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Process
Kenneth Goodman
David Rumelhart
Rayner and Pollatsek
Short Circuits
Teaching Implications
Kenneth Goodman
In the early 1960s Kenneth S. Goodman began studying the
reading of authentic texts by urban and rural young people. His
earliest miscue research, published in 1965, is probably the most
widely replicated study in reading research history. But it was his
article, "Reading: a Psycholinguistic Guessing Game" (1967), that
began a revolution moving away from a view of reading as rapid
accurate sequential word recognition to an understanding of reading
as a process of constructing meaning - making sense - of print. That
research is part of the basis for the whole language movement and
disagreements over his conclusions about the nature of reading fuel
the current "reading wars." (Stenhouse Publishers, 2003)
David Rumelhart
Rumelhart helped develop the field of cognitive science in the
1970s with his work on long term memory and semantic mapping in
the mind. He improved upon Goodmans model by creating a nonsequential model that relies heavily on the use of schemata and topdown processing for explaining understanding.
Schemata:
[can delineate] in a general manner, without limitation to any single
determinate figure as experience, or any possible image that I can
represent in concreto (Kant, 1781).
abstract structure of information (Anderson, 1984)
meanings [encoded] in memory in terms of the typical or normal
situations or events that instantiate the concept (Rumelhart, 1980)
Instantiations:
A schema filled in with default values is called
a prototype. Whereas a schema is an organized abstract framework
of objects and relations, a prototype consists of a specified set of
expectations. A prototype is a highly typical instantiation or instance
of a schema (Langacker, 1987). If the instantiation (example)
matches our schema (idea), we comprehend. If understanding does
not occur, we can infer that the text does not have enough clues, or
that the reader does not have the appropriate schema. Learning
involves creating or changing schemata through:
heart" and "The girl knew the answer was wrong". The minimal
attachment principle leads to a grammatical structure in which "the
answer" is regarded as the direct object of the verb "knew". This
works for the first sentence, but not the second, illustrating the effect
of late closure having a bearing on the grammatical structure.
They also assume that the nature of temporary storage in the
working memory is phonological. Therefore, if comprehension fails,
the inner speech module can replay the message. There is little
mention of details about how meaning is represented.
Though there is a detailed mapping of cognitive processes during
reading, Raynor and Pollatsek also found that good readers are able
to recognise lexical forms at a processing speed faster than the time
required to activate context effects and conscious predicting. Thus,
their theories present a more integrated approach, involving both
bottom-up and top-down processing, as the interactive models,
attempting to be more comprehensive, rigorous and coherent, give
emphasis to the interrelations between the graphic display in the
text, various levels of linguistic knowledge and processes, and
various cognitive activities (Weber, 1984).
(Goodman, 1984)
Teaching Implications
The balance between top-down, and bottom-up processing,
though identified as complimentary, is still somewhat nebulous.
Therefore, much of the recommended teaching practice based on
these theories still centre around exercises that isolate and improve
top-down and bottom-up skills. Patricia Carrell (1987) has
categorised some such exercises:
Bottom-Up Exercises:
Top-Down Exercises: