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  • Lateral Forces Structures Ch14

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    Design structural systems for lateral loads.

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    Design structural systems for lateral loads.

    Drepturi de autor:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Descărcați ca PDF sau citiți online pe Scribd
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    73 vizualizări32 pagini

    Lateral Forces Structures Ch14

    Încărcat de

    apirakq
    Design structural systems for lateral loads.

    Drepturi de autor:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Descărcați ca PDF sau citiți online pe Scribd
    Indicator pentru conținut neadecvat
    din 32
    Chapter 1 4 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: DESIGN FOR LATERAL LOADINGS 14.1. LATERAL FORCES: EFFECTS ON THE DESIGN (OF STRUCTURES, 14.1.1 Basic Design Issues Basic Isues. In designing strctural systems the way lateral stability ie achieved sof fundamenial importance in bulliogs of any shape and of any Height The way a structure rents lateral fees influences not only the design of vera! clements, bt the horizatal spanning system at wll. ‘When designing te stuture the novice can easy lone sight of he need to sere the resistance olleral oad, nd intend foes rly on 8 system in response to gravity Toads While oth needs ave tobe addressed in every ‘rts tre that ater loads in snglestory or other low balding are ‘ten quit straightforward to deal wil The opposite i the cae in very Send, vera! sructres suchas towers ad highs bullaigs Here the Consideration of lateral tabiity fequenlly athe very core the sus ‘The basi aes astocatd withthe effects of lateral forces due to wind orcarthguakeson strates ar sated ia Figure 141 Lateral forces ae Stuctres o deform horizontally. They can abo cause wii oF torsional ‘ctormaions I no adequate estan mechani (2g seat wall, go- ‘al bracing rigid ames are present ora thee force complet claps ‘an oor, Chaper I dsoutsed the basi ature of thes effects and Bow sear ‘all diagonal braces org eames can be wed to prevent colpse Figure 142 alstates these same elles and astoiaed resistance mechani in mere dtall, with reference to simple rectangular structure Tithe upper pat ofthe diagram, can be ren that a snpe pin connected Ce TTT TTT) resieme ato aa athe, i TS series of columns would radically deform and possibly colase inthe lateral direction when a lateral load is present The columas in effect form a surface ‘that cannot transmit in-plane forces When a shear wall cron brace is inserted into the wall, or when rigidframe connections are used the wall ‘becomes sdf and capable of transiting in-plane forces, thus preventing TOMIAATNTTTANT ATTA Sic ra: Din ra Lands a ‘allapse The term shear plan is often sed to describe any of these methods foe providing in-plane stifnes nd in-plane force transmittal capabilites the lower part of the figure, tan be seen thatthe roof (or far) also plays a vital ole Latorlly acting forces onthe sdo ofthe building can ese {nonrigid root plane to deform radicaly in the horizontal direction. The lack fl iiness would also prevent the roof from transferring laterally acting sternal forces to resisting vertical shear planes For the latter to be brought into play, the roof (or some part oft) must be capable of eatrying in-plane forces and actin the manner of «horizontal, flat beam. Sif planes o this {ype are often called horizontal shear planes ot diaphragms. Alternatively, daphrag aeons said to be present. Diaphragm ation can be imparted 0 roof or or planes by a varoty of mechanisms (2g still floor planes ess ‘racing, trusses or fame action). Diaphragm action in simple beam and docking systems for example,can be made to ocurif the decking is substan tially connected to the beams via shear connectors of welds along their interface length. fn sim reinforced-concrete systems inherently have dlaphragm action, By contrast, roofs made with large glass areas often do not inherent form stif horizontal planes and alternative mechanisms (typically ‘ross bracing) needs to be used to develop any needed stillness "Typical buildings need to have both walls and roof or floor planes caps- ble of transmitting in-plane forces via one or another type of diaphragm action, After a discussion of how forces are transmitted through a builing, principles for locating thee rigid planes wil dice Force Transfer and Basic Organization of Shear Planes. The exact way 2 " ttricture ultimately experiences wind or earthquake forces depends on the many factors discussed in Chapter 3. Wind fores on the side ofa simple Le building ofthe ype show in Figure 143, for example, would be pickad up by surface members which in turn transfer them to secondary framing cle- sents The exact patter of forces acting on the primary structure in its tum on how the secondary