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IGCSE O-LEVEL PHYSICS

REVISION

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Unit One - Mechanics

Units of some physical quantities:

Quantity

Units

Length

Area

Volume

Mass

Time

/3

Density

Velocity

/ 2

Acceleration

= (. / 2 )

Force / Weight

Spring Constant

Moment

= (. )

Work / Energy

= (/)

Power

. / 2

Momentum / Impulse

= (/2 )

Pressure

Other units of pressure (not to be substituted within rules):

1 . = 76 = 1.013 105 (/2 )

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1 Volume of regular solids:

a) Volume of rectangular block

b) Volume of a sphere of radius

c) Volume of a cylinder of radius and height

4
3

2 The mass of a body is the amount of matter contained in that body and is always constant. It is
measured in by a balance.
3 The density of a substance is the mass per unit volume.

= = =

/3

or /3

4 A vector quantity is that which has magnitude and direction.

Example:
Force
Velocity
Displacement
Acceleration
Moment
A scalar quantity is that which has magnitude only.
Example:
Mass
Length
Time
Temperature
5 Displacement is the distance moved in a given direction.
It is a vector measured in meters. Distance is scalar measured in meters.
The gradient of the distance/time graph gives the speed.
6 Velocity is the displacement moved per unit time. It is also the rate of change of displacement
with time. It is vector measured in m/s.

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7 The average speed:
a) For a whole journey or during certain stage:

b) For a stage of a trip:

( + )

The gradient of the velocity - time graph gives the acceleration.

8 The distance traveled:

= =

9 The acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time.

It is vector measured in / .
=

10 Equations of motion with uniform acceleration:

a) = +

b) = = (
1

+
2

c) = + (2 2 )

d) 2 = 2 + 2

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11 Newtons first law of motion:
A body keeps its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an
external force. The body is then said to be in equilibrium.
a) If the body is at rest, then = 0 and = 0

b) If the body is moving with constant speed, then = and = 0

c) The inertia of a body is its tendency to remain at rest or to be continuing moving with
constant velocity in a straight line. The inertia of a body depends on its mass.

12 Newtons second law of motion:

The resultant force acting on a body is proportional to the acceleration produced in the body.
=
13 Different types of forces:
a) The weight of a body:
It is the gravitational force pulling the body towards the earths center.
=

Where is the acceleration due to gravity or the earths gravitational field.

( = 10 / 2 near the earths surface).
Note:

The value of decreases at far distance from the earths center.

The value of is different at different planets.

b) Frictional force:

It is a force that opposes the motion of the body. It increases with:

Increase of body weight
Increase of roughness of surfaces
Increase of body speed when moving through a fluid.
For a body falling in a fluid with constant terminal velocity:
The upward friction is equal to the body weight. The resultant force is 0.
The velocity of fall is constant and the acceleration is 0.

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c) Reaction force:
According to Newtons third law of motion for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.

d) Centripetal force:
This is the inward force directed towards the
center which is needed to keep the body
moving in a circle with uniform speed .

The centripetal force needed to make the ball

follow a circular path increases when:
The mass of the ball increases
The speed of the ball increases
The radius of the circle is reduced

e) Elastic force:(only in elastic bodies)

Hookes law gives that The extension occurring in an elastic body is directly
proportional to the force producing it ()
=

is the spring constant (stiffness).

Beyond the elastic limit the relation is not direct proportionality and the body becomes
permanently (plastically) deformed or stretched.
2 springs connected in series produce twice extension.
2 springs connected in parallel produce half the extension.

f) Up thrust of a fluid:
Increase of body volume.
Increase of fluid density.
Note:
The body sinks if >

The body floats if <

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14 The moment of a force:
a) It is the turning effect of a force about a fixed pivot. It is calculated as:
=

Where Force is the turning force and Distance is the perpendicular distance between
the pivot and the line of the force.
b) Conditions for equilibrium:
Sum of anticlockwise moments about any point = Sum of clockwise moments
about this point.
1 1 = 2 2

Sum of forces pointing in certain direction = Sum of forces in the opposite

direction.

15 Center of gravity and Stability:

a) The weight of a body acts through its center of gravity.
b) For a regular and uniform body the center of gravity lies on its geometrical center.
c) Stability increases for bodies having:
Large base area
Low center of gravity
d) A body topples if the vertical line of weight vector doesnt pass through the base.

