = jBSVCV

(2.17)

BSVC = BC BTCR = XXL XL

XC


2    sin2

XL  , Xc = C

(2.18)

(2.19)

Page 25

where, BSVC, , XL, XCare the shunt susceptance, firing angle, inductive reactance and
capacitive reactance of the SVC, respectively. = 2f, where f is the frequency of the
supply.
The reactive power injected into the bus due to SVC can be expressed as,

Qsvc  BsvcV2

(2.20)

2.4 Transmission line modeling with TCSC

2.4.1 The Basic Principles of TCSC

The series impedance of a high voltage transmission line is usually inductive, with
only 5 to10 percent of resistance. This provides convenient conditions to control the steady
state impedance of a transmission line by adding both a Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor (TCSC) and a Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR) (inductor). According
to the sign convention the capacitor is considered as a negative impedance and reactor is
considered as a positive impedance, the induction of a controllable series capacitor or reactor
means that a variable negative or positive impedance is added in series with the transmission
lines natural positive impedance. Thus, thyristor controlled series compensation can vary the
impedance continuously to levels below and up to the transmission lines natural impedance.
A general thyristor controlled series compensator (sometimes, this is also being called
Controlled Series Compensation CSC) is shown in Fig. 2.12. The variation of lines
impedance can be achieved in two ways. One way is by switching on or off (bypassing) the
parts of the serially connected capacitor banks (Thyristor switched series capacitor) and the
other is by varying the Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) reactance, which is connected
parallel to the capacitor (Thyristor controlled series capacitor). Thus, TCSC can be controlled
either in capacitive or in inductive operating range depending on the different applications.

Page 26

T hyrist or swit ched series capacitor

T hyristor cont rolled series capacit or

Fig. 2.7 The concept of thyristor controlled series compensation.

The major benefits of TCSC are their capability to control power flows along desired
lines and to rapidly modulate the corresponding line series impedance in response to power
system dynamics. TCSCs are one type of technically developed and commercially available
FACTS devices. They will find more and more utilization in modern systems.

2.4.2 Static Representation of TCSC

Based on the principle of TCSC, the effect of TCSC on power system may be
simulated as a controllable reactance -xc inserted in the related transmission line. The model
of network with TCSC is shown in Fig. 2.13.

Bus-i

-x c

rij+jx ij

jBsh

Bus-j

jBsh

Fig. 2.8. Equivalent circuit of TCSC

TCSC is generally installed in the substation for convenient operation and

maintenance. Therefore, the line shunt impedance (Bsh) should be inserted right to the TCSC,
which is not shown in the Fig. 2.13. To simplify the problem formulation, we suppose that
this shunt impedance can be moved to the left of the TCSC, as shown in the Fig. 2.13. In
practice, this approximation will have little effect on computing accuracy.

Page 27

In power flow equations, the only difference between the normal lines power flow
and the flow in line with TCSC is the controllable reactance xc, where xij is replace by xij-xc.
Thus, the power flow equations of TCSC line can be derived as follows:
Pij = Vi 2 g ij ViV j (g ij cos ij + bij sin ij )

(2.21)

Qij = Vi 2 (bij + Bsh ) ViV j (g ij sin ij bij cos ij )

(2.22)

Pji = V j2 g ij ViV j (g ij cos ij bij sin ij )

(2.23)

Q ji = V j2 (bij + Bsh ) + ViV j (g ij sin ij + bij cos ij )

(2.24)

Where

g ij =

rij
r + (xij xc )

2
ij

, bij =

(xij xc )

(2.25)

r + (xij x c )
2
ij

Pij , Qij : Complex Power, Real power, and reactive power flow from bus-i to bus-j

respectively.
Pji , Q ji : Complex Power, Real power, and reactive power flow from bus-j to bus-i

respectively.
Vi , V j , ij , xc : Voltages at bus-i and bus-j , angle difference between bus-i and bus-j and

TCSC setting.
g ij , bij , Bsh : Conductance, susceptance of line connecting bus-i and bus-j, line charging

susceptance.
2.4.3 The DC Model of TCSC

The assumptions taken for DC power flow are as given in section 2.3.3. The DC
model equivalent circuit of TCSC can be shown in Fig. 2.14. The TCSC compensated
transmission line can be represented by parameter xij-xc between bus-i and bus-j. The total
susceptance of the transmission line can be formulated as:
bij =

1
(xij xc )

(2.26)

In this thesis, this susceptance is directly used as control variable to be incorporated in power
flow equations. Based on the DC power flow assumption, the active power flow of the
branch can be formulated as:

Page 28

Bus-i

-x c

x ij

Bus-j

Fig. 2.9 DC equivalent circuit of TCSC

Pij = bij ij

(2.27)

Pji = bij ij

(2.28)

Where ij = i j is the angle difference across the TCSC line.

