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http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.precisioneng.2016.05.010
PRE 6407
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Precision Engineering
Received date:
Revised date:
Accepted date:
17-1-2016
14-4-2016
21-5-2016
Please cite this article as: Marashi Houriyeh, Jafarlou Davoud M, Sarhan Ahmed AD,
Hamdi Mohd.State of the art in powder mixed dielectric for EDM applications.Precision
Engineering http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2016.05.010
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Corresponding Authors:
Houriyeh Marashi,
Address: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of
Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
E-mail: houriyeh@marashi.co,
Tel: 0060133730989
Ahmed A. D. Sarhan,
Address: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of
Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
E-mail: ah_sarhan@yahoo.com,
Tel: 0060379674593
Highlights
Abstract
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a non-conventional machining technique for
removing material based on the thermal impact of a series of repetitive sparks occurring
between the tool and workpiece in the presence of dielectric fluid. Since the machining
characteristics are highly dependent on the dielectrics performance, significant
attention has been directed to modifying the hydrocarbon oil properties or introducing
alternative dielectrics to achieve higher productivity. This article provides a review of
dielectric modifications through adding powder to dielectric. Utilizing powder mixed
dielectric in the process is called powder mixed EDM (PMEDM). In order to select an
appropriate host dielectric for enhancing machining characteristics by adding powder, a
brief background is initially provided on the performance of pure dielectrics and their
selection criteria for PMEDM application follow by powder mixed dielectric thoroughly
review. Research shows that PMEDM facilitates producing parts with predominantly
high surface quality. Additionally, some studies indicate that appropriate powder
selection increases machining efficiency in terms of material removal rate. Therefore,
the role of powder addition in the discharge characteristics and its influence on
machining output parameters are explained in detail. Furthermore, by considering the
influence of the main thermo-physical properties and concentration of powder particles,
2
Capacitance
Discharge energy
FP
Current
Ia
Average current
Id
Discharge current
Ra
Rz
td
Discharge duration
tdelay
toff
ton
Pulse on time
tp
Pulse duration
Breakdown voltage
Discharge voltage
Voltage
Abbreviations
AJM
ECM
Electrochemical machining
EDM
Gr
Graphite
MQL
MRR
PMEDM
SQ
Surface quality
SR
Surface roughness
TWR
Greek symbols
0
Relative permittivity,
Dielectric constant
Introduction
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) was established over sixty years ago by Doctors
B. R. and N. I. Lazarenko as a rudimentary die-sinking machine initially employed for
stock removal [1]. Nowadays, EDM is implemented in various industrial fields, such as
die and mold, aerospace and biomedicine. The outstanding capabilities of this technique
include the ability to machine high-hardness conductive materials and produce complex
geometrical shapes, it involves a simple tool-making process and eliminates the
mechanical stress and chatter phenomena [2]. Despite the advantages, tool wear,
relatively low material removal rate (MRR) and its adverse effects on surface quality
limit EDM application. Adding powder to dielectric, namely powder mixed electrical
discharge machining (PMEDM), is an effective means of enhancing EDM performance
owing to different spark attributes.
Since PMEDM was introduced in 1980 [3], researchers have focused on improving the
machining performance or introducing new PMEDM capabilities like surface
modification to ultimately facilitate unique development for commercialization.
Although several studies evaluate the PMEDM advancements over the years [2, 3], no
review article emphasizes material, size and powder concentration. To fill this gap, an
organized review of PMEDM is provided. First, the spark formation mechanism in
conventional EDM as well as important input and performance parameters are
reviewed. Second, the significance of dielectric for EDM machining characteristics is
discussed. A detailed review of various dielectric categories for PMEDM applications is
presented, since the base medium (for hosting the powder) needs to be selected initially.
Third, the role of powder addition in spark characteristics followed by the influence of
time denotes the time until the jump operation takes place to control the opening/closing
of the discharge gap [12]. The electrodes reciprocating speed is considered when the
electrode performs machining with reciprocating motion (back-and-forth).
MRR in EDM is directly related to the economic aspect of production and is considered
the highest priority [5]. MRR reflects the process operational speed and is defined in
two ways, as the volume [13] or weight [14] of material removed from the workpiece
over the machining time.
The machined surface quality is evaluated according to roughness, waviness and flaws.
Among these, surface roughness measurement is the most widely employed technique
and is commonly expressed as the average surface roughness (Ra). Ra is the average
deviation from the mean surface by calculating the arithmetic average deviation of the
ordinates of profile height increments from the centerline of that surface [15].
Tool wear rate (TWR) is another performance measure that decreases EDM efficiency
by increasing tool production cost and deteriorating produced component accuracy due
to end, side and corner wear [16]. TWR is defined as the material weight [17] or volume
[18] removed from the tool over the machining time. Moreover, to assess the
simultaneous effect of MRR and TWR, tool wear ratio is introduced as TWR/MRR [3].
Fig. 2 schematically shows the current and voltage waveform for a single spark during
the EDM process. Most electrical parameters affect the MRR mainly through discharge
energy ( ) and pulse signal frequency ( ). is the mean value of electrical energy
per one impulse, which is converted into heat and is expressed as [19]:
= 0 () () =
. .
(1)
7
where td, U and Id are discharge duration, voltage and current, and variables u(t) and i(t)
indicate the instantaneous voltage and current, respectively.
Selecting proper machining conditions leads to instantaneous electrical discharge and is
independent from other electrical values. In this case, the ignition delay time (tdelay) can
be neglected, thus the discharge duration td is equal to the pulse duration or pulse on
time (ton) and expressed as [19]:
= . .
(2)
Eq. 2 indicates higher spark energy with the increase of either U, Id or ton, which
subsequently leads to higher MRR, TWR and surface roughness due to higher energy
impacting both the tool and workpiece.
Besides , the pulse frequency, , is another factor representing the contribution of
electrical parameters and is defined as follows:
=
(3)
The dielectric medium fills the machining gap and acts as a spark conductor to maintain
the machining gap, ensure stable operation, cool and quench the workpiece and
electrode surface, and flush debris particles from the gap [22]. To accomplish these
duties, the dielectric should have certain specifications, such as adequate electrical
discharge efficiency and viscosity, suitable oxidation stability, high flash point,
minimum odor and low cost [23]. In order to select a suitable combination of powder
and dielectric, a background of plain dielectrics that initially need to be selected is
provided in this section. The dielectric that will host the powder can be in the form of
liquid, gas or a mixture of liquid and gas. Therefore, a variety of dielectric categories
and their performance are concisely described in this section. At last, the dielectric
selection criteria for PMEDM application is considered in section 3.5.
3.1
Hydrocarbon oil
Hydrocarbon oil dielectrics, such as mineral oils, kerosene, mineral seal and transformer
oil as the basic dielectric types are still the most common die-sinking EDM dielectrics
[24]. There is extensive evidence that hydrocarbon oils are generally more efficient than
deionized/distilled water in die-sink applications [25], since they offer smaller spark
gaps, facilitating machining of more sensitive shapes [26]. In addition, hydrocarbon oils
offer no corrosion, an easier purifying process and higher aging resistance compared
with water dielectric [26]. However, oil-based dielectric poses fire hazards and a variety
of substances are released by their thermal decomposition including benzene (C6H6) and
benzopyrene (C20H12), which are carcinogenic [25]. These problems and the significant
influence of dielectric on performance parameters highlight the necessity to use
9
alternative dielectrics. In this regard, various alternatives have been proposed and are
summarized in Fig. 3.
The decomposition of hydrocarbon oil dielectrics through machining releases carbonbased compositions that cause gap pollution and spark instability. Nonetheless,
increasing carbon content in the gap is not always a drawback. Mohri, Fukuzawa [59]
took advantage of this phenomenon and introduced a new method for EDM of
insulating ceramics using kerosene as dielectric by placing a metal plate on the top
surface of the insulator ceramic workpiece as an assisting electrode. Electrical
conductive compounds involving decomposed carbon from the dielectric generated on
ceramic surfaces maintain the workpiece surface electrical conductivity during
machining. In the past decades, this method has gained popularity for machining
insulator ceramics which was reviewed in detail by Schubert, Zeidler [60].
3.2
Water
10
spark forms a relatively smaller crater with deionized water due to the re-solidification
of most molten material [31].
Kruth, Stevens [33] found that in deionized water dielectric, the carbon element forms
Fe3C (iron carbides) in columnar and dendritic structures on the surface, resulting in decarbonization, whereas increasing carbon content was detected when employing oil
dielectric. Moreover, the retained austenite phase quantity and micro-crack intensity
substantially decreased within the white layer when using deionized water [34]. Surface
cracks primarily form due to thermal stress from drastic quenching and non-uniform
temperature distribution over the machined surface [35]. In investigating the
susceptibility to cracks of a nickel-based super alloy, the surface machined in deionized
water oxidized after heat treatment and no crack propagation occurred, unlike kerosene
dielectric [36]. Furthermore, water-in-oil emulsion as dielectric resulted in recast layer
formation with higher hardness than machining in kerosene or deionized water [38].
electrode walls with a thin insulating film allowed for tool wear compensation during
blind hole drilling with EDM-ECM due to the electrodeposition effect during the
process [27].
3.3
Gas dielectric
In 1985, NASA publicized that a dry EDM process is possible if argon and helium are
involved as dielectric [25], which led to employing oxygen or air gas dielectric. Dry
EDM with gas dielectric has the advantages explained in Fig. 3 [28].
3.3.1 Oxygen
In 1991, Kunieda, Furuoya [48] proposed a new approach of supplying oxygen gas to
the gap when using a water-based dielectric. However, the concept of completely dry
12
EDM was not introduced until 1997, when Kunieda, Yoshida [45] proved that dry EDM
is achievable. They revealed that MRR increased with increasing the oxygen
concentration in air and the tool wear ratio was nearly zero for any pulse duration. In
addition, high-speed EDM milling of 3D cavities benefits from remarkably low tool
wear and substantially increased MRR, specifically if oxygen gas is used [49].
Furthermore, dry EDM milling is more advantageous than oil EDM milling and oil diesinking EDM in terms of time and cost during 3D machining of cemented carbide (G5)
[50].
Despite the advantages of EDM in gas, instability and arcing are substantial problems of
dry EDM [29]. Kunieda, Takaya [51] proposed a piezoelectric actuator with high
frequency response to control the EDM gap length and prevent frequent short-circuiting
in dry EDM, which occurs due to shorter discharge gaps than conventional EDM.
Another study [52] proposed deploying a pulsulating magnetic field tangential to the
electric field to enhance electron movement and the degree of ionization in plasma. This
led to 130% productivity improvement and zero tool wear in contrast to dry EDM
without a magnetic field.
3.3.2 Air
Kunieda, Yoshida [45] stated that precise 3D machining is possible with an NC tool
path that supplies uniform high-velocity air flow over the working gap. Furthermore,
Curodeau, Richard [46] observed that a thermoplastic composite electrode accompanied
by air rather than water or oil as dielectric was efficient, since a rough-machined tool
steel part was iteratively flattened by 30 m over three thermoplastic composite
electrode forming and EDM process cycle. Moreover, an abrasive jet machine (AJM)
13
with integrated dry EDM achieved higher MRR and lower surface roughness at 6 and 9
A current than dry EDM [47].
3.4
Near-dry EDM entails using a mixture of liquid and gas as dielectric by means of a
minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) dispenser. Kao, Tao [54] used a mixture of water
and air with MQL and attained higher MRR, a sharper cutting edge, and less debris
deposition than dry EDM. Additionally, mixing water and nitrogen and using a graphite
(Gr) electrode resulted in fine surface finish and high stability under low discharge
energy input [55]. Tao, Shih [56] observed that among kerosene + air, kerosene +
nitrogen, water + air and water + nitrogen dielectrics, employing kerosene + air and a
copper-infiltrated Gr tool produced the best overall surface finish. In near-dry EDM
milling, Fujiki, Ni [57] considered the effects of electrode lead and tilt angles, and
dielectric fluid flow rate. Furthermore, a new gap control strategy for five-axis near-dry
milling was applied that increased the MRR by 30% while the TWR and Ra were not
affected [58].
3.5
Regarding the selection of a suitable dielectric to host the powder, the performance of
various plain dielectrics was discussed in sections 3.1 through 3.4. Obviously, adding
impurities does not affect the performance of all dielectric types equally. A limited
number of studies have concentrated on the performance of various pure dielectrics after
powder addition. Kibria, Sarkar [61] and Ekmekci and Ersz [62] indicated the different
influence of powder addition to oil vs. water as base dielectric in PMEDM.
14
Investigating the performance of water and kerosene after the addition of powder
showed that boron carbide (B4C) mixed in deionized water significantly improved the
MRR during micro-EDM due to the efficient discharge distribution and increasing
machining efficiency, while B4C mixed in kerosene did not considerably affect the
MRR [61]. Furthermore, adding powder to kerosene and water showed higher values of
overcut compared to pure dielectric. The addition of silicon carbide (SiC) powder to tap
water and hydrocarbon oil revealed that unlike SiC mixed in hydrocarbon oil, SiC
particles were evenly distributed on the machined surface when SiC mixed in tap water
was employed as dielectric. This was attributed to the boiling of the molten pool after
discharge, especially during machining with hydrocarbon oil [62]. The carbon in
dielectric liquid initiated the violent boiling process [34] that altered the paths of
suspended particles rushing to the melted cavity with the dielectric liquid [62].
