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m vapor
m total
mg
m f mg
A Af
Ag A f
A Af
A fg
P1v1 P2 v 2
T1
T2
PV nRuT
v = specific volume of gas
m = mass of gas
n = moles
P1v1 RT1
where
V
m
Pv
RT
Pcr
T
TR
Tcr
u
Cv
T v
h
Cp
T p
Cp = Cv + R
k C p Cv
dh C p T dT
du Cv T dT
u u2 u1 Cv T dT
2
h h2 h1 C p T dT
2
u u2 u1 C v T2 T1
For a Solid and liquids
k C p Cv
P2V2 PV
mR
1 1
T2 T1 where n 1
1 n
1 n
h h2 h1 C p T2 T1
dh du CdT
n 1
V2
V2
P1
P1
W12 PV
mRT ln PV
mRT ln
1 1 ln
1 1 ln
V1
V1
P2
P2
Q dE W
FIRST LAW
Qcv E Wcv
1 2
2 12 g 2 1 w12
2
If ( e K 0 e P 0 ) q12 u2 u1 w12
For a process a constant volume w12 0
q12 u2 u1
For a process that there is boundary work only w12 0
q12 u2 u1 w12 h2 h1
q12
Q12
,
m
w12
W12
m
dE cv
1
1
e he e2 g e m
i hi i2 g i W cv
Q cv
m
dt
2
2
dh du d ( Pv ) du vdP
h u Cavg T2 T1
n1
where
For a IDEAL GAS
V
1
V2
q12 u2 u1
Cp > C v
n1
n
T2 P2
T1 P1
Relationship
n 1
nk
n
W12
P2 V1 ,
P1 V2
Afg= Ag Af
Af Property of saturated liquid value
Ag Property of saturated vapor value
Pv RT
PV n C
POLYTROPIC PROCESS
Liquid in a constant
temperature process
1
1
i hi i2 g i m
e he e2 g e W cv
Q cv m
2
2
q12 h1
dh vdP
h vP
where
1
2
q12
2
1
Qcv
,
m
i m
e m
h2
1
2
w12
Wcv
m
2
2
w12
w12 Pdv
(Isobaric Process, closed System)
Thermodynamics (v-09/06/09)
w12 P v2 v1
1
1
1
1
Qcv m i hi i2 g i m e he e2 g e m 2 u2 22 g 2 m1 u1 12 g 1 Wcv
2
2
2
2
cv
S gen S 2 S1 cv me se m i s i
Qsurr
T0
1
1
i hi i2 g i m
e he e2 g e W cv
Q cv m
2
2
2nd law
HEAT EXCHANGER
Q
e se m
i s i surr
S gen m
T0
MIXING CHAMBER
eK 0, eP 0, Wcv 0,
eK 0, eP 0, Wcv 0,
1h1 m
2 h2 m
1 m
2 h3
m
1h1 m
3 h3 m
2 h2 m
4 h4
m
NOZZLE- DIFFUSER
THROTTLING VALVE
eP 0, Wcv 0,
h1 h2
Abrupt change of
h1 h2 T1 T2
1
1
i hi i2 g i m
e he e2 g e W cv
Q cv m
2
2
If adiabatic
Q cv 0
Q cv
The work is done by the system W
cv
If the heat exit from the system
dS
SECOND LAW
Q
T
S gen
T rev
Heat Engine
th
energy sought
energy that costs
COPHP
TH TL
TH
th,rev 1
TL
TH
Q 1 2
T
dS c.m.
