An Overview to IWCF

Well Control Certification Course

(DRILLER/SUPERVISOR LEVEL)

Day 1

Prepared by:
Engr. Muhammad Nauman Awan

Table of Contents
DAY-1 ---- Session - I

...................................................................................................................... 4

Kick .............................................................................................................................................................. 4
Factors affecting kick severity ..................................................................................................................... 4
Kick labels ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Causes of kicks , Insufficient mud weight , Improper hole fill-up during trips ........................................... 5
Swabbing, Cut mud, Lost circulation ........................................................................................................... 6
Warning signs of kicks ................................................................................................................................. 6
Primary indicator of kicks, Secondary indicator of kicks ............................................................................ 7
Kick detection and monitoring with MWD tools ......................................................................................... 8
Kick identification, Kill-weight mud calculation, Nomenclature ................................................................ 9
Blowout, Causes and Types ....................................................................................................................... 10
Well Control(Primary, Secondary, Tertiary), Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) .............................. 11
Hydrostatic Pressure .................................................................................................................................. 12
Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP), Formation Pressure, Effect of hydrostatic pressure ................................... 13
Hydrostatic pressure (HSP), Pressure gradient .......................................................................................... 14
Formation pressure(Normally, Abnormal, Subnormal, Overburden) ........................................................ 14
Fracture pressure, System pressure loss, Slow pump pressure (SPP) ........................................................ 15
Shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP), Shut-in casing pressure (SICP) ........................................................ 16
Bottom-hole pressure (BHP) ...................................................................................................................... 16

DAY-1 ----- Session - II .................................................................................................................. 18

Leak off Test (LOT).................................................................................................................................... 18
Maximum Allowable Annulus Surface Pressure (MAASP) ....................................................................... 19
Kick Tolerance, Calculation, Kick Tolerance Example.............................................................................. 19
Top hole drilling ......................................................................................................................................... 21
Major hazards of shallow gas influx ........................................................................................................... 22
Diverter Systems in Well Control ............................................................................................................... 24
Shallow gas control procedure(While Drilling, While Tripping) ............................................................... 25

DAY-1 ----- Session III ............................................................................................................... 26

Gas Cut Drilling Fluid ................................................................................................................................ 26
Swab and surge effects, Surging, Swabbing ............................................................................................... 26
Trip margin ................................................................................................................................................. 27
Slow circulation rate(SCR) ......................................................................................................................... 27

Causes of kicks ........................................................................................................................................... 28

Indications of kick (While tripping, While drilling) ................................................................................ 29
Positive Well Control (kick) Indications(While drilling, While Tripping) ................................................. 31
Drilled Gas .................................................................................................................................................. 32

DAY-1 ----- Session IV ................................................................................................................ 33

Positive kick signs (While drilling While tripping) .................................................................................... 33
Shut in procedures (Hard Shut-in ,Soft Shut-in) ......................................................................................... 33
Shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP) ............................................................................................................ 34
Shut-in casing pressure (SICP) ................................................................................................................... 35
Maximum Initial Shut-In Casing Pressure (MISICP) , calculate MISICP ................................................. 35
Adjusted maximum allowable shut-in casing pressure ............................................................................... 36
Bringing the pump to kill speed .................................................................................................................. 36
Type of influx ............................................................................................................................................. 38
U-Tube Concept and Importance of U-Tube ................................................................................................ 6

DAY-1 --------------- Session - I

Kick
A kick is a well control problem in which the pressure found within the drilled rock is higher
than the mud hydrostatic pressure acting on the borehole or rock face. When this occurs, the
greater formation pressure has a tendency to force formation fluids into the wellbore. This forced
fluid flow is called a kick. If the flow is successfully controlled, the kick is considered to have
been killed. An uncontrolled kick that increases in severity may result in what is known as a
blowout.
Factors affecting kick severity
Several factors affect the severity of a kick. One factor, for example, is the permeability of rock, which
is its ability to allow fluid to move through the rock. Another factor affecting kick severity is porosity.
Porosity measures the amount of space in the rock containing fluids. A rock with high permeability and
high porosity has greater potential for a severe kick than a rock with low permeability and low porosity.
For example, sandstone is considered to have greater kick potential than shale, because sandstone has
greater permeability and greater porosity than shale.
Yet another factor affecting kick severity is the pressure differential involved. Pressure differential is
the difference between the formation fluid pressure and the mud hydrostatic pressure. If the formation
pressure is much greater than the hydrostatic pressure, a large negative differential pressure exists. If this
negative differential pressure is coupled with high permeability and high porosity, a severe kick may
occur.
Kick labels
A kick can be labeled in several ways, including one that depends on the type of formation fluid that
entered the borehole. Known kick fluids include:
Gas
Oil
Salt water
Magnesium chloride water
Hydrogen sulfide (sour) gas
Carbon dioxide
If gas enters the borehole, the kick is called a "gas kick." Furthermore, if a volume of 20 bbl (3.2 m3) of
gas entered the borehole, the kick could be termed a 20-bbl (3.2-m3) gas kick.
Another way of labeling kicks is by identifying the required mud weight increase necessary to control the
well and kill a potential blowout. For example, if a kick required a 0.7-lbm/gal (84-kg/m3) mud weight
increase to control the well, the kick could be termed a 0.7-lbm/gal (84-kg/m3) kick. It is interesting to
note that an average kick requires approximately 0.5 lbm/gal (60 kg/m3), or less, mud weight increase.

Causes of kicks
Kicks occur as a result of formation pressure being greater than mud hydrostatic pressure, which causes
fluids to flow from the formation into the wellbore. In almost all drilling operations, the operator attempts
to maintain a hydrostatic pressure greater than formation pressure and, thus, prevent kicks; however, on
occasion the formation will exceed the mud pressure and a kick will occur. Reasons for this imbalance
explain the key causes of kicks:
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Insufficient mud weight.

Improper hole fill-up during trips.
Swabbing.
Cut mud.
Lost circulation.

Insufficient mud weight

Insufficient mud weight is the predominant cause of kicks. A permeable zone is drilled while using a mud
weight that exerts less pressure than the formation pressure within the zone. Because the formation
pressure exceeds the wellbore pressure, fluids begin to flow from the formation into the wellbore and the
kick occurs.
These abnormal formation pressures are often associated with causes for kicks. Abnormal formation
pressures are greater pressures than in normal conditions. In well control situations, formation pressures
greater than normal are the biggest concern. Because a normal formation pressure is equal to a full
column of native water, abnormally pressured formations exert more pressure than a full water column. If
abnormally pressured formations are encountered while drilling with mud weights insufficient to control
the zone, a potential kick situation has developed. Whether or not the kick occurs depends on the
permeability and porosity of the rock. A number of abnormal pressure indicators can be used to estimate
formation pressures so that kicks caused by insufficient mud weight are prevented (some are listed in
Table 1).

Table 1- Abnormal Pressure Indicators

An obvious solution to kicks caused by insufficient mud weights seems to be drilling with high mud
weights; however, this is not always a viable solution. First, high mud weights may exceed the fracture
mud weight of the formation and induce lost circulation. Second, mud weights in excess of the formation
pressure may significantly reduce the penetration rates. Also, pipe sticking becomes a serious
consideration when excessive mud weights are used. The best solution is to maintain a mud weight
slightly greater than formation pressure until the mud weight begins to approach the fracture mud weight
and, thus, requires an additional string of casing.
Improper hole fill-up during trips
Improperly filling up of the hole during trips is another prominent cause of kicks. As the drillpipe is
pulled out of the hole, the mud level falls because the pipe steel no longer displaces the mud. As the
overall mud level decreases, the hole must be periodically filled up with mud to avoid reducing the
hydrostatic pressure and, thereby, allowing a kick to occur.
The two acceptable methods most commonly used to maintain hole fill-up are the trip-tank method and
the pump-stroke measurements method.
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The trip-tank method has a calibration device that monitors the volume of mud entering the hole. The tank
can be placed above the preventer to allow gravity to force mud into the annulus, or a centrifugal pump
may pump mud into the annulus with the overflow returning to the trip tank.
The other method of keeping a full holethe pump-stroke measurement methodis to periodically fill
up the hole with a positive-displacement pump. A flow line device can be installed with the positivedisplacement pump to measure the pump strokes required to fill the hole. This device will automatically
shut off the pump when the hole is full.

Swabbing
Pulling the drillstring from the borehole creates swab pressures. Swab pressures are negative, and reduce
the effective hydrostatic pressure throughout the hole and below the bit. If this pressure reduction lowers
the effective hydrostatic pressure below the formation pressure, a potential kick has developed. Variables
controlling swab pressures are:
Pipe pulling speed
Mud properties
Hole configuration
The effect of balled equipment
Some swab pressures can be seen in Table 2.

