Semester Examination

B. Tech (Mechanical) (Semester-V)

Dynamics of Machines (BTME503)
Q.1 Enumerate the characteristics of Centrifugal Governors
ANS:- A centrifugal governor is a specific type of governor with a feedback system that
controls the speed of an engine by regulating the amount of fuel (or working fluid) admitted, so
as to maintain a near-constant speed, irrespective of the load or fuel-supply conditions. It uses the
principle of proportional control.It was invented in 1788 by James Watt to control his steam
engine where it regulates the admission of steam into the cylinder(s). Its widest use was on steam
engines during the Steam Age in the 19th century. It is also found on internal combustion engines
and variously fueled turbines, and in some modern striking clocks The devices shown are on
steam engines. Power is supplied to the governor from the engine's output shaft by a belt or chain
connected to the lower belt wheel. The governor is connected to a throttle valve that regulates the
flow of working fluid (steam) supplying the prime mover. As the speed of the prime mover
increases, the central spindle of the governor rotates at a faster rate and the kinetic energy of the
balls increases. This allows the two masses on lever arms to move outwards and upwards against
gravity. If the motion goes far enough, this motion causes the lever arms to pull down on a thrust
bearing, which moves a beam linkage, which reduces the aperture of a throttle valve. The rate of
working-fluid entering the cylinder is thus reduced and the speed of the prime mover is
controlled, preventing over-speeding.Mechanical stops may be used to limit the range of throttle
motion, as seen near the masses in the image at right. A limitation of the two-arm, two-ball
governor is its reliance on gravity, and that the governor must stay upright relative to the surface
of the Earth for gravity to retract the balls when the governor slows down.Governors can be built
that do not use gravitational force, by using a single straight arm with weights on both ends, a
center pivot attached to a spinning axle, and a spring that tries to force the weights towards the
center of the spinning axle. The two weights on opposite ends of the pivot arm counterbalance
any gravitational effects, but both weights use centripetal force to work against the spring and
attempt to rotate the pivot arm towards a perpendicular axis relative to the spinning axle.Springretracted non-gravitational governors are commonly used in single-phase alternating current
(AC) induction motors to turn off the starting field coil when the motor's rotational speed is high
enough.They are also commonly used in snowmobile and all-terrain vehicle (ATV) continuously
variable transmissions (CVT), both to engage/disengage vehicle motion and to vary the
transmission's pulley diameter ratio in relation to the engine revolutions per minute. The
centrifugal governor is often used in the cognitive sciences as an example of a dynamic system,
in which the representation of information cannot be clearly separated from the operations being
applied to the representation. And, because the governor is a servomechanism, its analysis in a
dynamic system is not trivial. In 1868, James Clerk Maxwell wrote a famous paper "On

governors"[3] that is widely considered a classic in feedback control theory. Maxwell

distinguishes moderators (a centrifugal brake) and governors which control motive power input.
He considers devices by James Watt, Professor James Thomson, Fleeming Jenkin, William
Thomson, Lon Foucault and Carl Wilhelm Siemens (a liquid governor).In a largely overlooked
passage from his famous 1858 paper to the Linnean Society (which led Darwin to publish On the
Origin of Species), Alfred Russel Wallace says of the evolutionary principle:The action of this
principle is exactly like that of the centrifugal governor of the steam engine, which checks and
corrects any irregularities almost before they become evident; and in like manner no unbalanced
deficiency in the animal kingdom can ever reach any conspicuous magnitude, because it would
make itself felt at the very first step, by rendering existence difficult and extinction almost sure
soon to follow[4]The cybernetician and anthropologist Gregory Bateson would observe in the
1970s that though seeing it only as an illustration, Wallace had "probably said the most powerful
thing thatd been said in the 19th century".[5] Bateson revisited the topic in his 1979 book Mind
and Nature: A Necessary Unity, and other scholars have continued to explore the connection
between natural selection and systems theory.
Q.2 Discuss the balancing of Internal Combustion Engines

ANS:- Engine balance refers to those factors in the design, production, engine tuning,
maintenance and the operation of an engine that benefit from being balanced. Major
considerations are:

Balancing of structural and operational elements within an engine

Longevity and performance

Power and efficiency

Performance and weight/size/cost

Environmental cost and utility

Noise/vibration and performanceThis article is currently limited to structural and operational

balance within an engine in general, and balancing of piston engine components in particular.
Piston engine balancing is a complicated subject that covers many areas in the design,
production, tuning and operation. The engine considered to be well balanced in a particular usage
may produce unacceptable level of vibration in another usage for the difference in driven mass
and mounting method, and slight variations in resonant frequencies of the environment and
engine parts could be big factors in throwing a smooth operation off balance. In addition to the
vast areas that need to be covered and the delicate nature, terminologies commonly used to
describe engine balance are often incorrectly understood and/or poorly defined not only in casual

discussions but also in many articles in respected publications.Internal combustion piston

engines, by definition, are converter devices to transform energy in intermittent combustion into
energy in mechanical motion. A slider-crank mechanism is used in creating a chemical reaction
on fuel with air (compression and ignition), and converting the energy into rotation (expansion).
The intermittent energy source combined with the nature of this mechanism make the engine
naturally vibration-prone. Multi-cylinder configuration and many of the engine design elements
are reflections of the effort to reduce vibrations through the act of balancinThere are many
factors that can contribute to engine imbalance, and there are many ways to categorize them. The
following categories will be used for the purposes of this discussion. In the category descriptions,
'Phase' refers to the timing on the rotation of crankshaft, 'Plane' refers to the location on the crankshaft rotating axis,
and 'CG' refers to the center of gravity.Static

Balance - Static balance refers to the balancing of weight

and the location of CG on moving parts.Reciprocating mass - e.g. Piston and connecting rod
weight and CG uniformity.Rotating mass - e.g. Crank web weight uniformity and flywheel
eccentricity (or lack thereof)Dynamic Balance - In order for a mass to start moving from rest or
change direction, it needs to be accelerated. A force is required to accelerate a mass. According
to Newton's 3rd law of motion, there will be a counter force in the opposite direction of equal
size. Dynamic balance refers to the balancing of these forces and forces due to friction.All
accelerations of a mass can be divided into two components in opposite directions. For example,
in order for a piston in a single cylinder engine to be accelerated upward, something must receive
(support) the downward force, and it is usually the mass of the entire engine that moves
downward a bit as there is no counter-moving piston. This means one cause of engine vibration
usually appears in two opposing directions. Often the movement or deflection in one direction
appears on a moving mass, and the other direction appears on the entire engine, but sometimes
both sides appear on moving parts, e.g. a torsional vibration in a crankshaft, or a push-pull cyclic
stress in a chain or connecting rod. In other cases, one side is a deflection of a static part, the
energy of which is converted into heat and dissipated into the coolant. Reciprocating mass Piston mass needs to be accelerated and decelerated, resisting a smooth rotation of a crankshaft.
In addition to the up-down movement of a piston, a connecting rod big end swings left and right
and up and down while it rotates. In order to simplify the motion of a crank slider mechanism,
the connecting rod/piston assembly is generally divided into two mass groups, a reciprocating
mass, and a rotating mass. The big end of the rod is generally said to be rotating while the small
end is said to be reciprocating. In truth, however, both ends both reciprocate and rotate.
Q. 3 Explain the Gyroscopic Stabilization of Airplanes

ANS: A gyroscope (from Ancient Greek gros, "circle" and skop, "to look") is
a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself.
When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting,
according to the conservation of angular momentum. Because of this, gyroscopes are useful for
measuring or maintaining orientation.[1][2]Gyroscopes based on other operating principles also
exist, such as the electronic, microchip-packaged MEMS gyroscopes found in consumer