framing elements are organzed, Earthquake forces are concentrated at high-mass areas (especialy horizon tal roofs or floors). For purposes of this discussion, we assume tha: the effects of winds or earthquakes canbe represented by a series of forces act- ing laterally onthe primary structure. ‘As noted, a primary role that is played by a roof oF flor plane is to transfer these lateral forces to side shear walls, cross braces, or frames. Figure 14. illustrates two methods for picking up forces acting on tans verse walls and transferring them to side shear planes The figure aso ils {ates how ferees om the logitucinl face are transferred to sie transverse sear planes The use ofan edge-beam approach, utrated in Figure 14.3), demands thatthe edge beam be sized for both vertical and horizontal loads This approach is often used for relatively smal buildings As building dimen- sions inerease a larger part of the roof plane i typically uted for siffves. AAn entre bay for example, might be cross braced a8 & way of providing tuffcient in-plane stiffness for a large bulling. In these cases, is rial cue 49 Wind tat the whole system be organized such thatthe rigid horizontal sacar "ets on sngle lane both receives externally induced forces and transmits them to side ings IAIN v TOA TAOAEATAAASATAATAOTTATATAUTHTTTTTT ivr nay en Um elenectmomasteeiae “Staite minpar a FIGURE 144. force vanstrence tigi wal oor panes The gph cone tere wl dtd Xs aed herein to det igi plane regu of wheter shear planesThe rigid horizontal plane providing diaphragm sction can normally be ‘anywhere in the overall plane Ifthe horzontl diaphragm is removed from the exe ‘or wal planes, however roof or Door beams must be designed to transmit external {ores to it. These beams would then have to carry normal bending due to vertical Toads aud act as columns in compression. ‘As illustrated in Figure 145(a), any veal building must be capabl ceceral loads acting in any direction. In simple bulcing whose 3 es located in vertical or horizontal bays, this requirement usually means the use of at least thee, and typically four, vertical shear planes and connecting horizontal sheat planes wil be demonstrated in a later seston that a minimum of three vertical planes i necessary when a fully rigid horizonial roof or floor plane is prevent) Since imparting in-plane stiffness toa horizontal roof or floor plane is often {ily essy to accomplish (r simpy inherent in most insta reinforced concrete sy8- {ems), good practice suggests making entire roots or floors into diaphragms when possible (See Figure 14.5(c).] If doing so is not possible, converting the external IATA HATA rete te em tag) Reema Re itemraensareratrree FIGURE 145 Type aera aby soos small ectangarbulings. ‘edges ofa rf or floor plane into & band of cgi planes is also good prac- ‘ice. (Note that interior roof beams then need not carry compressive forces) ‘The bulking showa in Figute 146 funy lage end made primatiy of laminated timber beams. Given the nature ofthe structure and the large ass area presen, it would have been dfficulto make the entre root plane Snto a rigid diaphragm. Thus a band of horizontal diagonal braces surround ng the entice periphery ofthe building was sed, This bend connects diretly with diagonal braces in the vertical panes, thus yielding structure flly capable of essing all types of lateral loeds Fundamental statics. Two previous tection broadly described basic prin: ples and good practice vs-t-s how simple structures cary lateral loads ‘This section looks briefly at the nature of the forces developed within shear planes A simplified analysis used, based on the fundamental premise thet “aceon ‘end’ © Garis Ay, tp (Faison (St ig of aden CURE 1.6. Lateral erence apprschs in plane ol and wal acing ate pee et hit eau oe cee Sede yt anaane a= IOAN paneer. Sian B= R= tet Parent) renin ema Resexna Bys0 Rowand w Reelxn FIGURE IA? facili cca crew ly po epg the entire horizontal plane is fll rigid and capable of transiting any in- plane fores ating omit through i Thus it ean, in effect, seve as the cartiet ‘ofa"momeat arm” in simple equlibrium calculations. “The simple rectangular stractue shown in Figure 14:7 ba three vertal shear planes A simplified static analysis iustate. Disteibuted wind loads of pst acting on the sides of the building are converted into equivalent point Toads. (Half ofthe forest on the wall would typically be picked up by Me foundations—see Chapter 3) Force equllrium inthe y direction and sy metry considerations yield forces in the two side transverse shear planed (8, = By w0h/4), Moment equim abeut any pt. in this eee post (0, yields the foree inthe third shear plane (Ry = wbh/2}.A building with '50ft,b = 20 feet, k= 10 feet and we ~ 20 psf would thus develop free in the transverse walls of Ry = Ry ~ wah/4'= (20 psf)(S0t)(10 )/4= 2500 band a force R= whl/2 = (20 pe)(20 8)(10 )/2 = 20001. Thee ‘would be the forees