Table 2- Swab Pressures (psig) for a 14-ppg mud 4 -in. Pipe With Various Hole Sizes and Several
Pulling Speeds
Cut mud
Gas-contaminated mud will occasionally cause a kick, although this is rare. The mud density reduction is
usually caused by fluids from the core volume being cut and released into the mud system. As the gas is
circulated to the surface, it expands and may reduce the overall hydrostatic pressure sufficient enough to
allow a kick to occur.
Although the mud weight is cut severely at the surface, the hydrostatic pressure is not reduced
significantly because most gas expansion occurs near the surface and not at the hole bottom.
Lost circulation
Occasionally, kicks are caused by lost circulation. A decreased hydrostatic pressure occurs from a shorter
mud column. When a kick occurs from lost circulation, the problem may become severe. A large volume
of kick fluid may enter the hole before the rising mud level is observed at the surface. It is recommended
that the hole be filled with some type of fluid to monitor fluid levels if lost circulation occurs.
Warning signs of kicks
Warning signs and possible kick indicators can be observed at the surface. Each crew member has the
responsibility to recognize and interpret these signs and take proper action. All signs do not positively
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identify a kick; some merely warn of potential kick situations. Key warning signs to watch for include the
following:
Flow rate increase
Pit volume increase
Flowing well with pumps off
Pump pressure decrease and pump stroke increase
Improper hole fill-up on trips
String weight change
Drilling break
Cut mud weight
Each is identified below as a primary or secondary warning sign, relative to its importance in kick
detection.
Flow rate increase (primary indicator)
An increase in flow rate leaving the well, while pumping at a constant rate, is a primary kick indicator.
The increased flow rate is interpreted as the formation aiding the rig pumps by moving fluid up the
annulus and forcing formation fluids into the wellbore.
Pit volume increase (primary indicator)
If the pit volume is not changed as a result of surface-controlled actions, an increase indicates a kick is
occurring. Fluids entering the wellbore displace an equal volume of mud at the flowline, resulting in pit
gain.
Flowing well with pumps off (primary indicator)
When the rig pumps are not moving the mud, a continued flow from the well indicates a kick is in
progress. An exception is when the mud in the drillpipe is considerably heavier than in the annulus, such
as in the case of a slug.
Pump pressure decrease and pump stroke increase (secondary indicator)
A pump pressure change may indicate a kick. Initial fluid entry into the borehole may cause the mud to
flocculate and temporarily increase the pump pressure. As the flow continues, the low-density influx will
displace heavier drilling fluids, and the pump pressure may begin to decrease. As the fluid in the annulus
becomes less dense, the mud in the drillpipe tends to fall and pump speed may increase.
Other drilling problems may also exhibit these signs. A hole in the pipe, called a washout, will cause
pump pressure to decrease. A twist-off of the drillstring will give the same signs. It is proper procedure,
however, to check for a kick if these signs are observed.
Improper hole fill-up on trips (primary indicator)
When the drillstring is pulled out of the hole, the mud level should decrease by a volume equivalent to the
removed steel. If the hole does not require the calculated volume of mud to bring the mud level back to
the surface, it is assumed a kick fluid has entered the hole and partially filled the displacement volume of
the drillstring. Even though gas or salt water may have entered the hole, the well may not flow until
enough fluid has entered to reduce the hydrostatic pressure below the formation pressure.

String weight change (secondary indicator)

Drilling fluid provides a buoyant effect to the drillstring and reduces the actual pipe weight supported by
the derrick. Heavier muds have a greater buoyant force than less dense muds. When a kick occurs, and
low-density formation fluids begin to enter the borehole, the buoyant force of the mud system is reduced,
and the string weight observed at the surface begins to increase.
Drilling break (secondary indicator)
An abrupt increase in bit-penetration rate, called a drilling break, is a warning sign of a potential kick.
A gradual increase in penetration rate is an abnormal pressure indicator, and should not be misconstrued
as an abrupt rate increase.
When the rate suddenly increases, it is assumed that the rock type has changed. It is also assumed that the
new rock type has the potential to kick (as in the case of a sand), whereas the previously drilled rock did
not have this potential (as in the case of shale). Although a drilling break may have been observed, it is
not certain that a kick will occur, only that a new formation has been drilled that may have kick potential.
It is recommended when a drilling break is recorded that the driller should drill 3 to 5 ft (1 to 1.5 m) into
the sand and then stop to check for flowing formation fluids. Flow checks are not always performed in
tophole drilling or when drilling through a series of stringers in which repetitive breaks are encountered.
Unfortunately, many kicks and blowouts have occurred because of this lack of flow checking.
Cut mud weight (secondary indicator)
Reduced mud weight observed at the flow line has occasionally caused a kick to occur. Some causes for
reduced mud weight are:

Core volume cutting

Connection air

Aerated mud circulated from the pits and down the drillpipe

Fortunately, the lower mud weights from the cuttings effect are found near the surface (generally because
of gas expansion), and do not appreciably reduce mud density throughout the hole. Table 3 shows that
gas cutting has a very small effect on bottomhole hydrostatic pressure.

Table 3- Effect of Gas-Cut Mud On The Bottomhole Hydrostatic Pressure

An important point to remember about gas cutting is that, if the well did not kick within the time required
to drill the gas zone and circulate the gas to the surface, only a small possibility exists that it will kick.
Generally, gas cutting indicates that a formation has been drilled that contains gas. It does not mean that
the mud weight must be increased.
Kick detection and monitoring with MWD tools
During circulation and drilling operations, measurement while drilling (MWD) systems monitor:
Mud properties
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Formation parameters
Drillstring parameters
The system is widely used for drilling, but it also has applications for well control, including the
following:

Drilling-efficiency data, such as downhole weight on bit and torque, can be used to differentiate
between rate of penetration changes caused by drag and those caused by formation strength.
Monitoring bottomhole pressure, temperature, and flow with the MWD tool is not only useful for
early kick detection, but can also be valuable during a well-control kill operation. Formation
evaluation capabilities, such as gamma ray and resistivity measurements, can be used to detect
influxes into the wellbore, identify rock lithology, and predict pore pressure trends.

The MWD tool enables monitoring of the acoustic properties of the annulus for early gas-influx
detection. Pressure pulses generated by the MWD pulser are recorded and compared at the
standpipe and the top of the annulus. Full-scale testing has shown that the presence of free gas in
the annulus is detected by amplitude attenuation and phase delay between the two signals. For
water-based mud systems, this technique has demonstrated the capacity to consistently detect gas
influxes within minutes before significant expansion occurs. Further development is currently
under way to improve the systems capability to detect gas influxes in oil-based mud.

Some MWD tools feature kick detection through ultrasonic sensors. In these systems, an
ultrasonic transducer emits a signal that is reflected off the formation and back to the sensor.
Small quantities of free gas significantly alter the acoustic impedance of the mud. Automatic
monitoring of these signals permits detection of gas in the annulus. It should be noted that these
devices only detect the presence of gas at or below the MWD tool.

The MWD tool offers kick-detection benefits, if the response time is less than the time it takes to observe
the surface indicators. The tool can provide early detection of kicks and potential influxes, as well as
monitor the kick-killing process. Tool response time is a function of the complexity of the MWD tool and
the mode of operation. The sequence of data transmission determines the update times of each type of
measurement. Many MWD tools allow for reprogramming of the update sequence while the tool is in the
hole. This feature can enable the operator to increase the update frequency of critical information to meet
the expected needs of the section being drilled. If the tool response time is longer than required for
surface indicators to be observed, the MWD only serves as a confirmation source.
Kick identification
When a kick occurs, note the type of influx (gas, oil, or salt water) entering the wellbore. Remember that
well-control procedures developed here are designed to kill all types of kicks safely. The formula required
to make this kick influx calculation is as follows:
.................... (1)
Where gi = influx gradient, psi/ft; gmdp = mud gradient in drillpipe, psi/ft; and hi = influx height, ft. The
influx gradient can be evaluated using the guidelines in Table 1.

Table 1- Influx Gradient Evaluation Guidelines

Although psidp and psic can be determined accurately for Eq. 1, it is difficult to determine the influx height.
This requires knowledge of the pit gain and the exact hole size
Kill-weight mud calculation
It is necessary to calculate the mud weight needed to balance bottomhole formation pressure. Kill-weight
mud is the amount of mud necessary to exactly balance formation pressure. It will be later shown that it
is safer to use the exact required mud weight without variation
Because the drillpipe pressure has been defined as a bottomhole pressure gauge, the psidp can be used to
calculate the mud weight necessary to kill the well. The kill mud formula follows:
.................... (2)
Where kw = kill-mud weight, lbm/gal 19.23 = conversion constant Dtv = true vertical-bit depth, ft o =
original mud weight, lbm/gal.