1
Q S gen
dt
T
QL
QL
1
W QH QL QH
1
QL
ds
1
dS
i s i Q k 0
m e se m
Tk
dt tot
dt sys
QH
QH
1
W Q H Q L 1 QL
QH
TL
TH TL
1
TH
1
TL
S surr
th,rev
Sc.m. S 2 S1
Q QL
Q
W
H
1 L
QH
QH
QH
Refrigerator COP
R
Heat Pump
TH
TH TL
1
T
1 L
TH
COPR,rev
COPHP ,rev
COPR ,rev
COPHP ,rev
Tds du Pdv
Tds dh vdP
q12 T s2 s1
Thermodynamics v-6/9/09
wc.v . hi he
P
s 2 s1 s 20 s10 R ln 2
P1
P1 Pr1
P2 Pr2
s const
v1 vr1
v2 vr2
s const
for Cp = constant
T2
v
R ln 2
T1
v1
T2
P
s2 s1 C p,avg ln R ln 2
T1
P1
2
e
T2 P2
T1 P1
k 1
k
v
1
v2
e K 0, e P 0
w1-2
q1-2
s
k 1
wrev
wrev Pdv
(CLOSED SYSTEM)
mR
T2 T1 P2V2 P1V1
1 k
1 k
w1-2
(OPEN SYSTEM)
w12
k C p Cv
Pv const
k
W12
2
e
2
i
w pump, in v P2 P1
s2 s1 Cv ,avg ln
P2 v1 V1
P1 v 2 V2
2
i
wc.v . vdP
k 1 k
kRT1 P2
kR
k
1
T1 T2
P1v1 P2v2
k 1
k 1
k 1 P1
wrev
wshaft
wrev vdP
n 1
For optimum operation a
compressor with intercooler
V2
V2
P1
P1
W12 PV
mRT ln PV
mRT ln
1 1 ln
1 1 ln
V
V
P
1
1
2
P2
Px P2 or P P P
x
1 2
P1 Px
S2 S1 cv mi si me se
Qsurr
S gen
T0
dS c.v .
Q
i si m
e se S gen
m
dt
T
OPEN SYSTEM Steady State - Steady Flow
m e se m i si
Q c.v .
S gen
T
Sc.v. m2 s2 m1 s1 c.v.
S surr
Qc.v .
m e s e m i s i
T0
m se si
Qc.v .
S gen
T
Open System Steady State - Steady Flow, single stream and adiabatic
m se si S gen
2nd law
1
1
q hi i2 g i he e2 g e w
2
2
Q c.v .
S gen
c .v . T
s e s i
m
w a h1 h2a
w s h1 h2 s
w s h2 s h1
For a Compressor C
wa h2a h1
wt
For a Cooler Compressor C
(isothermal efficiency)
C
wa
For a Turbine
w s v P2 P1
wa
h2a h1
Thermodynamics V-6/9/09
22a
22s
h1 h2a
h1 h2 s
3
EXERGY
X E U 0 P0 V V0 T0 S S 0
Change exergy
X X 2 X 1 E 2 E1 P0 V2 V1 T0 S 2 S1
2 12
g 2 1
2 1 u2 u1 P0 v 2 v1 T0 s2 s1 2
2
2 12
g 2 1
2 1 h2 h1 T0 s2 s1 2
2
By work
X heat
X work
X mass m
Exergy Destroyed
where
X destroyed 0
Closed System
T
W rev 1 2 sys 1 0
Tk
Q k
T
Wrev T0 S2 S1 U 2 U1 P0 V2 V1 1 0
Tk
Qk
Open System
T
ii m
e e 1 0
W rev m
Tk
T
1 2 1 0
W rev m
Tk
T
1 0 Q
T
By mass
W Wrev
Qk
EXERGY TRANSFER
By Heat
Reversible Work
X destroyed T0 S gen I
Qk
If adiabatic
1 2 m
T0 s2 s1 h2 h1
W rev m
NOTE: must apply sign convention for heat (e.g. Heat exit of system is
negative)
Irreversibility (Exergy Destroyed)
EXERGY BALANCE
dS sys
1
dS
I T0 T0 m e se m i s i
Q k
dt
dt
T
tot
k
Closed System
T
X 2 X1 1 0 Qk W P0 V2 V1 T0 S gen
Tk
Rate form dX sys
dt
dVsys
T0
Qk W P0
T0 S gen
dt
k
1 T
Q k W P0 V 2 V1 m m X destroyed
in
out
Rate form
T
dX cv
1 0
dt
Tk
dVcv
Q k W P0
m
X destroyed
m
dt in
out
T
1 T0
k
Q k W m
m
X destrroyed 0
in
out
Q k W m
1 2 X destrroyed 0
q k w 1 2 x destrroyed 0
Wu W Wsurr
where
W Wb
Wu W
where
Wsurr P0 V2 V1
T0 S gen
Wrev 2 1
1
Wu
h2 h1
h2 h1
Interchanger
where
T0 S gen
c 4 3
m
1
h 1 2
h 1 2
m
m
h S2 S1 m
c S 4 S3
S gen m
T0 S gen
3 3
m
1
2 2
m 11 m 2 2
m 11 m
where
3 m
1 m
2
m
T
1 T0
k
T0 S gen
Wu
h h2
1
1
W rev 1 2
1 2
T
1 T0
k
th
th,rev
exergy recovered
descroyed exergy
1
exergy supplied
exergy supplied
Open System
T
X 2 X 1 1 0
Tk
3 s3 m
2 s2 m
1s1
S gen m
COP
COPrev
W Wa
Thermodynamics v-6/9/09
isothermal
TL
b s
qin
ise
o
p
ntr
ic
p
ntr
ise
ico
4
qout
1
v
r
isob
isoc
ico
ric
4
qout
Description
1-2 Isentropic Compression.