16 Work, Energy and Power:

a) The work done by a force moving a body in its direction certain distance
.
= .

b) The kinetic energy of a body of mass , moving with speed :

1
= 2
2
c) The gravitational potential energy of a body of mass at height above earth:
= =

d) Power is the rate of doing work or consuming energy.

=
=
=

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17 Efficiency of a machine:
=
18 Momentum:

100

=

=
=

= =

19 Principle of conservation of momentum:

1 1 + 2 2 = 1 1 + 2 2
20 Pressure:
a) It is the force acting normally per unit area.

=

b) The pressure produced by a column of fluid of height and density is:

=

c) Pressure of a gas is measured by a liquid manometer.

Pressure of the atmosphere is measured by a mercury barometer.

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Unit Two Thermal Physics

Units of some physical quantities:

Quantity

Units

Heat Energy

Specific Heat Capacity

Thermal Capacity

(/)

Specific Latent Heat

1 Molecular Motion:
Solids
Molecules are very close to each other.
Strong forces of attraction and repulsion.
Molecules vibrate about fixed positions.
Molecules have regular arrangement of ordering.
Liquids
Molecules are further apart.
Forces are weaker than in solids.
Molecules vibrate and move exchanging their positions.
Molecules are not regularly arranged or ordered.
Gases
Molecules are very far apart.
Forces are very weak. (negligible)
Molecules move continuously and randomly in all directions and collide with walls of
container.
2 Brownian motion is the random motion of molecules in gas or liquid in all directions.
The relatively large and slow smoke particles are surrounded
by much smaller and much faster air molecules. Air
molecules bombard the smoke particles randomly from all
directions causing smoke particles to move randomly in a
Brownian motion.

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3 Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a molecule.
4 Pressure of a gas:
Gas molecules bombard the walls of a container and rebound producing an outward force or
pressure on the walls.
5 Evaporation:
It is the change of state from liquid into gas at any temperature below the boiling point. This
occurs by escape of most energetic molecules of a liquid from its surface. It produces a
cooling effect. It increases by:
Rise in temperature.
Large surface area.
Wind or air currents.

6 Temperature Scales:
Lower fixed point: is the temperature of melting of pure ice. (0)
Upper fixed point: is the temperature of steam above pure boiling water. (100)
In the absolute scale ( is in Kelvin)

= +

7 The thermocouple:
It consists of two junctions each made from two
different metals.
One junction is placed at a reference cold medium
0 and the other junction at medium whose
temperature need to be measured.
A voltage is produced and is proportional to the
difference in temperature. A calibrated galvanometer
is used to read the temperature directly.

8 Expansion:
Expansion of a solid rod increases with:
Increase of length of rod.
Rise in temperature.
Increase of expansivity of material ().
Expansion of solids is the least, while expansion of gases is the greatest.

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9 Gas Laws:

Boyles Law

Charles Law

Law of Pressure

1 1 = 2 2

1 2
=
1 2

1 2
=
1 2

Constant T

Constant P

Constant V

General Gas Law:

=

10 Transmission of Heat:
a) Conduction:

Metals are good conductors.

Nonmetals, liquid and gases, are poor conductors of heat.
b) Convection:
This occurs in liquid and gases only. Convection currents occur when we heat from the
bottom or cool from the top. Density of hot fluid is less than density of cold one.
c) Radiation:
This occurs from hot objects to fluids or to vacuum.
Rough black surfaces are:
Good absorbers and emitters.
Bad reflectors.
Shiny white surfaces are:
Bad absorbers and emitters.
Good reflectors.
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11 Heat Energy
a) Specific heat capacity (): It is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 of a material by 1.
When the material is in the same state: Heat gained or lost =

In an experiment to find (): = OR = /

b) Thermal Capacity: It is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of
an object by 1.

Thermal Capacity: = /

c) Specific Latent Heat of fusion ( ): It is the amount of heat energy required to change
1 of a solid to a liquid at the same temperature.
During change of state at constant temperature: =
In an experiment to find ( ): = OR =

d) Specific Latent Heat of vaporization ( ): It is the amount of heat energy required to

change 1 of a liquid to a vapor at the same temperature.
During change of state at constant temperature: =
In an experiment to find ( ): = OR =

e) When hot and cold objects are in contact they exchange heat energy such that:
Heat gained by cold object = Heat lost by hot object
This exchange of heat continues till the two bodies reach the same final equilibrium
temperature.

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Unit Three Atomic Physics

1 The symbol of an element is written as

2 The atomic number :

Number of protons in the nucleus.