electronics devices, solid-state ring lasers, fibre optic gyroscopes, and the extremely sensitive
quantum gyroscope.[citation needed]Applications of gyroscopes include inertial navigation systems
where magnetic compasses would not work, as in the Hubble telescope, or inside the steel hull of
a submerged submarine, or would not be precise enough. Due to their precision, gyroscopes are
also used in gyrotheodolites to maintain direction in tunnel mining.[3] Gyroscopes can be used to
construct gyrocompasses, which complement or replace magnetic compasses (in ships, aircraft
and spacecraft, vehicles in general), to assist in stability (Hubble Space Telescope, bicycles,
motorcycles, and ships) or be used as part of an inertial guidance system. However, it should be
mentioned that Dr. Robert E. Klein of the Mechanical Engineering Dept., University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, showed conclusively, by a sequence of experiments, that gyroscopic action
is not needed for the stability of a bicycle A gyroscope is a wheel mounted in two or three
gimbals, which are a pivoted supports that allow the rotation of the wheel about a single axis. A
set of three gimbals, one mounted on the other with orthogonal pivot axes, may be used to allow
a wheel mounted on the innermost gimbal to have an orientation remaining independent of the
orientation, in space, of its support. In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the outer
gimbal, which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane
determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of rotational freedom and its
axis possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal) so as to
pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the
gyroscope frame (outer gimbal). This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom.The
axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor is constrained to spin about an axis,
which is always perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. So the rotor possesses three
degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied
to the input axis by a reaction force to the output axis.The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most
easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away
from the vertical so that the top of the wheel moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel also
turns to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the
third axis.A gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether
the output gimbals are of a free- or fixed- configuration. Examples of some free-output-gimbal
devices would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll and
yaw attitude angles in a spacecraft or aircraft.[citation needed]Animation of a gyro wheel in actionThe
centre of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position. The rotor simultaneously spins about one
axis and is capable of oscillating about the two other axes, and, thus, except for its inherent
resistance due to rotor spin, it is free to turn in any direction about the fixed point. Some
gyroscopes have mechanical equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements. For
example, the spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being pivotally mounted in
gimbals. A control moment gyroscope (CMG) is an example of a fixed-output-gimbal device that
is used on spacecraft to hold or maintain a desired attitude angle or pointing direction using the
gyroscopic resistance force.In some special cases, the outer gimbal (or its equivalent) may be
omitted so that the rotor has only two degrees of freedom. In other cases, the centre of gravity of

the rotor may be offset from the axis of oscillation, and, thus, the centre of gravity of the rotor
and the centre of suspension of the rotor may not coincide.
Q. 4

Write a detail note on the different types of Damping.

ANS:- Damping, in physics, restraining of vibratory motion, such as mechanical

oscillations, noise, and alternating electric currents, by dissipation of energy. Unless
a child keeps pumping a swing, its motion dies down because of damping. Shock
absorbers in automobiles and carpet pads are examples of damping devices.A
system may be so damped that it cannot vibrate. Critical damping just prevents
vibration or is just sufficient to allow the object to return to its rest position in the
shortest period of time. The automobile shock absorber is an example of a critically
damped device. Additional damping causes the system to be overdamped, which
may be desirable, as in some door closers. The vibrations of an underdamped
system gradually taper off to zero.There are many types of mechanical damping.
Friction, also called in this context dry, or Coulomb, damping, arises chiefly from the
electrostatic forces of attraction between the sliding surfaces and converts
mechanical energy of motion, or kinetic energy, into heat.Viscous damping is
caused by such energy losses as occur in liquid lubrication between moving parts or
in a fluid forced through a small opening by a piston, as in automobile shock
absorbers. The viscous-damping force is directly proportional to the relative velocity
between the two ends of the damping device.The motion of a vibrating body is also
checked by its friction with the gas or liquid through which it moves. The damping
force of the fluid in this case is directly proportional to a quantity slightly less than
the square of the bodys velocity and, hence, is referred to as velocity-squared
damping.Besides these external kinds of damping, there is energy loss within the
moving structure itself that is called hysteresis damping or, sometimes, structural
damping. In hysteresis damping, some of the energy involved in the repetitive
internal deformation and restoration to original shape is dissipated in the form of
random vibrations of the crystal lattice in solids and random kinetic energy of the
molecules in a fluid.here are other types of damping. Resonant electric circuits, in
which an alternating current is surging back and forth, as in a radio or television
receiver, are damped by electric resistance. The signal to which the receiver is
tuned supplies energy synchronously to maintain resonance.In radiation damping,
vibrating energy of moving charges, such as electrons, is converted to
electromagnetic energy and is emitted in the form of radio waves or infrared or
visible light.In magnetic damping, energy of motion is converted to heat by way of
electric eddy currents induced in either a coil or an aluminum plate (attached to the
oscillating object) that passes between the poles of a magnet. Damper is a generic
term used to identify any mechanism used for vibration energy absorption, the shaft
vibration suppression, soft start and overload protection device. In order to design
an efficient damper, it is imperative that the damping torque is calculated first.
Damping torque or damping forces is the speed deviation of an electromechanical
torque deviations of a machine while the angle deviation is called synchronizing

torque [1].In a measuring instrument, the damping torque is necessary to bring the
moving system to rest to indicate steady reflection in a reasonable short time.It
exists only as long as the pointer is in motion.Under the absence of damping torque
the pointer oscillates for a short period of time and comes to steady position and
this situation is called under damping. If the damping force is too large, then the
pointer will come to rest slowly and this is called as over damping.
Q. 7

What is the effect of Damping on Vibrations? Elucidate.