that the lateral-free-cazrying mechanisms (shear wall ‘ross tracings rp frames) would then have tobe designed to carry. ‘This Kind of simplified analysis is useful in many ways It obviously sf ess tht at least three shear panes are needed for staal (Thus the analy Ass similar to that of « member, such asa beam, requiring @ minimum of ‘hee support restraints fr stability) The same analysis can aso be used 10 landerstand how best to locate versal shea planes in buildings with efferent plan configurations Figure 14.8 bse ilustrates the effects of building po” Portions Is obvious thatthe organization shown in Figure 14.8(b) is a poot ‘oe due tothe high forces developed inthe shor lower Wal. Nonsymmetricl placements euch atthe one abown are possible, and stability can indeed be Scar Spams: si or el eis 9 | Vang mera star FIGURE 148 tfc of bling prepartions schieved, but better practice would be the placement shown in Figure 14816), if possible. Figure 149 illustrates a particular problem with structures employing only three shear wall Ifthe was meet ata point a twisting insta bility can develop. (Rotational equlibrium about their pont of meeting, O, ‘anziot be satisfied) Some tower structures, however, do have these kinds of wall arrangements, bu they ae designed much more ike vertical ears wth ‘unique eros sections (0 al horizontal and vertical elements ae rigidly iter ‘connected along all oftheir interface lengths) Even here, however, fisting ‘an be problemtc, A better practice arrangement ie shown in igure 149() Note that when more wall than three are present, the stricture is sta- ically indeterminate and approximate or computer based approaches need to be employed to determine force distributions. ‘ow. and Madion-Riee Buildings. or common square or rectangular buildings the stability requirements previously discussed wsually mean that {ares shear walls oF diagonal braces must normally be placed ina series of ‘mutually perpendicular planes throughout the building. As shown in Figure 14.10(a), 8 common rigid-rame system (see Chapter 9) might inherently provide vertical plane sifiness throughout the entire grid present. Ideally, Sana =. EF YR aA AN FIGURE 149. Sucre wih ses walling pon UMM fioor and roof elements would eso be made into diaphragms in this system, ‘Alternatively, ae seen in Figure 14.10(6), a system of rigid walls might be designed to encircle a roof sructure tha eannot be made into a rigid hoi Zontal diaphragm. Sometimes only end bays are stabilized, as shown in Figure 14 10(e), albeit here itis absolutely necessary thatthe horizontal planes act ax diaphragms Figure 14.10() sbows an arrangement tht is ine ‘exept forthe protruding top bays In very early design stages tis oten usually adequate 0 note only the basi lateralforce-reistance strategy and o identi its patter impieatons. [isnot always necessary to decid smmeditaly whether «fame, sheat wal, ‘or diagonal bracing ation wil be used to cary the lateral leds. Appropriate locations of planes for these clements however, must be provided. Purthet decisions are made as design development occurs ‘in lov- or medium-rise structures, the adoption of any one of these spprosches wil provide suficient lateral resistance. Enough shear planes —} = : Cer onan SSeeiree sey ° omeaeeyenn oreo {tf a [ seem newieny —atergramuee “pate! ces Me FIGURE 1610 Tena sbiy fay svc under ayy of adng mast sued by “ext lace oer rcs mecansms Sr Ser: Di er wel age (ba isa ‘Stove ae rn Soe) FIGURE 14.11. Onirizaion ote shea pane ring wal, rot, na ow med tte ust be used to ensure lateral stability. In some types of buildings doing hiss ‘very cay In housing, for example, the callularaature ofthe building lends itself well to using shear walls or disgonal bracing in the interface area between adjacent units A frame could alo be used in thes locations but 2s noted in Chapter 9, frames tend tobe les efficient than hear walls oF ago fal bracing 88 a lateral load-carrying device. In housing, shear walls oF agonal bracing in the interfaces between unite pote no fenetional probe and heace are preferred. In many other types of building, however, the bari formed by shear walls r agonal bracing systems create functional prob Jems and cannot be freely used. Frames a combination of frames and shear walls or diagonal bracing is consequently Used, Intermediate. and low-rise fice buildings for example, quite often employ a basicrame thoughout the building that further silfened by the placement of ehear walls or diagonal bracing at bulding ends or around service cores Usually, placing shear walls ‘or diagonal bracing in these locations poses no funcional problems. In rectangular buildings, the greatest problem with atralforees iin the short direction ofthe building, although stability must be assured in both directions. (See Figure 14.11) Sometimes, one type of lateralload-carying ‘mechanism is used in one direction and another n the other dizecton (pr ‘marily for functional reasons). In simple stel buildings, for example, the ‘more efficient mechanisms (eg, shear walls of diagonal bracing) ate often ‘sed inthe shorter direction. Stability inthe long direction s achieved ether by similar means or by frame action. (See Figure 14.12) shear planes ae tobe used effectively in conjunction with other vert: a planes not having any significant ability to carry lateral oad, such a pi connected steel beam-and-column system, lor planes must be designed to serve as rigid horizontal diaphragms that act as thin horizontal beam elements Spanning between shea panes (Fgure 14.13). This diaphragm action serves {Sane ra tous om inter now oui veal ae te load-carrying shear planes When reinforced conecete systems ae used, ak- ng floors serve as rig diaphragms is typically no problem Wit ste! specal Si E (Leena mechan sh ‘Stecton stem ar ni ‘Ssh ecard btm soten sr (Sinitecmeareconnngote tema (9 base sme ‘turamc sen reson a FIGURE 14.12 fone arta esitnce chain snp so srt care should be taken to ensure tht diaphrapm action does indeed occur Depending on the spacing of the shear lanes it may be necessary to impart some latera-lond-carryng capacity to interior vertical planes a wel. ‘Anytime estctue is special stiffened with shear wale or diagonal ‘bracing systems care shouldbe taken to place these elements symmetrically If that is not done, highly undesirable forsional effects can develop (se Figure 14.14) beeause the center of rigidity ofthe building becomes noncoin cident with the centroid ofthe applied laters load, Placing clement sy ‘metrically is pertculrly important in very albulldngs or when earthquake ‘hazards are present. In either cas, lateral Icads capable of inducing high torsional forces are posible, Structures canbe designed to resist these tx- ‘onal effects, but premium spa Stability Approaches in Relation to Shape. Thus fr, the discussion has ceo- tered on relatively simple building configurations. Real configurations are often quite complet, as illustrated in the series of diagrams shown in Figure 14.15, which are derived from examples of real buildings Drawing ciagrams of the type shown is a good way of asessing the stability of real ‘configurations consisting of complex assemble of shear walls, rig frames and pin-connected elements Severtl approaches to simple configurations are shown in Figures 14.15(@)-(0) Figure 14.15(a) ia pin-connected structure with diagonal bra ingin each of the end bays Long, low buildings hisype often need bracing nly at ends Whes longer bay assembles are wed, intermediate braced bays Seal ene sig ae aig 39 (tm oon ots a gag ree feremateay rae ‘ng nsw rte ete {faery ct shal 0 Seyi ase ona FIGURE 14.13 Us of igi oo dapzagra in are bulging en ser walls cary horizontal ‘ones a ano FIGURE 1414 Us ofshx planes inl stucrs ad efecof onyreetia placer Whe shear le (vals apna beso panes) 3 red ay horizontal csr» tune te planes oud be aranged yen old Inderal atonal face are also utilized. A simple rigi-rame structure using moment-essing joins 'sshowa i Figure 1415(b) Base connections are pinned because ofthe fre {quent constructional difculy of tying moment-ressting base connections 1 foundations I relatively tow building, structural performance is not unduly affected, oven though there is some losin sttfnes (See Chapter 9) Figure 14.152) shows a lorie building made up of inherently stable and Interconnected three-inged arch structures Figure 14.15(e) indicates how a horizontal spanning truss can be connected to the sides of columns to frm & structure than an overall way, acs ike agi frame in resisting lateral loads PTT ARF (a) Prete wn genase 1 pe i are arre (Baa ate sap ae 1 mason Basra sre Segoe oe - — aA, “ee Withee C25" © nt Caiosnetance ‘ew angorae a FIGURE1438 Common proaches a pring ata sabi nr buen. ‘The rus must be connected to each column face a two widely space points (The tras must havesignfiant dep at its ends) This same general ‘evident in Figure 14.156) "There are many ways to stabilize a structure constructed on a slope “The structure in Figure 1415() ules a stabilized central bay, Note that large cantilevered space to the rights made by using pin-eonnected ele _menis configured to form a simple trussed configuration, UNIO Spoil billing features such as large interior spactn may rquie that aujcent structural semble each have hr own tabilty mechani 6 inthe example building shown n Figure 415(x). Features suchas cane ‘lever wth their ned for fixed or moment-zesiting connections, may 28. ‘ally suggest that the ager strctural sembly ultram ation a5 Jng: Pia connections may be sed juicy. jure 1415(b) show one of many diferent types of cable-stayed structural configurations. Here, the center tower, a combined rigid frame-trsssrvture, ako provides the primary lateral force vesstance mechanism nthe overall structre Tn smaller bling ofthe type shown tbe ype and arrangement fs