2.5 Transmission line modeling with UPFC

2.5.1 The Basic Principles of UPFC

The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) can be viewed as a combination of Static
Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) and a Static Synchronous Series Compensator
(SSSC). Both compensators are coupled via a DC link, which allows bidirectional flow of
real power between the series output terminals of the SSSC and the shunt output terminal of
the STATCOM. A simple circuit model of UPFC is shown in Fig. 2.15

Fig:2.10 A simple model of UPFC

The UPFC consists of a shunt (exciting) & series (booster) transformers. Both the
transformers are connected by two Gate-Turn-Off (GTO) converters and a DC circuit having
a capacitor. The shunt converter is primarily used to provide the real power demand of the

Page 29

series converter via a common DC link terminal from the AC power system. Shunt converter
can also generate and absorb reactive power at its AC terminal. Therefore with proper control
it can also act as an independent advanced static VAR compensator providing reactive power
compensation for the line and thus executing indirect voltage regulation at the input terminal
of the UPFC. A series converter is used to generate voltage source at fundamental frequency
with variable amplitude (0Vt Vtmax ) and phase angle (0 s ), which are added to the AC
transmission line by series connected boosting transformer. The converter output voltage,
injected in series with the line, can be used for direct voltage control, series compensation,
phase shifter and their combinations.
This voltage source can internally generate or absorb all the reactive power required
by different type of controls applied and transfers active power at its DC terminal.

2.5.2 Static Representation of UPFC

The equivalent circuit of UPFC placed in a line connected between bus-i and bus-j
and control vector diagram is shown in Fig.. UPFC has three controllable parameters, namely
the magnitude and angle of inserted voltage (VT, T) and the magnitude of current (Iq).

Fig. 2.11 Equivalent circuit diagram of UPFC

Based on the principle of UPFC and the vector diagram, the basic mathematics
relation can be given as

Page 30

Fig. 2.12 Vector diagram of UPFC control action

V%  V% +VT

Arg*I, -  ArgV%  . /

ArgIT   ArgV%  and IT  Re

VT I5 6 
V5

The power flow equation from bus i to bus j and from bus j to bus i can be written as
*

S ij = Pij + Qij = Vi I ij = Vi ( jVi B / 2 + I T + I + Iq) *

*

S ji = Pji + Q ji = V j I ji = V j ( jV j B / 2 I i ) *
Active and reactive power flow in the line having UPFC can be written, with above
equations, as
P 8 9%  V / %  V / : g %9  2V% V: g %9 cos*:  9 -  V9 V: >g %9 cos*:  9 -  b%9 sin*:  9 -@
 V% V9 g %9 cos*%9 -  b%9 sin*%9 -

P 8 9%  V / 9 g %9  V% V: >g %9 cos*:  9 -  b%9 sin*:  9 -@  V% V9 g %9 cos*%9 -  b%9 sin*%9 -

B
Q8 9%  V% I,  V% / Ab%9  C  V% V: >g %9 sin*:  9 -  b%9 cos*:  9 -@  V% V9 g %9 sin*%9 2
 b%9 cos*%9 -

Page 31

B
Q8 9%  V9 / Ab%9  C V9 V: >g %9 sin*:  9 -  b%9 cos*:  9 -@  V% V9 g %9 sin*%9 2
 b%9 cos*%9 -

The real power loss (Plku) in the line having UPFC will be
PDE 8  *V% /  V%/  V:/ -g %9  2*V%  V9 -V: g %9 cos*:  9 -  2V% V9 g %9 cos*%9 -

From basic circuit theory, the injected equivalent circuit of Fig. can be obtained. The injected
active power at bus i (Piu) and bus j (Pju), and reactive powers (Qiu and Qju) of line having
UPFC are
P%8  F / G g %9  V9 FG g %9 cos*:  9 -  V% V: g %9 cos*:  9 -  b%9 sin*:  9 -

P%8  V9 V: g %9 cos*:  9 -  b%9 sin*:  9 -

Q %H  V% I,  VI FJ g %9 sin*:  9 -  b%9 cos*:  9 -

Q 9H  V9 V: g %9 sin*:  9 -  b%9 cos*:  9 -

2.6 Conclusion
In this chapter, the detail modeling of transmission line has been discussed without
and with the presence of FACTS controllers such as SVC, TCSC and UPFC. The static
modeling of FACTS controllers has also been discussed. The necessary equations have been
derived for AC model as well as DC model.

Page 32