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition.
3-4 Isentropic Expansion.
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection.
Efficiency
th, Diesel
th, Diesel
Thermodynamics V-6/9/09
Cutoff ration
qout
2
4
v
cho
ric
qin
ic
bar
iso
aric q
isob
out
Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition.
3-4 Isentropic expansion (turbine).
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection.
Efficiency
th,Brayton
C p T4 T1
w net
q
1 out 1
qin
qin
C p T3 T2
th, Brayton 1
T T T 1
w
q
T T
net 1 out 1 4 1 1 1 4 1
qin
qin
k T3 T2
kT2 T3 T2 1
v k
3 1
1
v2
1
k 1
v1 k v3 1
v
v2 2
T
ic
op
ntr
v
r 1
v2
k 1
v1
v2
qin
ise
th,Otto 1
TL
TH
BRAYTON CYCLE
opi
ntr
al
4
qout
DIESEL CYCLE
qin
rm
the
iso
iso
qout 3
Description
1-2 Isothermal expansion (heat addition)
2-3 Isobaric regeneration (internal heat transfer).
3-4 Isothermal compression (heat rejection).
4-1 Isobaric regeneration (internal heat transfer)
Efficiency
ic
hor
ise
T1 T4 T1 1
T2 T3 T2 1
tion
c
ori
ch
w net
q
T T1
1 out 1 4
q in
q in
T3 T2
th,Otto 1
era
4
qout
iso
Regeneration
TL
2
v
qin
TH
al
rm
qout
qin
v
Description
1-2 Isentropic compression.
2-3 Constant volume heat addition.
3-4 Isentropic Expansion.
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection.
Efficiency
th,Otto
en
ic
g
Re
ntro
trop
T
qin
the
isen
qout 3
4
iso
TL
mal
ERICSSON CYCLE
T
pic
Regeneration
OTTO CYCLE
ise
Description
1-2 Isothermal Expansion (heat addition)
2-3 Isochoric regeneration (internal heat transfer).
3-4 Isothermal compression (heat rejection).
4-1 Isochoric regeneration (internal heat transfer)
w
q
T s s
T
th,Carnot net 1 out 1 L 2 1 1 L
q in
q in
TH s 2 s1
TH
qin
ratio
her
qout
Description
1-2 isothermal process.
2-3 Adiabatic process.
3-4 Reversible isothermal process.
4-1 Reversible adiabatic process.
Efficiency
P 3
isot
ene
qout
a
Reg
TH
ba
isothermal
rma
iso
ic
qout
TL
qin
ric
TH
b at
herm
al
the
ba
adia
isot
iso
iso
TH
2
tic
qin
iso
rm
al
qin
adiabatic
adiaba
iso
th e
qin
P 1
ric
adiabatic
iso
cho
CARNOT CYCLE
ric
IDEAL CYCLES
T1 T4 T1 1
T2 T3 T2 1
th, Brayton 1
P2
P1
k 1
Win
Wout
v
rc 3
v2
qout
qin
Nozzle
Combustion
chamber
2
w net 0
4
3
qin
wnet
Turbine
Compressor
wcomp w turb
aric
Turbine
Compressor
b
iso
qin
Diffuser
Combustion
chamber
Regenerator
6
isob
qout
aric
1
5
h3 h2 h4 h5 and h5 h6 1 62
2
qin
ge
Re
ne
in
c
ra
qregen,ideal h5 h2 h4 h2
qregen,actual
qregen,ideal
h h2
5
h4 h2
qin
wout
Efficiency
T T2
5
T4 T2
qin
Pump (q = 0)
Combustion
chamber
Reheating
qin
where
Turbine
I
Compressor
II
qout
wnet
Turbine
II
2
3
Analysis
Efficiency
th, Rankine
Regenerator
Heat exchanger
win
v
Description
1-2 Isentropic Compression (Pump)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition (Boiler).
3-4 Isentropic expansion (Turbine).