tity devin is tse han larger bllge although the earBquske design requirements dacused in Secon 142 may impose stone req ments some areas As buildings get alle, there a neeasing necessity fo have lateral load resistance mechanisms that are clearly defied. Asis trated in gute 1415() and (core pars of uling (2g around eleva. {ors ors) fequenty provide an excellet ication fr these mechanisms Inspect butlings buses on slender eres a ilusuatedin Figure 14150), the cores are ncetsarly leary designed to resis Inter free since they ‘st limatly cre ll wind aod earthquake forces acting onthe structure ‘The center tue supp the lors above ito prove large vid area on the ground level Exteme!y al mulstry structures necessitate special can sideration and are discussed separately in Section 14.12, Inluences on Member and Connection Design. Otinterest heres thatthe adoption of one or more ofthe lateral stability stratogies discussed in pre- ‘coding sections influences the design or selection of individual members and ‘their connections Frame Action. Frame action can be used to provide lateral load resistance, but iti less ficient than either shear walls or eros bracing, Fame structures tend to bbe more flexible than walls oF braces. They also induce severe bending ‘moments in both beams snd columns, and final member sizes are typically ‘much larger than i pin-connected systems that rely on diagonal braces or shear walle for stabty, Consequently frames are not normaly a preferred foltion for larger buildings Tet obvious, however, that they are spatially fpen and thus desirable in many atchtectural situstions. Recall thatthe Figid-joint requirement means that beams and columas must be atached to one another so that no relative rotations occur between the attached ‘members (although the joint may rotate aa unit). Ta steel member, tis typically means that flanges are connected at tops and bottoms In poured- Insplace reinforced concrete coatinuous ste! placed in opposite faces of ‘the members necessary: In timber, knoe braces or equivalent devices must be used ‘Shear Walls and Diagonal Bracing. ‘When stability is secured through shear walls or disgona! bracing, many ‘members may be pin connected, depending on the location ofthe bracing tlements and whether floors set a8 rigid dlaphragrs Diagonal bracing is ‘ommonly uid in soe! systems Pin connected members ar relatively easy fo make Diagonal bracing is intrinsialy less appropriate for reinforced tcnrete, Making pin connected members in eastx place members is even ‘nore eifficult than making pinned connections The converses tue for pxe- fast members Shear wall systems are intrinsically appropriate for castin- place relnforeed-concrete structures “When shear walls or diagonal bracing elemen's are widely separated (eg, several bays apart), fewer intermediate beam-and-column connections can be pinned, and the floors must provide the structural function of trans- {erting lateral loads to these elements. Consequenty, floor planes must be Gesigned as rigid diaphragms capable of carrying borizontal in-plane forse {io addition to ther ole in carrying normal, vertically acing desd and ive {onds), This requirement also has impheations on specific detail such as how the decking is connected to underlying besms. General Considerations: Member Orientation. “The use of frame action to achieve lateral stability suggests something about ‘member orintation as well Members should be organized so that their Iaximum bending rxistance corresponds to the axes about which mari ‘mum bending oceurs Tn buildings with narrow dimensions that rely on ffame action for stability this often suggests organizing their deepest dimen sions parallel with the nareow direction, so that the strong axis resists bend- ing, However, if frame action is used ia the long direction and combined with diagonal bracing in the short direction (Figure 1412), then, in low buildings wide-lange elements are usually organized such that about their strong avis they function as part ofthe frame inthe longitudinal direction, land about the weak axes they function as part ofthe diagonal bracing {stem inthe short direction. Since the diagonal tracing acts in trust fashion, bending is minimum in a momber in the short direction, soit is ‘acceptable to have the weak axis oriented inthis way. In the long directon, owever, lateral loads are carid by fame ation ivolving high bending the members Consequently, organizing the strong ai ofthe member inthis sireetion makes sense. ‘When the narrow dimension of ste! buildings very small relative the building height indicating a severe probiem with lateral loads in the short direction) andthe building i adequately braced in the long direction, ‘combination rame and disgonal bracing system canbe sed to cary loads in the short direction In this event, wide ange members are organized $0 that their strong axes contribute to frame action inthe short