Nomenclature
Dtv

= true vertical depth, bit depth, ft

gi

= influx gradient, psi/ft

gmdp

= mud gradient in drillpipe, psi/ft

hi

= influx height, ft

kw

= kill mud weight, lbm/gal

= original mud weight, lbm/gal

psic

= shut-in casing pressure, psi

psidp

= shut-in drillpipe pressure, psi

Blowout
A blowout is the uncontrolled release of crude oil and/or natural gas from an oil well or gas well after
pressure control systems have failed.
Cause of blowouts
Reservoir pressure

When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an oil field forms, from which the liquid
can be extracted by drilling and pumping. The down hole pressures experienced at the
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rock structures change depending upon the depth and the characteristic of the source
rock. This is called Reservoir pressure

Formation kick

The downhole fluid pressures are controlled in modern wells through the balancing of the
hydrostatic pressure provided by the mud used. Should the balance of the drilling mud
pressure be incorrect then formation fluids (oil, natural gas and/or water) begin to flow
into the wellbore and up the annulus (the space between the outside of the drill string and
the walls of the open hole or the inside of the last casing string set), and/or inside the drill
pipe. This is commonly called a kick.
Types of blowouts
Well blowouts can occur during the drilling phase, during well testing, during well completion,
during production, or during work over activities.
1. Surface blowouts
Blowouts can eject the drill string out of the well, and the force of the escaping fluid can
be strong enough to damage the drilling rig. In addition to oil, the output of a well
blowout might include sand, mud, rocks, drilling fluid, natural gas, water, and other
substances.
2. Subsea blowouts
Subsea wells have the wellhead and pressure control equipment located on the seabed.
They vary from depths of 10 feet (3.0 m) to 8,000 feet (2,400 m). It is very difficult to
deal with a blowout in very deep water because of the remoteness and limited experience
with this type of situation.
3. Underground blowouts
An underground blowout is a special situation where fluids from high pressure zones
flow uncontrolled to lower pressure zones within the wellbore. Usually this is from
deeper higher pressure zones to shallower lower pressure formations. There may be no
escaping fluid flow at the wellhead.

Primary Well Control

Primary Well Control is hydrostatic pressure provided by drilling fluid more than formation
pressure but less than fracture gradient while drilling. If hydrostatic pressure is less than
reservoir pressure, reservoir fluid may influx into wellbore. This situation is called Loss Primary
Well Control.
Not only is hydrostatic pressure more than formation pressure, but also hydrostatic pressure must
not exceed fracture gradient. If your mud in hole is too heavy causing broken wellbore, you will
face with loss circulation problem (may be partially lost or total lost circulation). When fluid is
losing into formation, mud level in well bore will be decreased that will result in reducing
hydrostatic pressure. In worst case scenario, you will lose the primary well control and wellbore
influx or kill will enter into wellbore.

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Secondary Well Control

When primary well control is failed, it causes kick (wellbore influx) coming into wellbore.
Therefore, this situation needs special equipment which is called Blow out Preventer or BOP
to control kick. Well, we can call that Blow out Preventer or BOP is Secondary Well Control.
Please also remember that BOP must be used with specific procedures to control kick such as
driller method, wait and weight, lubricate and bleed and bull heading. Without well control
practices for using BOPs, it will just be only heavy equipment on the rig.

Tertiary Well Control

Tertiary Well Control is specific method used to control well in case of failure of primary and
secondary well control. These following examples are tertiary well control:

Drill relief wells to hit adjacent well that is flowing and kill the well with heavy mud.
They use this method to control the well that was firing on the platform.
Dynamic kill by rapidly pumping of heavy mud to control well with Equivalent
Circulating Density (ECD)
Pump barite or gunk to plug wellbore to stop flowing
Pump cement to plug wellbore

Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure is created by fluid column. The pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at
a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. Two factors affecting hydrostatic
pressure are mud weight and True Vertical Depth. So this post will demonstrate how to calculate
hydrostatic pressure in different oilfield units.
1. Calculate hydrostatic pressure in psi by using mud weight in PPG and feet as the units of True
Vertical Depth.
Hydrostatic pressure equation:
HP = mud weight in ppg x 0.052 x True Vertical Depth (TVD) in ft
Example: mud weight = 12.0 ppg
True Vertical Depth = 10,000 ft
HP = 12.0 ppg x 0.052 x 10,000 ft
HP = 6,240 psi
2. Calculate hydrostatic pressure in psi by using pressure gradient in psi/ft and feet as the units of
True Vertical Depth.
Hydrostatic pressure equation:
HP = Pressure gradient in psi/ft x True Vertical Depth (TVD) in ft
Example: Pressure Gradient = 0.5 psi/ft
True Vertical Depth = 10,000 ft
HP = 0.5 psi/ft x 10,000 ft
HP = 5,000 psi
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3 Calculate hydrostatic pressure in psi by using mud weight in lb/ft3 and feet as the units of True
Vertical Depth.
Hydrostatic pressure equation:
HP = 0.006944 x mud weight, lb/ft3 x TVD, ft
Example: mud weight = 80 lb/ft3 true vertical depth = 10,000 ft
HP = 0.006944 x 80 lb/ft3 x 10,000 ft
HP = 5,555 psi
4. Calculate hydrostatic pressure in psi by using mud weight in PPG and meters as unit of True
Vertical Depth.
Hydrostatic pressure equation:
HP = mud weight, ppg x 0.052 x TVD in meters x 3.281
Example: Mud weight = 12.0 ppg true vertical depth = 5000 meters
HP = 12.0 ppg x 0.052 x 5000 x 3.281
HP = 10,237 psi

Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP)

The bottom hole pressure is sum of all the pressure acting on the bottom hole. We can describe
the statement before as the following equation;
Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP) = Surface Pressure (SP) + Hydrostatic Pressure (HP)

Formation Pressure
The pressure at the bottom of a well when it is shut in at the wellhead. The pressure of the
subsurface formation fluids, commonly expressed as the density of fluid required in the wellbore
to balance that pore pressure. A normal pressure gradient might require 9 lbm/gal, US [1.08
kg/m3], while an extremely high gradient may need 18 lbm/gal, US [2.16 kg/m3] or higher.

Effect of hydrostatic pressure with different density fluids in the hole

The pressure at a given depth in a static liquid is a result the weight of the liquid acting on a unit
area at that depth plus any pressure acting on the surface of the liquid.

The pressure due to the liquid alone (i.e. the gauge pressure) at a given depth depends only upon
the density of the liquid and the distance below the surface of the liquid h.

Hydrostatic pressure
Hydrostatic pressure (HSP), as stated, is defined as pressure due to a column of fluid that is not moving.
That is, a column of fluid that is static, or at rest, exerts pressure due to local force of gravity on the
column of the fluid.

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The formula for calculating hydrostatic pressure in SI units (kg/m) is:

Hydrostatic pressure = Height (m) Density (kg/m) Gravity (m/s).
All fluids in a wellbore exert hydrostatic pressure, which is a function of density and vertical height of the
fluid column. In US oil field units, hydrostatic pressure can be expressed as:
HSP = 0.052 MW TVD', where MW (Mud Weight or density) is the drilling-fluid density in pounds
per gallon (ppg), TVD is the true vertical depth in feet and HSP is the hydrostatic pressure in psi.
The 0.052 is needed as the conversion factor to psi unit of HSP.
To convert these units to SI units, one can use:

1 ppg = 119.8264273 kg/m

1 ft = 0.3048 meters
1 psi = 0.0689475729 bar
1 bar = 105 pascals

Pressure gradient
The pressure gradient is described as the pressure per unit length. Often in oil well control, pressure
exerted by fluid is expressed in terms of its pressure gradient. The SI unit is pascals/meter. The
hydrostatic pressure gradient can be written as:
Pressure gradient (psi/ft) = HSP/TVD = 0.052 MW (ppg).

Formation pressure
Formation pressure is the pressure exerted by the formation fluids, which are the liquids and gases
contained in the geologic formations encountered while drilling for oil or gas. It can also be said to be the
pressure contained within the pores of the formation or reservoir being drilled. Formation pressure is a
result of the hydrostatic pressure of the formation fluids, above the depth of interest, together with
pressure trapped in the formation. Under formation pressure, there are 3 levels: normally pressured
formation, abnormal formation pressure, or subnormal formation pressure.
Normally pressured formation
Normally pressured formation has a formation pressure that is the same with the hydrostatic pressure of
the fluids above it. As the fluids above the formation are usually some form of water, this pressure can be
defined as the pressure exerted by a column of water from the formation's depth to sea level.
The normal hydrostatic pressure gradient for freshwater is 0.433 pounds per square inch per foot (psi/ft),
or 9.792 kilopascals per meter (kPa/m), and 0.465 psi/ft for water with dissolved solids like in Gulf Coast
waters, or 10.516 kPa/m. The density of formation water in saline or marine environments, such as along
the Gulf Coast, is about 9.0 ppg or 1078.43 kg/m. Since this is the highest for both Gulf Coast water and
fresh water, a normally pressured formation can be controlled with a 9.0 ppg mud.
Abnormal formation pressure
As discussed above, once the fluids are trapped within the formation and not allow to escape there is a
pressure build-up leading to abnormally high formation pressures. This will generally require a mud
weight of greater than 9.0 ppg to control. Excess pressure, called "overpressure" or "geopressure", can
cause a well to blow out or become uncontrollable during drilling.
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Subnormal formation pressure

Subnormal formation pressure is a formation pressure that is less than the normal pressure for the given
depth. It is common in formations that had undergone production of original hydrocarbon or formation
fluid in them.