Regarding the financial aspect, according to the review article by Leo and Pashby [25]
on the use of environmentally-friendly dielectric fluids, machining with commercial
water-based dielectric (Elbolub) increased the total operating cost by 36% compared
with hydrocarbon oil (BP180) due to the costs of equipment depreciation (21%),
electrical energy (15%), dielectric losses (78%) and filtering aids (57%). However, the
operating cost per part was 42% lower, since the MRR achieved with Elbolub was
2.33 times higher than oil dielectric.
Lin, Chen [47] used gas dielectric to carry the powder particles in AJM integrated with
EDM. Gas as dielectric imposes lower tool cost than hydrocarbon oil dielectrics due to
extremely lower TWR, which enables attaining zero electrode wear under specific
machining conditions. Yet the occurrence of arcing and debris reattachment on the
15
machined surface are still problematic [28, 29]. Therefore, mixing liquid and gas has
been practiced in the past decades in a few studies, indicating that near-dry EDM can
increase the MRR compared to dry EDM. Adding powder to the mixture of air and
mineral oil (near-dry EDM) has been considered to investigate the performance of
different electrode and workpiece materials [63, 64]. However, there remains a chance
for considering the role of powder addition to mixtures of liquid and gas to a great
extent.
Fig. 4 indicates the popularity of various types of dielectric fluid use in PMEDM studies
considered in this article. More than 80% of the studies have applied hydrocarbon-based
dielectrics in PMEDM with around 50% kerosene. The main dielectric for die-sinking
EDM is hydrocarbon-based, which has shown higher efficiency than deionized/distilled
water [25] due to the appropriate combination of properties, including small spark gap,
a corrosion-free environment, easier purification, higher aging resistance and lower
thermal conductivity than water [26]. The second most popular dielectric is water with
around 12% of the studies have employed water dielectric for PMEDM, since water
results in higher MRR levels according to some situations [25]. In addition, water as
dielectric exhibits lower viscosity, less gap contamination, and a safer and healthier
operational environment than hydrocarbon oil dielectric [25]. Deionized water in EDM
results in low carbon content and smaller heat-affected zone. The low resistivity of
deionized water facilitates achieving a simultaneous EDM-ECM process, which reduces
recast layer thickness. However, it is stated that electro-chemical dissolution always
occurs [27], which can be unfavorable.
16
There are very few investigations that consider the role of base dielectric in the
PMEDM process, yet available studies indicate diverse influence of powder addition in
various dielectrics on machining performance. A range of factors should be taken into
consideration in the selection of base dielectric in PMEDM applications in future
studies, such as the density of powder compared to the dielectric. For instance, Chow,
Yang [65] observed that owing to the lower density of Aluminum (Al) than water, the
stirring effect was not sufficiently good for mixing pure water with Al powder.
Another important property of dielectric that affects the role of added powder in the
process is polarity. All different types of dielectrics used in EDM can be categorized as
polar and non-polar [66]. From a molecular point of view, polar dielectrics such as
water consist of randomly distributed permanent electric moments (Fig. 5(a)), which get
aligned according to the electric field imposed (Fig. 5(b)). On the other hand, non-polar
dielectrics such as kerosene exhibit random distribution in the absence of an electrical
field without demonstrating permanent pole-pole interaction (Fig. 5(c)). By inducing an
external electrical field, the non-polar dipoles are temporarily aligned (Fig. 5(d)) [26].
Therefore, the density, polarity and other dielectric fluid properties such as thermal
conductivity and viscosity may be effective parameters that should be thoroughly studied
further to reveal the behavior of various dielectrics after adding impurities.
4
[68]. A wider discharge gap also decreases the heat flux [69], which reduces the
material removal of a single spark and enhances the surface quality. However, such gap
expansion is not possible with all powder materials, since powder density, electrical
resistivity, and thermal conductivity along with particle size and concentration are
highly determinative.
Upon addition of conductive powder, the reduced electrical resistivity of the dielectric
enhances the ionization and spark frequency between the tool and workpiece (Fig. 6).
The increased spark frequency appears to overcome the lower MRR of a single spark
resulting from gap expansion. Therefore, multiple discharge patterns are evident from a
single input pulse due to multiple discharge paths created, leading to discharge energy
dispersion [70, 71] in contrast to pure dielectric that produces a consistent waveform
pattern (Fig. 7). Moreover, discharge dispersion reduces the emergence of surface ridges
due to the formation of shallower craters with lower borders [72]. Subsequently, smaller
discharge craters and debris particles ease gap exhaust and accelerate the MRR [65].