Number of electrons around the nucleus.

3 The mass number : The total number of protons and neutrons inside the nucleus.
4 Number of neutrons:

5 Isotopes: These are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
mass number due to different number of neutrons.

6 Ionization: This occurs when the atom gains (negative ion) or loses (positive ion) an electron.

7 Alpha particle (): It is composed of 2 protons + 2 neutrons. It is the same as Helium nucleus.
Heavy, positive and can be absorbed by a sheet of paper.

8 Beta particle (): It is an electron coming out of the nucleus when:

1
0

11 + 10

It has almost no mass, but it is negatively charged, and can be absorbed by 5 of

Aluminum.
9 Gamma ray (): Electromagnetic wave of high energy. It has no mass or charge. Never
completely absorbed. Can be reduced to half by 25 of lead.
10 () Decay:

4
2

+ 42 +

11 () Decay:

+1

+ 10 +

12 () Decay: +
13 G.M. counter: It can detect different types of radiations without differentiation between them.

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14 Tracks of cloud chamber:
Tracks: appear straight and thick.
Tracks: appear thin and curved.

Tracks: appear very short and faint (short dashed)

15 Half-life period:
It is the time taken by the number of radioactive atoms (or mass) of the sample to be
reduced to half its original number.
It is the time taken for the activity of the source to be reduced to half its original value.

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Unit Four Electricity & Magnetism

Units of some physical quantities:

Quantity

Units

Electric charge

Potential difference

Resistance

Electric Energy

KWh

Electric current

Electric Power

1 Magnetism:
a) Like poles repel; unlike poles attract.
b) The magnetic materials are:
Iron
Steel
Cobalt
Nickel
c) Magnetization of a magnet is done by:
Induction
Stroking
Electrically
The North Pole in electric magnetization is determined by the thumb of the right hand.
d) Iron is easily magnetized and easily demagnetized. (Good to make electromagnets).
Steel is hardly magnetized and hardly demagnetized. (Good to make permanent
magnets).
e) The magnetic field is the region around the magnet in which a magnetic force exists.
f) The magnetic flux lines are close where the field is strong. Go from north pole to south
pole. Never cross each other.
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g) Demagnetization is done by:
AC current in a solenoid
Hammering
Heating

2 Electrostatics:
a) Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.
b) Charging is done by:
Rubbing
Contact and Induction
c) When rubbed: Polythene becomes and Perspex becomes +.
d) Attraction or repulsion force increase with:
Increase of charge.
Decrease of distance.

e) Conductors: contain free electrons that easily move to form a current.

Insulators: contain tightly bound electrons, which cannot move to produce a current.
f) Amount of charge on an object is equal to: =

g) Electric field: It is the region around a charged body in which an electric charge
experiences a force.

3 Electric current
a) The current: It is the amount of charge flowing per unit time.

= ()

b) The potential difference: = ()

c) The electromotive force in a circuit:

= ()

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d) The resistance:

()

It increases with increase of wire length.

It increases with decrease of cross-sectional area.
It depends on the material through the resistivity.
It increases with increase in temperature.

e) The Ammeter: measure , connected in series, has low resistance.

f) The Voltmeter: measure , connected in parallel, has high resistance.

g) The electric energy: It is the work done to move a certain charge across a p.d. V.
= = = =

h) The electric power: =

= (Joule or kWh)

= = 2 =

(Watt)

i) Series Connections:
Current is the same in all parts.
= 1 + 2 + 3
= 1 + 2 + 3 (Adding more resistance increases )
j) Parallel Connections:
Voltage is the same in all branches.
= 1 + 2

= 1+2 (Adding more resistance decreases )

1

k) In a potential divider:

4 Magnetic effects of current:

a) Right hand grip rule: is used to get the direction of magnetic field from the direction of a
current producing it.
Thumb = current direction,
Rest of fingers = magnetic field.
Fingers = current direction,
Thumb = magnetic field.
b) For a straight wire: Magnetic field increases with:
Increase of current.
Decrease of distance from the wire.

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c) Fore a solenoid: Magnetic field increases with:
Increase of current
Increase of number of turns of the wire.
Inserting a soft iron bar in the coil.

5 Electric d.c. motor with a commutator:

a) Flemings Left hand rule: When a Current (second finger) is placed perpendicular to a
magnetic field (first finger), a motion is produced in the direction of the thumb.
b) The same rule can be applied to a positive charge moving perpendicular to magnetic
field but the motion is reversed with negative charges.
c) In a motor: we supply d.c. current and magnetic field to get motion.
d) The turning force of a motor is increased by:

Increasing the current in the coil.