Overburden pressure
Overburden pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the rocks and contained fluids above the
zone of interest. Overburden pressure varies in different regions and formations. It is the force that tends
to compact a formation vertically. The density of these usual ranges of rocks is about 18 to 22 ppg (2,157
to 2.636 kg/m3). This range of densities will generate an overburden pressure gradient of about 1 psi/ft
(22.7 kPa/m). Usually, the 1 psi/ft is not applicable for shallow marine sediments or massive salt. In
offshore however, there is a lighter column of sea water, and the column of underwater rock does not go
all the way to the surface. Therefore, a lower overburden pressure is usually generated at an offshore
depth, than would be found at the same depth on land.
Mathematically, overburden pressure can be derived as:

S = b Dg
g = acceleration due to gravity

S = overburden pressure

D = vertical thickness of the overlying sediments

b = average formation bulk density

The bulk density of the sediment is a function of rock matrix density, porosity within the confines of the
pore spaces, and pore fluid density. This can be expressed as

b = f + (1 )m
= rock porosity

f = formation fluid density

m = rock matrix density

Fracture pressure
Fracture pressure can be defined as pressure required to cause a formation to fail or split. As the name
implies, it is the pressure that causes the formation to fracture and the circulating fluid to be lost. Fracture
pressure is usually expressed as a gradient, with the common units being psi/ft (kg/m) or ppg (kPa).
To fracture a formation, three things are generally needed, which are:
1. Pump into the formation. This will require a pressure in the wellbore greater than formation
pressure.
2. The pressure in the wellbore must also exceed the rock matrix strength.
3. And finally the wellbore pressure must be greater than one of the three principal stresses in the
formation.

Pump pressure (system pressure losses)

Pump pressure, which is also referred to as system pressure loss, is the sum total of all the pressure
losses from the oil well surface equipment, the drill pipe, the drill collar, the drill bit, and annular friction
losses around the drill collar and drill pipe. It measures the system pressure loss at the start of the
circulating system and measures the total friction pressure.

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Slow pump pressure (SPP)

Slow pump pressure is the circulating pressure (pressure used to pump fluid through the whole
active fluid system, including the borehole and all the surface tanks that constitute the primary
system during drilling) at a reduced rate. SPP is very important during a well kill operation in
which circulation (a process in which drilling fluid is circulated out of the suction pit, down the
drill pipe and drill collars, out the bit, up the annulus, and back to the pits while drilling
proceeds) is done at a reduced rate to allow better control of circulating pressures and to enable
the mud properties (density and viscosity) to be kept at desired values. The slow pump pressure
can also be referred to as "kill rate pressure" or "slow circulating pressure" or "kill speed
pressure" and so on.
Shut-in drill pipe pressure
Shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP), which is recorded when a well is shut in on a kick, is a measure of
the difference between the pressure at the bottom of the hole and the hydrostatic pressure (HSP) in the
drillpipe. During a well shut-in, the pressure of the wellbore stabilizes, and the formation pressure equals
the pressure at the bottom of the hole. The drillpipe at this time should be full of known-density fluid.
Therefore, the formation pressure can be easily calculated using the SIDPP. This means that the SIDPP
gives a direct of formation pressure during a kick.

Shut-in casing pressure (SICP)

The shut-in casing pressure (SICP) is a measure of the difference between the formation pressure and the
HSP in the annulus when a kick occurs.
The pressures encountered in the annulus can be estimated using the following mathematical equation:

FP = HSPmud + HSPinflux + SICP

FP = formation pressure (psi)

HSPinflux = Hydrostatic pressure of the influx (psi)

HSPmud = Hydrostatic pressure of mud in the annulus (psi)

SICP = shut-in casing pressure (psi)

Bottom-hole pressure (BHP)

Bottom-hole pressure (BHP) is the pressure at the bottom of a well. The pressure is usually measured at
the bottom of the hole. This pressure may be calculated in a static, fluid-filled wellbore with the equation:

BHP = D C,
BHP = bottom-hole pressure

D = the vertical depth of the well

= density

C = units conversion factor

(Or, in the English system, BHP = D MWD 0.052).

In Canada the formula is depth in meters x density in kgs x the constant gravity factor (0.00981), which
will give the hydrostatic pressure of the well bore or (hp) hp=bhp with pumps off. The bottom-hole
pressure is dependent on the following:

Hydrostatic pressure (HSP)

Shut-in surface pressure (SIP)
16

Friction pressure
Surge pressure (occurs when transient pressure increases the bottom-hole pressure)
Swab pressure (occurs when transient pressure reduces the bottom-hole pressure)
Therefore BHP can be said to be the sum of all pressures at the bottom of the well hole, which equals:

BHP = HSP + SIP + friction + Surge - swab

17

DAY-1 --------------- Session - II

Leak off Test
Leak off Test is conducted in order to find the fracture gradient of certain formation. The results
of the leak off test also dictate the maximum equivalent mud weight that should be applied to the
well during drilling operations.
Leak off Test (LOT) guide line procedures are as follows (note: this is just only guide line. You
may need to follow your standard procedure in order to perform leak off test):
1. Drill out new formation few feet, circulate bottom up and collect sample to confirm that new
formation is drilled to and then pull string into the casing.
2. Close annular preventer or pipe rams, line up a pump, normally a cement pump, and circulate
through an open choke line to ensure that surface line is fully filled with drilling fluid.
3. Stop the pump and close a choke valve.
4. Gradually pump small amount of drilling fluid into well with constant pump stroke. Record
total pump strokes, drill pipe pressure and casing pressure. Drill pipe pressure and casing
pressure will increase continually while pumping mud in hole. When plot a graph between
strokes pumped and pressure, if formation is not broken, a graph will demonstrate straight line
relationship. When pressure exceeds formation strength, formation will be broken and let drilling
fluid permeate into formation, therefore a trend of drill pipe/casing pressure will deviate from
straight line that mean formation is broken and is injected by drilling fluid. We may call pressure
when deviated from straight line as leak off test pressure.
Note: the way people call leak off test pressure depends on each company standard practices.
Leak off test pressure can be calculated into equivalent mud weight in ppg as formula below:
Leak off test in equivalent mud weight (ppg) = (Leak off test pressure in psi) 0.052
(Casing Shoe TVD in ft) + (current mud weight in ppg)
Pressure gradient in psi/ft = (Leak off test pressure in psi) (Casing Shoe TVD in ft)
Example:
Leak off test pressure = 1600 psi
Casing shoe TVD = 4000 ft
Mud weight = 9.2 ppg
Leak off test in equivalent mud weight (ppg) = 1600 psi 0.052 4000 ft + 9.2ppg ppg = 16.9
Pressure gradient = 1600 4000 = 0.4 psi/ft
4. Bleed off pressure and open up the well. Then proceed drilling operation.

18

Maximum Allowable Annulus Surface Pressure (MAASP)

Maximum Allowable Annulus Surface Pressure is an absolute upper limit for the pressure in the
annulus of an oil and gas well as measured at the wellhead.

Calculation:
The Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP) equals the formation breakdown
pressure at the point under consideration minus the hydrostatic head of the mud/or influx in the
casing. During well control operations the critical point to consider is the casing shoe.
MAASP = Formation Breakdown Pressure - Head of mud in use
Or
MAASP = (E.M.W - MWMUD) x 0.052 x Shoe Depth (TVD)
E.M.W = Equivalent mud weight at which formation breaks at shoe
MWMUD = Mud Weight
During the process of controlling and circulating out an influx, several stages can be
distinguished in calculating the MAASP. However, the MAASP is only significant while the
casing is full of fluid. For pre-kick calculation purposes, the value of the MAASP shall be
revised whenever the hydrostatic head of mud in the hole changes.

Kick Tolerance
Kick Tolerance is defined as the maximum kick volume that can be taken into the wellbore and
circulated out without fracturing the formation at weak point (shoe), given a difference between
pore pressure and mud weight in use.
It is the maximum volume of gas kick in barrels that we are able to successfully shut the well in
and circulate the kick out of hole without breaking formation strength at shoe depth or
overcoming the weakest anticipated facture pressure in wellbore. In order to calculate kick
tolerance, we need to assume Kick Intensity (ppg), the depth that kick will happen, mostly is TD.
The kick intensity is the difference between the formation pressure and current mud weight used
in the wellbore. When you see the kick tolerance noted in the drilling programs from town,
drilling engineers normally calculate kick intensity at TD.