ANS:- Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium

point. The word comes from Latin vibrationem ("shaking, brandishing"). The oscillations may be
periodic, such as the motion of a pendulumor random, such as the movement of a tire on a
gravel road.Vibration can be desirable: for example, the motion of a tuning fork, the reed in a
woodwind instrument or harmonica, a mobile phone, or the cone of a loudspeaker.In many cases,
however, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted sound. For example,
the vibrational motions of engines, electric motors, or any mechanical device in operation are
typically unwanted. Such vibrations could be caused by imbalances in the rotating parts, uneven
friction, or the meshing of gear teeth. Careful designs usually minimize unwanted vibrations.The
studies of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound, or pressure waves, are generated by
vibrating structures (e.g. vocal cords); these pressure waves can also induce the vibration of
structures (e.g. ear drum). Hence, attempts to reduce noise are often related to issues of vibration.
Free vibration occurs when a mechanical system is set in motion with an initial input and
allowed to vibrate freely. Examples of this type of vibration are pulling a child back on a swing
and letting go, or hitting a tuning fork and letting it ring. The mechanical system vibrates at one
or more of its natural frequencies and damps down to motionlessness.Forced vibration is when
a time-varying disturbance (load, displacement or velocity) is applied to a mechanical system.
The disturbance can be a periodic and steady-state input, a transient input, or a random input.
The periodic input can be a harmonic or a non-harmonic disturbance. Examples of these types of
vibration include a washing machine shaking due to an imbalance, transportation vibration
caused by an engine or uneven road, or the vibration of a building during an earthquake. For
linear systems, the frequency of the steady-state vibration response resulting from the application
of a periodic, harmonic input is equal to the frequency of the applied force or motion, with the
response magnitude being dependent on the actual mechanical system.Damped vibration: When
the energy of a vibrating system is gradually dissipated by friction and other resistances, the
vibrations are said to be damped. The vibrations gradually reduce or change in frequency or
intensity or cease and the system rests in its equilibrium position.Vibration testing is
accomplished by introducing a forcing function into a structure, usually with some type of
shaker. Alternately, a DUT (device under test) is attached to the "table" of a shaker. Vibration
testing is performed to examine the response of a device under test (DUT) to a defined vibration
environment. The measured response may be fatigue life, resonant frequencies or squeak and
rattle sound output (NVH). Squeak and rattle testing is performed with a special type of quiet
shaker that produces very low sound levels while under operation.For relatively low frequency

forcing, servohydraulic (electrohydraulic) shakers are used. For higher frequencies,

electrodynamic shakers are used. Generally, one or more "input" or "control" points located on
the DUT-side of a fixture is kept at a specified acceleration.[1] Other "response" points experience
maximum vibration level (resonance) or minimum vibration level (anti-resonance). It is often
desirable to achieve anti-resonance to keep a system from becoming too noisy, or to reduce strain
on certain parts due to vibration modes caused by specific vibration frequencies .[2]The most
common types of vibration testing services conducted by vibration test labs are Sinusoidal and
Random. Sine (one-frequency-at-a-time) tests are performed to survey the structural response of
the device under test (DUT). A random (all frequencies at once) test is generally considered to
more closely replicate a real world environment, such as road inputs to a moving
automobile.SMost vibration testing is conducted in a 'single DUT axis' at a time, even though
most real-world vibration occurs in various axes simultaneously. MIL-STD-810G, released in
late 2008, Test Method 527, calls for multiple exciter testing. The vibration test fixture used to
attach the DUT to the shaker table must be designed for the frequency range of the vibration test
spectrum. Generally for smaller fixtures and lower frequency ranges, the designer targets a
fixture design that is free of resonances in the test frequency range. This becomes more difficult
as the DUT gets larger and as the test frequency increases. In these cases multi-point control
strategies can mitigate some of the resonances that may be present in the future. Devices
specifically designed to trace or record vibrations are called vibroscopes.