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection (Condenser).
k 1
T
th,regen, Brayton 1 1 rp k
T3
10
wout
qout 4
qin
win
Compressor
I
aircraft
RANKINE CYCLE
T
qout
qout
inlet
in
Effectiveness of regenerator
exit
qin
aircraft
qregen,actual h5 h2
4
v
Description
Actual regeneration
1 q
out 6
exit m
inlet m
exit inlet
F m
F
Propulsive power W
m
Thrust
w pump,in h2 h1
h1 h f @ P1
and
or
w pump ,in v P2 P1
v v1 v f @ P1
qin h3 h2
Turbine (q = 0); qout h4 h1
Boiler w = 0;
Intercooler
qout
T
qin
qin
qregen7
9
3
10
3
qout
qout
s
Optimum operation
P2 P4
P1 P3
and
P6 P8
h5 h4
,
P7 P9
h9 h4
Thermodynamics v-6/9/09
qin h5 h4
qout 1 y h7 h1
wturb,out h5 h6 1 y h6 h7
w pumpI,in v1 P2 P1 w pumpII,in v3 P4 P3
4
iso
qout
rm
al
atic
3
Ad i
qin
TH
TL
ic
herm
al
t
aba
isot
TH
T
2 L
qout
isothermal
Adiabatic
Adiab
T
the
Adiabatic
where
isothermal
qin
v
Description
1-2 Reversible Isothermal process.
2-3 Isentropic process.
3-4 Reversible isothermal process.
4-1 Isentropic process.
Efficiency
COPR ,Carnot
Cogeneration
P
1
TH
1
TL
COPHP ,Carnot
1
T
1 L
TH
qout
4 4 qin
qout
win
win
4'
qin
Utilization factor
Wnet Q process
Thermodynamics V-6/9/09
Qin
1
s
Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (Compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in a (condenser).
3-4 Throttling in a expansion device.
4-1 Constant pressure head absorption (Evaporator)
Efficiency
COPR
qin
h h
1 4
w net ,in h2 h1
COPHP
qout
h h
2 3
w net ,in h2 h1
kJ/kg
hdry air C p,a T 1.005 kJ/kgC T
kJ/kg
hdry air C p,aT 0.24 Btu/lbmF T
Btu/lbm
hdry air C p,a T 0.24 Btu/lbmF T Btu/lbm
hdry air C p,aT 1.005 kJ/kgC T
mv Pv
m g Pg
where Pg = Psat @ T
Pa P Pg
Therefore
P
0.622 Pg
and
0.622Pg
P Pg
Adiabatic Saturation
Tdp Tsat@ Pv
hv T , low P hg T hg @T
Approximation
hv 2500.9 1.82T
kJ/kg
C p T2 T1 2 h fg2
hg1 h f2
0.622 Pg2
P2 Pg2
m
H
ha v hv ha hv c p,aT hg@ T
ma
ma
or with approximation
kJ/kga
C p Twb Tdb 2 h fg 2
hg1 h f2
0.622 Pg2
P2 Pg2
since 2 = 100%
Process
h c p,a c p,v T
h 1.005 1.876 T
kJ/kga
h 0.24 0.444 T
Btu/lbma
Mass Balance
m
v
ma
Dry air
out
Water vapor
m m
v
in
out
or
m m
a
in
out
st
1 law
Thermodynamics (v-09/06/09)
in
mv PvV RvT Ra Pv
ma PaV RaT Rv Pa
RP
0.287 Pv
P
a v
0.622 v
Rv Pa 0.4615 Pa
Pa
m m
h Q out W out m
h
Q in W in m
or
0.622 Pv
P Pv
in
out
Evaporative Cooling
Twb const.
h const.
1 2
1
2
ma1
ma2
T2
a1 m
a2 m
a
m
ma1 1 ma2 2 mw
mh q
out
T1
mw ma 1 2
2 3 h2 h3
3 1 h3 h1
h3 C pT3 3hg3
Cooling Tower
mh
in
out
ma h1 qout ma h2 mw hw
Heating with Humidifying
m h m h
i
First Law
m h m h
in
out
w hw m
a h2 m
a h3
m
3 2 hw h2 h3
3 2 hg @T h2 h3
e e
a1 h1 m
3h3 m
a2 h2 m
4 h4
m
4 m
3 m
makeup
m
and
a1 m
a2 m
a
m
a h2 h1 m
3h3 m
3 m
makeuph4
m
h3 h f @T3
and
h4 h f @T4
Thermodynamics V-6/9/09