Kick Tolerance Calculation

1. Determine kick intensity
2. Determine maximum allowable shut in casing pressure (MASICP)
3. Determine influx height with this following equation

19

4. Calculate influx volume at BHA based on the influx height

Influx volume at BHA, bbl = Kick Height, ft x Annular Capacity of BHA and Hole, bbl/ft
5. Calculate influx volume at shoe base on the influx height
Influx volume at shoe, bbl = Kick Height, ft x Annular Capacity of DP and Hole, bbl/ft
6. Calculate influx volume at the bottom based on the influx volume at the shoe by applying
Boyles Law
Influx volume at bottom, bbl = (Influx volume at shoe x Leak off test pressure at shoe)
(Formation pressure, psi)
Formation pressure can be calculated from well TVD and maximum anticipated formation
pressure.
7. Compare both figures. The smaller figure is the Kick Tolerance.
For more understanding, please determine kick tolerance with following data;
Possible maximum formation pressure = 12.5 ppg
Planned TD mud weight = 12.0 ppg
Casing shoe = 6,500MD/5,500 TVD
Leak off test at casing shoe = 14.7 ppg
Hole depth = 10,100MD/9,500TVD
Bit = 12-1/4
BHA = 850 ft
Average OD of BHA = 6.5
Drill pipe size = 5
Influx gradient (gas) = 0.11 psi/ft
1. Kick intensity = 12.5 12.0 = 0.5 ppg
2. Maximum Allowable Shut in Casing Pressure (MASICP) ** some people may call
maximum allowable initial shut in casing pressure**.
= (14.7 12.0) x 0.052 x 5,500 = 772 psi

3. Influx height:
4. Calculate influx volume at BHA based on the influx height

annular capacity between hole and BHA =

20

Annular capacity between hole and drill pipe = ( 12.252 52) 1029.4 = 0.1215 bbl/ft
Influx volume at BHA, bbl = (0.1047 x 850) + (0.1215 x 171) = 109.8 bbl
5. Calculate influx volume at shoe base on the influx height

Annular capacity between hole and drill pipe =

Influx volume at shoe, bbl = 0.1215 x 1021 = 124.1 bbl

6. This volume is a reference at shoe; therefore, you need to convert it to the bottom hole
condition.
Boyles gas law is utilized in order to get the figure at the bottom hole.
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
For this case, you need to use the maximum pressure at shoe which is the Leak Off Test pressure
because it is the maximum value before you will break the wellbore.
Rearranging the equation, you will get like this.
Influx volume at bottom, bbl = Influx volume at shoe x Leak off test pressure at shoe
Formation pressure, psi
Influx volume at shoe = 124.1 bbl
Leak off test pressure = 0.052 x 14.7 x 5,500 = 4,204 psi
Formation pressure = 0.052 x 12.5 x 9,500 = 6,175 psi
Influx volume at bottom, bbl = (124.1 x 4, 204) (6175) = 84.5 bbl
7. We need to compare 2 cases and the smaller figure is the kick tolerance of the well.
1st case: 109.8 bbl
2nd case: 84.5 bbl
Therefore, the kick tolerance is 84.5 bbl.
Conclusion: With the following information, the maximum kick that the well can take and
personnel can circulate it out of hole without breaking formation is 84.5 bbl.

Top hole drilling

Its a method to drill top hole (shallow depth) using diverter.
Where shallow casing strings or conductor pipe are set, fracture gradients will be low. It may be
impossible to close the BOP on a shallow gas kick without breaking down the formation at the
shoe. If a shallow gas kick is taken while drilling top hole then the kick should be diverted.

21

Drilling shallow sand too fast can result in large volumes of gas cut mud in the annulus and
cause the well to flow, also fast drilling can load up the annulus increasing the mud density
leading to lost circulation and if the level in annulus drops far enough then well may flow.

1. When drilling top hole a diverter should be installed and it is good practice to leave the
diverter installed until 13 3/8 casing has been run. An automatic diverter system should first:a) Open an alternative flow path to overboard lines.
b) Close shaker valve and trip tank valve.
c) Close diverter annular around drill pipe.
d) If there are two overboard lines then the upwind valve should be manually closed.
2. If any indication of flow is observed while drilling top hole, close diverter immediately as the
gas will reach surface in a very short time and it is inadvisable to attempt a flow check.
3. Suggested diverting procedure in the event of a shallow gas kick.
a) Maintain maximum pump rate and commence pumping kill mud if available.
b) Space out so that the lower safety valve is above the drill floor.
c) With diverter line open close shaker valve and diverter packer.
d) Shut down all nonessential equipment, if there is an indication of gas on rig floor or cellar
area then activate deluge systems.
e) On jack-up and platform rig monitor sea for evidence of gas breaking out around conductor.
f) If mud reserves run out then continue pumping with sea-water.
g) While drilling top hole a float should be run. This will prevent gas entering drill string if a
kick is taken while making a connection. It will also stop backflow through the drill string on
connections.

Major hazards of shallow gas influx

Shallow gas is defined as any hydrocarbon-bearing zone which may be encountered at a depth
close to the surface or mud line. Generally it is not possible to close-in and contain a gas influx
from a shallow zone because weak formation integrity may lead to breakdown and broaching to
surface / mud line.
Shallow Hazard No. 1: Shallow Gas (and Shallow Water Flows)
If shallow gas of a large enough quantity is encountered unexpectedly during drilling operations,
a blowout might occur. The driller has interest in shallow gas from mud line to 3,000 feet and
below. Shallow trapped gas areas can be avoided by changing the wellsite location, or if
required, and only if the frac gradient is sufficient, can be penetrated by cementing a string of
casing firmly above the gas zone, increasing mud weight to penetrate through the gas zone, and
continue the drilling operation. Gas that is trapped in the shallow sediments usually originates
from deeper gas reservoirs but can also come from biogenic activity in the shallow sediments.
Shallow gas can only be confidently interpreted from high resolution seismic data that has been
digitally processed and displayed in true amplitude
22

Our experience with shallow water flows (SWF) is similar to shallow gas. In the case of water
flow, the problem to drilling is it can be water under very low over-pressure, usually in an area of
rapid sediment deposition, but there are exceptions. Our recommendations regarding SWF is to
not let even a small flow develop. Another aspect, yet not fully understood is the long term effect
of a casing/asset set through a potential shallow water flow zone.
Shallow Hazard No. 2: Near Surface Faults
Near surface faults can create surface anomalies hazardous to jack-up and drilling rigs including
anchors and guy-wire bases. The fault plane itself can pass gas from a deeper gas zone and if not
controlled, a blowout will occur. The ocean bottom is unstable around fault traces. Casing should
not be terminated in or near a fault zone because shear strength (frac gradient) of the sediments
in the fault zone is much less than "non-faulted" sediments. In deep water and to improve the
resolution of faults, time or depth migration of the digitally processed high resolution seismic
data is recommended.
Shallow Hazard No. 3: Sediment Strength
Both slightly hard sediments and slightly soft sediments can create problems to drilling
operations. Jack-up rigs require ample leg penetration for stabilization for high shear capacity for
their legs. If leg penetration is too deep, the well may not be drilled because the limit of
penetration is the leg length. The water depth, the leg penetration, and the required air gap (for
insurance and safety purposes) must add up to less than the leg length available. If this is greater,
then the well cannot be drilled and another drill rig or drillship should be chosen. Prediction of
jack-up leg penetration is based on the first good seismic reflector deeper than 20 feet below mud
line. This reflecting horizon can be interpreted from seismic data. Correlation to known
engineering data from local soil borings or leg penetration depth provide a more accurate
estimate.
Anchor systems, including primary and piggy-back anchors, require at least 20 - 25 feet
(thickness) of mud for adequate shear strength. If a hard silt, sand, limestone, coral reef, or salt is
encountered shallower than 25 feet within the anchor's path, the anchor will slide along the layer
and not "dig in". This situation calls for additional piggy-back anchors to be set in order for the
combined shear strength of all anchors to provide adequate tension carrying ability by the total
anchoring system. High resolution geophysical can be used to determine anchoring conditions.
Shallow Hazard No. 4: Old Rivers and Glaciers
Old river channels can be filled with clay, porous material, mud, gravels, and/or boulders. Any
channel is potentially hazardous and should be planned for in the wellsite location and drilling
plan. Lost circulation in channels has cost the industry greatly in the North Sea and the Gulf of
Alaska, especially due to glacial boulder channels causing high bit torque and lost circulation at
shallow depth. Channels are interpreted from high resolution data.

23

Shallow Hazard No. 5: Water Bottom Anomalies

Steep bottom slopes create sediments bottom stability problems for both jack-ups and drillships.
Water bottom features such as mud lumps, trenches, faults scarps, pockholes, ridges and
depressions can be interpreted from high resolution seismic data. The vertical exaggeration in
high resolution records makes the identification of water bottom hazards and accurate description
of the seafloor possible.
Shallow Hazard No. 6: Man-made Objects
Man-made objects exist wherever man travels. These include pipelines, debris, wrecks and
cultural items that can be detected with multi-sensor geophysical surveys. Each must be avoided.
Car bodies, garbage and schools of fish are commonly also seen on high resolution records and
have been misinterpreted by even the most experienced analyst.

Diverter Systems in Well Control

The diverter is an annular preventer with a large piping system underneath. It is utilized to divert
the kick from the rig and it can be used when the conductor pipe is set. It is not used if you drill
riser less. The large diameter pipe typically has two directions diverting the wellbore fluid out of
the rig (see the figure below for more understanding).

The diverter should be used only when the well cannot be shut in because of fear of formation
breakdown or lost circulation. Use of the diverter depends on the regulations and operator
policies.
The diverter is normally installed on a conductor casing with large diverter pipe pointing to a
downwind area. Typically, the selective valves located at each diverter line can be operated
separately so the personnel on the rig can divert the flow into the proper direction. It is designed
for short periods of high flow rate but it cannot hold a lot of pressure. With high flow rate, the
erosion can be happened easily so the bigger of diverter line the better. Additionally, the straight
diverter lines are the most preferable.