direction. The frame and diagonals supplement each other, yielding a total system of increased load-carrying expacity. ITUATION UT Sr! ama De ai emi General Considerations: Effects of Member Characteristics. ‘he choice ofa method for achieving lateral tabilty does not always precede the choice of horizontal spanning sytem In cases where te horizoatal spans extremely long or loads are unigue the ature ofthe horizoatal element may dictate the typeof lteral-stabty approach used. If spans are onthe order of 1004 (33m), for example, and precast single tes seem appropriate forthe ver tial loads the provision of lateral stability through some other technique than joint igity is mandated since the type andscal ofthe horizontal element nd the dificuly of getting rigid connections make the des of frame ation uae sible In genera the longer the horizontal spans are tho es ikely fase sion {sto bean appropriate mechanism for achieving lateral stabity (Figure 1416). Often the unigue characteristics of one structural element influence the selection of another. When masonry load-bearing walls are used in ow. rise buildings the walls serve as shar planes in resisting forces inthe Iteal Serie omacten-ritcovece retacestie _ fo (a) Diagonal bracing Qoirts cam be pin-connacted) “Venera at = ram ar ae ome ‘ese arene aon we, ‘Susann mutt acheveon Pate agora (Soot tana ean ton) CURE 1416 Cameron mao of lg lel forces imple on type conection, (1 Ahvvnvnveann vn AAAEAT va eerie rection. Is obviously best to organize them along te short dimension of the building. Lateral stability along the long dimension can be achieved (depending onthe buildingheight) through specially designed stair core or Interior walls placed transverse to onring wella‘The use of masonry walt implies that horizontal spanning elements shoald be simply supported since ‘masonry walls unless specially reinforced, cannot carry moments. Thus, attempting to use rigid contections at the end of horizontal elements (which ‘would induce moments into the wall would be counterproductive. 14.1.2 Multistory Construction Strength Design. As buildings increste in height, responding to lateral {forces caused by either wind cr earthquakes becomes an increasingly impor ‘ant structural design consideration, (Ff the basic approsches to stability, ame ation i probably the least efficient way of achieving lateral stability and is used only when lateral forces are not excessive as in low: to medium-rise buildings Typical steel-feamed buildings that carry loads exclsively by frame action, for example, do so efficiently enly upto 10 stories or 0. Aer that signif ‘ant preinium i paid in tems of excessive material used ifa framed sue. ture i utied, Even in low to mediun-rse structures where frame action may sill be appropriate, there are diferences in lateral oed carrying capactcs among the different types of framed stems possible Stel systems ae Unique in that they can be designed to be responsive to virtually any situation. Reinforced- concrete systems, by contras, must be used mare carefully. Systems such as the faxplate-and-column assembly bave a much smaller lateral load-carying ‘capacity than other poured-inplace concrete systems The flat plte spanning lement is uniquely suited fo: carving the Kmited moments induced by relat tively light lor load, but nr the moments generated atthe interfaces with columns by large lateral fores The plate is too thin to carry such moments fective. Systems with deeper horizontal members, such asthe two-way ‘boam-and-lab system or the walle system, provide frame action more effec tively in both directions When fat plates are sed ther later load-carrying ‘capacity is often supplemented by some other mechanism, In common reat gular apartment buildings, for example, which often use fat plate construe ton, end walls are frequently turned into sheer paneswhich in tur largely cary the lateral loads The fla-plat system can then be designed primarily it ‘esponse to vertical Joads Ths enclosure around elevator cores is als often ‘Specully designed wo serve thi same tuncton, ‘AS heights increase from the low to intermediate range, itis preferable cither to begin supplementing any typeof frame system sed with sitions lateral bracing mechanisms, sach 28 diagonal braces around elevator cores ‘or toadopt a radically diferent stractral approach, To geta feeling for what different types of structiralapprosches might be possible for very tll structures, te uefa to fist briefly review some fundamental principles ofthe way a tll structure caries lateral loads Most high-rise structures tend to berelativel all and slender. Under the action of ca Sp: Dap rte eng Inter forces, they tend tect like vertical cantilever member. The lateral loads tend fo produce an overturning moment, which mast be belanved by an internal resisting moment provided by the stracture This internal resist ing moment is typically rovided by couples formed