Increasing the magnetic field.
Increasing the number of turns of coil.
Using a soft iron core in the coil.

6 Electric a.c. generator with two slip rings:

a) Flemings right-hand rule: When a motion of a wire (thumb) is produced perpendicular to
a magnetic field (first finger), a current (second finger) is induced in the wire.
b) Induced current can also be produced by varying a magnetic field near a solenoid.
(Moving a magnet or varying field produced from an alternating current).
c) In a generator: we supply motion and magnetic field to get a.c. current.
d) The induced emf from a generator is increased by:
Increasing the speed of motion of coil.
Increasing the magnetic field.
Increasing the number of turns of coil.
Using a soft iron core in the coil.

e) The transformers: is used to change a.c. voltage. (Step-up or Step-down).

= and =

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7 Electronic devices:
a) A semiconductor diode rectifier is used to:
Convert a.c. to d.c.
Pass current in one direction.

b) Thermistor: Its resistance decreases with increase in temperature.

c) LDR: Its resistance decrease with increase of light intensity.
d) Logic gates
A logic gate is build up from transistor switches and resistors.

The analogue signal: This is the signal in which the voltage can vary continuously and
smoothly, and can have any value between the lowest and the highest values.
The digital signal: This is the signal which can change only by certain definite values,
usually just on (value = 1) or off (value = 0).

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Unit Five Waves, Sound & Light

Units of some physical quantities:

Quantity

Units

Frequency

or 1

Wavelength

Amplitude

Refractive index

No unit

Magnification

No unit

Wave Velocity

1 One complete oscillation:

It is the motion from one end to the opposite end then returning back to the same point again.

2 The amplitude (a):

This is the maximum displacement of any point on the wave from its undisturbed (equilibrium)
position. It has the unit of meter (m).

3 The frequency (f):

This is the number of vibrations per second made by the source of waves. The unit of the
frequency is Hertz ().

4 The timer period (T):

This is the time taken to produce one complete wave.
1
=

5 The wavelength:
This is the distance between two points on a wave having the same phase. (e.g.) crest or
trough to trough.
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6 The wave speed:
This is the distance moved by the wave in one second.
It depends only on the medium in which the wave is travelling.

7 Longitudinal waves:
In which the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave motion.

8 Transverse waves:
In which the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of the wave motion.

9 General properties of waves:

a) Reflection:
Angle of incidence () is equal to angle of reflection ().
, , f remain unchanged.
b) Refraction:
A wave coming from rare medium into denser medium:
Ray bends towards the normal.
and decrease.
remains unchanged.
c) Diffraction:
It is the bending of wave around edges or when passing from narrow slit. , , f remain
unchanged.

10 Sound waves:
These are longitudinal mechanical waves composed of compressions (high pressure) and
rarefactions (low pressure) and are produced by vibrating objects.
Wave length of sound: It is the distance between 2 successive compressions or 2
successive refractions.
Velocity of sound: = f is constant for each medium thus 1/f.
of sound in:
Gases: 100 to 500
Liquids 1000 to 1500
Solids 3000 to 6000
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Audible: (20 < < 20000), Infrasound ( < 20), Ultrasound ( > 20000).
Echoes: are due to reflection of sound (minimum distance = 17 ).
Pitch: depends on the frequency.

Loudness: depends on amplitude.

For a toothed wheel: = number of teeth number of revolutions / second.
11 Light waves:
These are electromagnetic, transverse waves which travel in vacuum with speed of
3 108 /.
Image in a plane mirror:
1. Virtual
2. Erect
3. Same size
4. Laterally inverted
5. Same distance behind
Refractive index:

=

=

sin( )
1
=
sin( ) sin()

Critical angle:
It is the angle of incidence in denser medium having angle of refraction 90.
Total internal reflection:
It occurs when angle of incidence in denser medium is greater than the critical angle.
Dispersion:
It is the separation of white light into its component colours by a prism.
It occurs because each colour has a different refractive index.
Violet light (shortest ) bends more, toward base. Red light (longest ) bends
less, towards apex.
UV is detected by photographic plates. IR is detected by its heating effect.
12 Converging lenses:
Parallel rays converge to focus of lens.
A ray through optical center is undeviated.
Real images are inverted. Virtual images are erect.

= =
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