24

SHALLOW GAS CONTROL PROCEDURE

Use of diverter system should be brought into practice to control the shallows gas kicks.
Shallow Gas control While Drilling
When any warning sign of a kick has been observed, immediately stop rotary, raise the kelly
until tool joint is above rotary.
Stop pumps and check for any flow.
Open diverter line valves, depending upon wind direction.
Close diverter packer.
Circulate out with available drilling fluid at maximum possible pump rate.
Remove the non-essential personnel from rig floor.
Shallow gas control While Tripping
Set pipes on slips.
Install FOSV and close it.
Open diverter line valves depending upon wind direction.
Close diverted packer.
Connect Kelly or circulating head.
Open FOSV
Circulate out with available fluid.

25

DAY-1 --------------- Session - III

Gas Cut Drilling Fluid
Drilling Fluid that has become entrained with gas from previously drilled gas bearing formation
which in turn lowers the drilling fluid density and hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid column.

Swab and surge effects

Swabbing is when bottom hole pressure is reduced below formation pressure due to the effects of
pulling the drill string, which allows an influx of formation fluids into the wellbore.
When pulling the string there will always be some variation to bottom hole pressure. A pressure
loss is caused by friction, the friction between the mud and the drill string being pulled.
Swabbing can also be caused by the full gauge down hole tools (bits, stabilisers, reamers, core
barrels, etc.) being balled up. This can create a piston like effect when they are pulled through
mud. This type of swabbing can have drastic effects on bottom hole pressure.

Surging
Surging is when the bottom hole pressure is increased due to the effects of running the drill
string too fast in the hole. Down hole mud losses may occur if care is not taken and fracture
pressure is exceeded while RIH. Proper monitoring of the displacement volume with the trip tank
is required at all times.
Swabbing
Swabbing is a recognized hazard whether it is low volume swabbing or high volume
swabbing. A small influx volume may be swabbed into the open hole section. The net decrease
in hydrostatics due to this low density fluid will also be small. If the influx fluid is gas it can of
course migrate and expand. The expansion may occur when there is little or no pipe left in the
hole. The consequences of running pipe into the hole and into swabbed gas must also be
considered.

26

Trip margin
Trip margin is an increment of drilling mud density to provide overbalance so as to compensate
the swabbing effect while pulling out of hole.
You can quickly calculate how much trip margin required by this following simple equation.
Trip Margin = Mud Yield Point [11.7 x (Hole diameter Drill pipe diameter)]
Trip Margin (PPG) = (Margin needed (Psi) Present Margin (Psi))/ (0.052xTVD (ft))
The unit of each parameter is as follows;
Trip Margin in ppg (pound per gallon)
Mud Yield Point in lb/100 sq ft
Hole diameter in inch
Drill pipe diameter in inch
Lets try to determine the trip margin with the following information.
Mud Yield Point = 12 lb/100 sq ft
Hole diameter = 10 inch
Drill pipe diameter = 5 inch
Trip Margin = 12 [11.7 x (10 5)] = 0.2 ppg

Slow circulation rate

Slow Circulation Rate is a circulation rate which will be used in well kill operation. Typically,
slow circulation rate pressure (SCR) is recorded from each particular flow rate and the pressure
represents pressure loss of the system while circulating. Since there are so many pressure gauges
on the rig, you may get confused on the figures. In order to be at the same page for every
personnel on the rig, the SCR should be recorded by the pressure gauge that we will use for
killing the well.
There are a lot of reasons why we should kill the well with slow rate rather than a drilling rate as
follows:

To minimize friction pressure

To allow time to weight up mud if you use wait and weight method
To reduce pressure on surface equipment
To allow degasser to separate gas from the mud
To reduce needs for fast choke operation
To allow personnel to think if something goes wrong
Lets get an idea how to get pre-recorded SCR.

1. Turn pump on at slow speed as 10, 20, 30 and 40 spm

2. Record pressure without rotating or moving drillstring
3. Each pressure recorded at particular pump speed is SCR.
27

Please always remember that SCR that you take for each time representing pressure loss at that
time. I dont recommend you to use it to estimate the initial circulating pressure.
Lets me explain why There are some errors in pre-recorded SCR which can make you in a
trouble.
Pre-recorded SCR may not reflect current pressure due to drilling mud properties change.
The depth of pre-recorded SCR is not the same as the current drilling depth.
SCR may be changed due to unknown condition down hole as BHA mechanism, plugged jets, etc.
How can we get ICP without using pre-recorded SCR?
In order to get the initial circulating pressure, you just simply bring the pump up to speed by holding
casing pressure constant until you reach kill rate. Additionally, you will be able to calculate the actual
SCR by calculation.
Lets take a look at the equation below.
ICP = SIDPP + SCR
Where; ICP is Initial Circulating Pressure.
SIDPP is Shut In Drill Pipe Pressure.
SCR is Slow Circulation Rate pressure.
Therefore, SCR = ICP SIDPP
If you would like to check SCR, the following time is when you should check SCR.
Check before drilling out of casing shoe
Check after tripping back to the bottom
Check when mud properties are changes
Check at least two times each shift at the drilling depth at that time

Causes of kicks
A Kick or Wellbore Influx is undesirable flow of formation fluid into the wellbore and it
happens when formation pressure is more than hydrostatic pressure in wellbore.
Several causes of Kick (Wellbore Influx) are listed below:
1. Lack of knowledge and experience of personnel (Human error) Lacking of well-trained personnel
can cause well control incident because they dont have any ideas what can cause well control problem.
For example, personnel may accidentally pump lighter fluid into wellbore and if the fluid is light enough,
reservoir pressure can overcome hydrostatic pressure.
2. Light density fluid in wellbore - It results in decreasing hydrostatic pressure. There are several
reasons that can cause this issue such as
Light pills, sweep, and spacer in hole
Accidental dilution of drilling fluid
Gas cut mud

28

3. Abnormal pressure If abnormally high pressure zones are over current mud weight in the well,
eventually kick will occur.
4. Unable to keep the hole full all the time while drilling and tripping. If hole is not full with drilling
fluid, overall hydrostatic pressure will decrease.
5. Severe lost circulation Due to lost circulation in formation, if the well could not be kept fully filled
all the time, hydrostatic pressure will be decreased.
Lost circulation usually caused when the hydrostatic pressure of drilling fluid exceeds formation pressure.
There are several factors that can cause lost circulation such as
Mud properties mud weight is too heavy and too viscous.
High Equivalent Circulating Density
High surge pressure due to tripping in hole so fast
Drilling into weak formation strength zone
6. Swabbing causes reducing wellbore hydrostatic pressure.
Swabbing is the condition that happens when anything in a hole such as drill string, logging tool,
completion sting, etc is pulled and it brings out decreasing hydrostatic pressure. Anyway, swabbing can
be recognized while pulling out of hole by closely monitoring hole fill in trip sheet.

Indications of kick - While tripping

If an overbalance existed prior to pulling out of hole, then the only reasons for the well to flow
are: swabbing; failure to keep the hole full; losses induced by surge pressures.
Early detection of kicks off bottom can be achieved by observing whether the hole is taking the
proper amount of fluid during roundtrips. This can be achieved by pumping across the flow riser
with the trip tank (also called possum belly) which will give an immediate indication of gains or
losses. Trip tank fluid levels observed during roundtrips should be recorded on a dedicated trip
sheet and compared to previous roundtrips. This is the most accurate method of checking if the
hole is filling-up correctly. If swabbing is observed, but the well does not flow, the string should
be run back to bottom carefully and the possible influx should be circulated out. If the well
shows any indication of flow, the well must be closed in and the string should be stripped back to
bottom, because it is more complicated to handle a kick with the bit off bottom as compared to
killing a well with the bit on bottom.
If severe losses are experienced, followed by a kick (i.e. when running in too fast) LCM pills
should be squeezed into the loss zone formation via the annulus at such a rate as to prevent the
influx rising up the annulus. The losses should be cured before the remaining influx is circulated
out.
An inside BOP and RH Kelly cock complete with lifting arms must always be available on the
drilling floor and be ready for immediate use. If the well starts to flow whilst tripping pipe, the
Kelly cock should be installed and the well closed-in. Do not attempt to run the bit back to
bottom with the well still open, since this may lead to excessive kick volumes and make well
control much more difficult, if not impossible. The correct procedure is to close in the well at
29

first indication of flow. Closed-in pressures will be much lower and will leave more options open
during further well control operations.