between forces devel- ‘oped in vertical members (See Figure 14.17) Ifthe building s very slender, {he small moment arm present botween the forces inthe vereal member? ‘means that very high fores must be developed to provide the infernal esist- ‘ng moment Buildings of similar heights with wider bates and generally less slender proportions couk provide the same internal resisting moment with ‘smaller forces developedin vertical members because ofthe increased size ‘ofthe intemal momest am—obviously an advantageous consequence. The view of a highrise building as a vertical cantilever is useful ‘because, i addition to implying something about appropriate building pro portions it can help inforn other design responses. In Chapter 6it was noted {hat the most efficient use of material in bending is oblained by locating the reatest amount of materal as fara is practically possible from the neutral fxs of the section. The overall moment of inert ofthe section fora given ‘amount of material is incrased by doing thi as isthe resistance to bending ‘The same principle holds for truss design. Ina high-rise building of a given proportion, appying this sme principle means thatthe greatest amount of ‘material should be located in the outer, rather than the inner, vertical ele- ‘ments. (See Figure 4.18) Many efficient high-rise structures are conceived inthis way. The exterior columa-and-beam assemblies are designed to pro- vide a very sti ring or ube, capable of carying lateral loads from any lirection. Exterior columas ae typically very closely spaced to one another. Spandtel beams are usualy rigidly connected to columns to ensure that the ‘hole outer assembly act in an integral way-—lie a stif surface element, ‘Although the outer frameastemblies ean and do cary eavity loads and act like frames inthe horizontal direction, thir primary function is to carry forces generated by the overturning moments associated with lateral loads Interior columns are designed to carry gravity loads only and are conse- quently typically smaller shan exterior columns, Special attention must be ‘aid to designing a floor system that wil make the overall resultant struc: tural assembly behave ke a unit in carrying lateral loads. The stiffness of a tube of this type ean be inteased even further bythe adition of large cross bracing onthe outside fcr of the structure, The configurations o some types of very tall buildings may uliehately Snvolve a plan type that slong and nartow (eas might be found in aresi- lentil highrise building vhere units are grouped around central corridors), Narrow plan shepes are intrinsically dificult to structure elciently to carry lateral forces if those shapes are used ina simple linear way. BY deforming, the overal plan configuration, however, the overall siffines ofthe structure snd its related ability ro cary lateral loads ean be éramatcally increased, (Gee Figure 14.19.) Deflection and Motion Control. ‘The structural responses of multstory ‘buildings discussed thus fr have all been strength oriented. Equally impor- tant aze deflection and mation considerations associated with the dynamic [IGURE:47- ory bulngs an ely be concsived of etc cantlee beams, AeASNS) wa Fone Doendtera (9 Saperaadanat wnat LOURE430. Typical ston! piace nhigh iu ono LF aratnvnvven nner OAOUUTATAOTEAV TUTTO “ covoreen FIOURE 1619 Te plon confgrsos ol uidnswith anow eso cn eb .Aigndi pode onal suc conpstins te no ean ats ag, cffects of winds A typical tall building, for example, sways under the buffet ing action of damping devices. Such a device, often called a tuned mass damper i placed in the upper loos of tall bildng. As motion begin fo ‘oct, the inertial tendency ofthe mass sto remain at rest. Hence, building ‘movements cause the damping devies to accentuate and begin absorbing energy, thas damping out motions (See Figure 1420) "The ure of damping devices of the type just described is asuslly restricted to very large buildings. They have, however, been suecessflly used in ther situations. More commonly, the stiffness of the structure is controlled. A very rough rule of thumb aften used to limit both accelera- tions and deflections when dynamic analyses are not appropriate or feast Dic is to use a static wind-load analysis and limit maximum steedy-state deflections to particular value, sa, A/SO0, where is the height of the ‘building in feet, and to vary the stiffness ofthe structure until this rite- rion is met. Such an approach is much easier than a dyzamie analysis but is dubious at best Stl thas historically proven to be useful ifnot always a sure bet, (ortteator rete rae fiber =onmitio (Tame caine Srepbrnurmmrbiin Spach ACURE 14.20, Tped Mass Danpein phi bulking. ea mas cr peer ina cnlo way tenure surging veranda by yas se a Sica Spam: Dav Lal Leos 0 14.2. EARTHQUAKE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 14.2.1 General Principles ‘As discussed in Chapter 3, earthquakes tend o produce forces on structures that are primarily lateral in character, although some forces in other direc. tions can develop aswell. Most ofthe principles discused inthe preceding sections ate therefore as applicable to the design of sructues for earth {Quake resistance as they are for wind resistance. The extremely pronounced ‘dynamic charactor of earthquake forces, however, makes the design prob- Jem even more complex. This section will briefly explore some ofthe pi ‘mary issues involved and alternative stateges that ae possible "Among the various types of hazards associated with earthquakes are surface fault ruptures, ground shaking, ground failures, and unarns (sea ‘waves generated by earthquakes), While al thse effets are important, his {ext will focus primarily on ground-shaking effects Tis useful to review briefly the behavior of a structure subjected to an earthquake (See also Section 324) Figure 1421 illustrates characteristic ‘ibration modes for a tall building. The ground acceleration can eause all ‘oars to move in the same direction, ort ean cause dfferet floors to accel- crate in different directions in whiplash typo of movemeat. The whiplash ‘movement can occur becaure ofthe tendency for an elastic building €o Spring beck tothe vertical aftr its base has been initially translated and accelerated. Because of inertial tendencies, the upper mass of the building ‘would Tag behind the base movement. AS the upper mass springs back tothe Vertical after the translation has occurred begins enining momentum. [Because of the momentum gained, the upper mais can actully swing past the vertical. If, during this process, the ground movement is changed such that eccelerations and translations are reversed, highly complex deforma- tone an cov Bees af the inervial tendencies of he bulding masses 10 ‘continue the movement already started, while at the same time counter- ‘movements begin. There sa lag a the effets of the reversed ground move- ment work their way up the building. "Associated with these complex accelerations are extremely high iner- tia forces eaused by nonconstant winds Even when winds are sieady state, {Synamic behavior & sil present. As the wind blows against a building, the building bends over and changes shepe slighty. The exact magnitude and distribution of wind forces ths also changes slighty Increases or decreases jn forees duo to this phenomenon, coupled with any butfeting ation of the ‘wind thet might be present, case the building to ola. Typically, there is fn averege deflection inthe diection of the wind force about which the building osllates. he magnitude and frequency ofthe oscillations depend lon both the characteristics of the impinging wind forces andthe sine and ‘the mass-dstribution characteristics ofthe bulding sell "These deflections and oscillations ace highly important. Excesive deflections can impair the functioning of other building clements (e., building service systems), even though the structure itself is unharmed. ‘Oscillations ean eause extreme discomfort to building occupants Human SN eT TT TTT TTT TTT oe 8 «« (a) Posi yoann oat cartons Fine hs ae mopar mex Sean FIGURE 421. fathquaerdocad mot beings do not sense absolute deflections if they occur slowly, but they do sence the accelerations astocated wih rapid oscillations. typeof maton fickness can consequently occur. What constitutes an acceptable level of ‘cceleration isnot an easy criterion to establish rationally, although som ‘values have beon suggested by invedigators. In addition, analyzing a build ing to predict what motions actualy cur ia a given eixcumstance is cat The most common procedure isto model the structure as an assembly Of springs (having elisticites derived from a study of the actual load deformation char ff the sraetire) and concentrated masses 12> resenting building weights The vibrations a model of ths type undergo slabs or beams) rarely fall down completely, even after receiving extreme ‘damage, and when they do, the collapse aii localized, (This in general, sca Sp: On fr late ec ss not tre of pin connected horizontal members) When columas restive dam- 3 age, complete collapse is imminent. The collapse of a column generally causes other portions of a structure to collapse as well (progressive col- lapse) The effects ofa single columa collapsing canbe extensive. “To ensure that horizontal elements fal first care is usually exercised in ”, the design and general proportioning of betm-and-columa elements. Extremely deep beams (eg, spandrels) on light clus ace generally best, 2 avoided, since experience indicates that such buildings often receive signii- ‘ate ant damage in the light columns which have to pick up all the laterally act- od Ing forces by shear and bending In contrast, sheat walls witha series of be spiced, small openings tend to perform somewhat beter Good engineering ” Ww

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