Indications of kick - While drilling

The possible well control (kick) indications are as follows;
Change in drilling breaks (ROP change) If the differential between formation pressure and
hydrostatic pressure created by drilling mud decreases, there is possibility to increase rate of
penetration because the hold down effect is decreased.
Increase drag and torque Increasing in drilling torque and drag are usually noticed while
drilling into over pressured shale formation because under balance hydrostatic pressure exerted
by drilling fluid column cannot to hold back the formation intrusion into wellbore. Shale
normally has low permeability so formation fluid will not come into wellbore. Anyway, if we
drill ahead pass high shale pressure into over pressured high permeability zones such as sand or
carbonate, the formation fluid will flow into wellbore resulting in kick. This is very important to
record frequently drilling torque and drag because it could be your well control indicator.
Decrease in Shale Density Typically, shale density will increase as we drill deeper. If we see
decrease in shale density, it may indicate that your well is in underbalance condition because
high pressure zones (abnormal pressure) develop within large shale section. Practically, density
of shale must be measured frequency and plot against drilling depth. You can see from a chart if
there is any deviation in trend that could be an indication of change in pore pressure.
Increase in cutting size and shape Pieces of formation may break apart and fall into wellbore
because of underbalance situation. Because rocks pieces broken by underbalance condition are
not ruined by bit, they will be more angular and bigger than normal cutting. Larger of cutting
size will be result in difficulty to circulate them out of wellbore, hence, there will be more hole
fill and torque and drag will increase. In addition, without a proportional increase in ROP (rate of
penetration), cutting volume coming over shale shakers will increased noticeably.
Decrease in d-Exponent Value - Normally, trends of d-Exponent will increase as we drill
deeper, but this value will decrease to lower values than what we expect in transition zones. By
closely monitored d-Exponent, d-Exponent chart will be useful for people on the rig to notify the
high pressure transition zones.
Read and understand about d-Exponent and learn how to calculate d-Exponent and normalized dExponent (corrected d-Exponent)
Change in Mud property- Without any chemical added into drilling fluid system, its property
change due to increasing in water and/or chloride content indicates that formation fluid enters
into the wellbore.
For some drilling mud, when salt water enters into the wellbore and mix with drilling fluid, the
mud viscosity will increase.
In water base mud with low Ph salt saturated, the mud viscosity will decrease because of water

30

from formation mixing with mud. On the other hand, water contamination in oil base mud will
result in viscosity increases.
Increase in Temperature from Returning Mud - By observing trend of temperature coming
from mud return, temperature trend showing deviation from the normal temperature trend can be
an indication of abnormal pressure zones, especially while drilling into transition zones.
There are some factors that you need to account for when you try to evaluate mud temperature
changes as listed below;
Surface temperature conditions
Elapsed time since tripping
Mud chemicals used
Wellbore geometry
Circulating rate
Cooling effect when drilling fluid flows through a long riser (deep water consideration)
Increase in trip, connection and/or background gas Gas in mud, normally called gas cut
mud, does not be a sign of a well flowing because it could be gas coming from formation.
Nonetheless, personnel on the rig should keep in mind as a possible kick indicator. Hence, flow
show and PVT (pit volume total) must be closely monitored.
Gas in the mud can come from one or more of the reasons listed below:
Drill into a formation that contains gas or hydrocarbon.
Temporally reduce in hydrostatic pressure due to swabbing effect.
Pore pressure in a formation is greater than the hydrostatic pressure provided by drilling
fluid in a wellbore.

Positive Well Control (kick) Indications

Positive well control (wellbore influx) indications mean indications showing almost 100%
kick (wellbore influx) into wellbore. We can classify the positive indicators the following
categories.

Positive Well Control Indicators While drilling

Increase in flow show Without any increasing in flow rate in, increase in return flow indicates
something coming into wellbore while drilling. Therefore, flow show instrument provided by the
rigs or service companies must be checked and calibrated frequently.
Increase of active pit system (Pit gain) - Because drilling fluid system on the rig is a closed
system, increasing in flow show without adjusting flow rate in will cause pit gain in a pit system.
Nowadays, with high technology sensors, detecting change in pit level is easily accomplished at
the rig site. However, visually check the pit level is importance as well for double checking
figure from the sensors. Sometimes, change in pit level may be detected after the increase in flow
show because it takes more time to accumulate volume enough to be able to detect by pit
sensors.
Continue flowing while the pumps are off When pumps are turned off, bottom hole pressure
will decrease due to loss of equivalent circulating density (ECD). If there is any flow coming
after pumps off, it indicates formation influx into wellbore.
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Positive Kick Indicators While Tripping

Trip log deviation such as short fill up while tripping out and excess pit gain while tripping in.
For tripping operation, it is very important to have a filling system via trip tank that provides
continuous hole fill all time. With utilizing that system, we can compare fluid that is filled in or
returned from wellbore with steel volume of tubular (drill pipe, drill collar, BHA, tubing, casing,
etc). If drilling fluid volume is less than theoretical pipe displacement while tripping out or more
return fluid while running in, you need to flow check and monitor the well.
If flow check indicates wellbore influx, crew must quickly shut the well in.
If flow check does not show any influx, drill string must be run back to bottom in order to
circulate at least bottom up to ensure hole condition.
Positive flow when pipe is static. Every time that pipe in static condition. Trip tank with correct
filling system must be monitored all time by both rig personnel and mud logger. If volume in trip
tank increases, personnel must confirm flow check and prepare to shut the well in.

Drilled Gas
While drilling, there will be a certain amount of the gas in cuttings entering into drilling fluid
when we drill through porous formations that contain gas. The gas showing on the surface due to
drilling through formations is called Drilled Gas.
When gas from the cutting comes into drilling fluid, it will expand as it is circulated out of hole,
hence, you will see the gas from the monitors at the flow line. Even though we have overbalance
hydrostatic pressure exerted by mud column, gas showing on the surface by this mechanism
always happens. You cannot rise mud weight up to make it disappear.
Drilled gas should be recorded in mud log chart against formation identification. In addition, the
gas unit should represent changes in drilling rate (rate of penetration) through porous formation.
Practically, if we see a lot of drilling gas, we should stop drilling and attempt to circulate gas
until it reaches to an acceptable level prior to drilling ahead.

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DAY-1 --------------- Session - IV

Positive kick signs
Positive well control (wellbore influx) indications mean indications showing almost 100%
kick (wellbore influx) into wellbore. We can classify the positive indicators the following
categories.
Positive Well Control Indicators While drilling
Increase in flow show Without any increasing in flow rate in, increase in return flow indicates
something coming into wellbore while drilling. Therefore, flow show instrument provided by the
rigs or service companies must be checked and calibrated frequently.
Increase of active pit system (Pit gain) - Because drilling fluid system on the rig is a closed
system, increasing in flow show without adjusting flow rate in will cause pit gain in a pit system.
Nowadays, with high technology sensors, detecting change in pit level is easily accomplished at
the rig site. However, visually check the pit level is importance as well for double checking
figure from the sensors. Sometimes, change in pit level may be detected after the increase in flow
show because it takes more time to accumulate volume enough to be able to detect by pit
sensors.
Continue flowing while the pumps are off When pumps are turned off, bottom hole pressure
will decrease due to loss of equivalent circulating density (ECD). If there is any flow coming
after pumps off, it indicates formation influx into wellbore.
Positive Kick Indicators While Tripping
Trip log deviation such as short fill up while tripping out and excess pit gain while tripping in.
For tripping operation, it is very important to have a filling system via trip tank that provides
continuous hole fill all time. With utilizing that system, we can compare fluid that is filled in or
returned from wellbore with steel volume of tubular (drill pipe, drill collar, BHA, tubing, casing,
etc). If drilling fluid volume is less than theoretical pipe displacement while tripping out or more
return fluid while running in, you need to flow check and monitor the well.
If flow check indicates wellbore influx, crew must quickly shut the well in.
If flow check does not show any influx, drill string must be run back to bottom in order to
circulate at least bottom up to ensure hole condition.
Positive flow when pipe is static. Every time that pipe in static condition. Trip tank with correct
filling system must be monitored all time by both rig personnel and mud logger. If volume in trip
tank increases, personnel must confirm flow check and prepare to shut the well in.

Shut in procedures
For the drilling industry especially when we talk about well control, there are 2 types of shut in
which are Hard Shut-in and Soft Shut-in.
Hard shut in: It means that while drilling choke line valves (HCR) are in the closed position; it
will be opened after the well is shut in. The hard shut-in is the fastest method to shut in the
well; therefore, it will minimize volume of kick allowed into wellbore.
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Soft Shut In: It means that while drilling, the choke line valves (HCR) are in the opened
position. When the well control situation is occurred, you shut in BOP and then close choke
valves to shut in the well. The soft shut in procedure allows fluid to flow through the surface
choke line before the well will be completely shut in. This is the bad part of the soft shut in
procedure because it doesnt minimize the size of the wellbore influx.
The shut in procedure is the company specific procedure. You need to follow your company
policy to shut in the well. Anyway, I personally recommend HARD SHUT IN
PROCEDURE because it allows me to shut well in as quickly as possible and kick volume
entering into a well bore will be minimized. Please also remember that less volume of kick you
have in the well bore, the less problem you will see when you attempt to kill the well.

Shut in pressure interpretation

The equilibrated reservoir pressure measured when all the gas or oil outflow has been shut off.

Shut in drill pipe pressure

Pressure of the drilling fluid on the inside of the drill stem. It is used to measure the difference
between hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure when a well is shut in after a kick and the
mud pump is off and to calculate the required mud-weight increase to kill the well.
Shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP), which is recorded when a well is shut in on a kick, is a
measure of the difference between the pressure at the bottom of the hole and the hydrostatic
pressure (HSP) in the drillpipe. During a well shut-in, the pressure of the wellbore stabilizes, and
the formation pressure equals the pressure at the bottom of the hole. The drillpipe at this time
should be full of known-density fluid. Therefore, the formation pressure can be easily calculated
using the SIDPP. This means that the SIDPP gives a direct of formation pressure during a kick.

Shut-in casing pressure (SICP)

The shut-in casing pressure (SICP) is a measure of the difference between the formation pressure
and the HSP in the annulus when a kick occurs.
The pressures encountered in the annulus can be estimated using the following mathematical
equation:
FP = HSPmud + HSPinflux + SICP
FP = formation pressure (psi)
HSPmud = Hydrostatic pressure of the mud in the annulus (psi)
HSPinflux = Hydrostatic pressure of the influx (psi)

SICP = shut-in casing pressure (psi)

Maximum Initial Shut-In Casing Pressure (MISICP)

Maximum Initial Shut-In Casing Pressure (MISICP) or Maximum allowable shut in casing
pressure is the initial shut-in casing pressure that will exceed formation strength at the casing
shoe resulting in broken formation at the shoe.
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How can we know and calculate the MISICP?

Leak off Test (LOT) will tell you the maximum pressure which the shoe can withstand before breaking
formation at the shoe. The LOT is the combination of surface pressure and hydrostatic pressure therefore
you can apply this principle to calculate the MISICP.
The MISICP formula is listed below:
MISICP, psi = (LOT, ppg Current Mud Weight, ppg) x 0.052 x TVD of shoe, ft
Please see the example demonstrating how to calculate the MISCIP by using the following information:
LOT = 15.0 ppg
Current mud weight = 10.0 ppg
Casing shoe depth = 4526MD/4200TVD
MISICP, psi = (15 10) x 0.052 x 4200
MISICP = 1,092 psi

Adjusted maximum allowable shut-in casing pressure

You calculate the maximum initial shut-in casing pressure (MISICP) based on the original mud
weight before you start drilling ahead. Once you drill deeper, you may increase mud weight.
With new mud weight, you are not able to use the MASICP calculated by the initial weight
because higher mud weight will reduce the MASCIP. The formula below demonstrates you how
to adjust the MASICP with new mud weight.
Adjusted MASICP = Leak off pressure [Shoe TVD x (MW2 MW1)] x 0.052
Where;
Adjusted MASCIP = maximum allowable shut-in casing pressure in psi
Leak off pressure = pressure you get when you perform leak off test in psi
Shoe TVD = true vertical depth of casing shoe in ft
MW2 = current mud weight in ppg
MW1 = original mud weight in ppg
Lets learn about it via this example.
Casing shoe depth is at 5000MD/4500TVD. Leak off test is performed with 9.5 ppg and the
leak off pressure is 1000 psi. The current operation is drilling ahead with 12.0 ppg. Determine
the adjusted MASCIP with current mud weight.
Adjusted MASICP = 1000 [4500 x (12.0 9.5)] x 0.052
Adjusted MASICP = 415 psi

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If you take a kick with 12.0 ppg mud in hole, you maximum allowable surface casing pressure is
only 415 psi.

Bringing the pump to kill speed

Pump pressure, which is also referred to as system pressure loss, is the sum total of all the
pressure losses from the oil well surface equipment, the drill pipe, the drill collar, the drill bit,
and annular friction losses around the drill collar and drill pipe. It measures the system pressure
loss at the start of the circulating system and measures the total friction pressure.
Slow pump pressure (SPP)
Slow pump pressure is the circulating pressure (pressure used to pump fluid through the whole
active fluid system, including the borehole and all the surface tanks that constitute the primary
system during drilling) at a reduced rate. SPP is very important during a well kill operation in
which circulation (a process in which drilling fluid is circulated out of the suction pit, down the
drill pipe and drill collars, out the bit, up the annulus, and back to the pits while drilling
proceeds) is done at a reduced rate to allow better control of circulating pressures and to enable
the mud properties (density and viscosity) to be kept at desired values. The slow pump pressure
can also be referred to as "kill rate pressure" or "slow circulating pressure" or "kill speed
pressure" and so on.
To maintain bottom hole pressure during kill operation, two methods exist. First, by reducing
choke manifold pressure by an amount equal to a known CLFL (adjusting choke manifold
pressure to SICP -CLFL), the effect of the CLFL is negated. This is accomplished by reducing
the original SICP by the amount of CLFL while bringing the pumps to speed. Once kill rate
pressure has been established, the choke operator switches over to the drill pipe gauge and
follows the drill pipe pressure graph in the usual way.

Fig-1

Fig-2

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(Fig-1 description) PUMP AT KILL RATE WITH REDUCED CHOKE MANIFOLD

PRESSURE CHANGE IN BHP = 0 psi increase
Or secondly, given a choke manifold configuration with separate pressure gauges for choke and
kill lines, it is possible to utilize the kill line (shut off down-stream of the gauge outlet to prevent
flow, thus eliminating friction) as a pressure connection to a point upstream of any potential
CLFL (known or unknown). If the kill line gauge in this instance is kept constant while bringing
the pump to speed, the effect of CLFL is eliminated.
Note the advantages of the second method:
1. The gauge reading choke manifold pressure will show a decrease after pump is up to speed.
The amount of this decrease is equal to the CLFL.
2. No pre-calculated or pre-measured CLFL information is required.
3. The kill line gauge can be subsequently used like the choke manifold pressure gauge on a
surface stack for the purposes of altering pump rates or problem analysis.
(Fig-2 description)PUMP AT KILL RATE HOLDING CONSTANT KILL LINE PRESSURE
READING CHANGE IN BHP = 0 psi increase
The pressure provided by the rig pump is the sum of all of the individual pressures in the
circulating systems. All the pressure produced by the pump is expended in this process,
overcoming friction losses between the mud and whatever it is in contact with:
Pressure loss in surface lines
Pressure loss in drill-string
Pressure loss across but jets
Pressure loss in annulus
Pressure losses are independent of hydrostatic and imposed pressures.
Pressure losses in the annulus acts as a back pressure on the exposed formations, consequently
the total pressure at the bottom of the annulus is higher with the pump on than with the pump off.
Circulating bottom hole pressure = Static bottom hole pressure + Annulus pressure losses
The total pressure on bottom can be calculated and converted to an equivalent static mud weight
which exerts the same pressure.
Equivalent Mud Wt (ppg) = (APL + Pmuda) 0.052 TVD
Equivalent Mud Wt E.C.D = Mud Wt in use + APL/(0.052 X TVD)
APL = Annulus Pressure Loss
Pmuda = Hydrostatic Mud Pressure in Annulus
Circulating pressure will be affected if the pump rate or the properties of the fluid being
circulated are changed.

37

OR

Circulating Rig Pump Pressure

Type of influx
You can use influx height to estimate type of influx.
The following equation is used for estimating type of influx:

Note: You can prove the equation by using the U-tube concept.
Influx weight in ppg

Current mud weight in ppg

SICP stands for Shut in Casing Pressure in psi.

Influx height in ft

SIDPP stands for Shut in Drill Pipe Pressure in psi.

Once you know weight of influx, you can compare with these figures below to determine type of
influx.
1 3 ppg most likely gas influx.
3 7 ppg most likely oil kick or combination between gas and oil kick
7 9 ppg most likely water influx

38

With these given information, please determine type of influx.

Shut in casing pressure = 1050 psi
Shut in drill pipe pressure = 750 psi
Height of influx = 450 ft
Current Mud Weight = 14.0 ppg

Influx weight = 1.2 ppg

According to the criteria above, the influx is most likely gas kick.

U-Tube Concept and Importance of U-Tube

We can likely use the behavior of one of the fluid columns to describe behavior regarding what
is happening in another side of fluid column, if two fluid columns are connected at bottom.
Basically, this situation is simply described in common oil filed name as U Tube.
In oil field especially drilling business, U Tube can be considered as a string of pipe (drill pipe
and tubing) is in a wellbore and fluids are able to pass inside of string of pipe (drill pipe and
tubing) and the annulus (area between wellbore and string of pipe). The figure below
demonstrates U Tube in our drilling business.(Fig-1 description)

Fig-1

Fig-2

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Why is U-Tube very important?

It is very vital to keep a basic concept of U-Tube in mind.
If there are two different fluids between inside of string and annulus, fluids always flow from a
higher pressure area to a lower pressure.
If the system is NOT closed, lighter fluid will be flown out and it will be stopped when
system pressure is stabilized (see figure Fig-2).
If the system is closed, pressure must be the same at the bottom point where both sides of Utube are connected. Therefore, drill pipe pressure and casing pressure (annulus pressure) will be
responded based on fluid in each side and formation pressure at bottom hole (see figure below).

Please always remember that U-Tube concept can be widely applied in many drilling and
workover application such as well control, cementing, etc.

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