Therefore, as a result of using powder added dielectric, the heat flux magnitude incident
on the workpiece by a single spark reduces accordingly. Consequently, a smaller crater
forms on the surface from a single spark, which is compensated by higher spark
frequency.
To describe the effect of powder addition on the dielectrics breakdown voltage, the
electrode and workpiece resemble a capacitor with potential difference of V between
them. V is correlated to the system charge through the surrounding medium properties
and is expressed as:
18
(4)
where, Q refers to the charge separation of the system and the capacitance C depends on
the geometry of the electrode and workpiece as well as the properties of the medium
between them (dielectric). The value of C for two parallel plates with surface area A and
separation distance d is expressed as [73]:
=
(5)
where, d is the distance between the two plates, 0 is the permittivity in free space (flux
density of the field in vacuum) and is the relative permittivity, which is equal to
dielectric constant () and is defined as the flux density of the field in dielectric over
0 .
Assuming that the field line between the plates is straight, the magnitude of the potential
difference between the plates is [66]:
|| =
(6)
(7)
Breakdown voltage limits the maximum energy that can be stored in capacitor, which is
particularly depends on the dielectric material. It was shown that adding impurities (in
our case powder particles) alter the magnitude of electrical field [75] and subsequently
according to equation (7) reduces the breakdown voltage as a result of bridge formation.
In order to explain the formation of bridge in discharge gap in detail, assume that the
additive particles are spheres with higher permittivity than dielectric. The powder
particles in the gap get polarized in an electric field and experience force equal to
toward the place of maximum stress, and in a uniform electric field that can usually be
developed by a small sphere gap, the field is the strongest in the uniform field region
[76]. Thus, the force on the particle is zero and the particle remains in equilibrium.
Therefore, the particles will be dragged into the uniform field region. Since the
permittivity of the particles is higher than that of the liquid, the presence of particles in
the uniform field region will cause flux concentration at its surface. Other particles also
tend to move towards the higher flux concentration. If the present particles are large,
they become aligned due to these forces and form a highly conductive bridge across the
gap. The electric field in the liquid in the gap will increase and if it reaches a critical
value Eb breakdown will take place. If the number of particles is not sufficient to bridge
the gap, the particles will give rise to local field enhancement; if the field exceeds the
dielectric strength of the liquid, local breakdown will occur near the particles and
consequently, gas bubbles will form, which have much lower dielectric strength. Hence,
this will ultimately lead to easier liquid breakdown [75, 76].
20
The powder parameters, including particle material, size and concentration have a
decisive role in PMEDM performance. Furutania, Saneto [77] observed that the
combination of particle size and material results in dissimilar particle movement
patterns in the discharge gap. Besides, optimum powder concentration selection is
important to assure the efficiency of performance parameters and avoid discharge
instability. This section explicitly describes the powder parameters effects. Note that
the influence of powder parameters is highly dependent on EDM derivation, dielectric
type and machining scale.
5.1
Powder material
Powder thermo-physical properties, mainly particle density, and electrical and thermal
conductivity highly influence the PMEDM discharge mechanism. Wong, Lim [68]
examined the effect of Gr, Silicon (Si), Al, SiC, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) and
crushed glass on PMEDM performance parameters and observed that excluding crushed
glass, all powders at least doubled the gap width. Among the powders, Al was found to
generate a mirror finish in machining SKH-51 by forming a surface with well-formed
and small overlapping craters. The largest gap was associated with Al powder, which
was expanded by a factor of almost 12 due to its high electrical and thermal
conductivity. The gap expansion value is in agreement with the measurements obtained
by Chow, Yan [70], proving that increasing ton leads to an even wider gap when Al
powder is added to dielectric; however, this is not the case for SiC powder additive due
to its extremely high electrical resistivity. To clarify, when adding SiC and Al powder
to kerosene dielectric during micro-slit EDM, the SiC powder enhances the MRR and
21
increases TWR, whereas Al powder provides the best surface quality with the highest
micro-slit expansion.
Tzeng and Lee [78] indicated that among Al, SiC and chromium (Cr) powders, using Cr
leads to the highest MRR followed by Al and SiC; the most deteriorative effect on tool
wear was observed for SiC, Al and Cr, respectively. The discrepancy between this
research and Chow, Yan [70] regarding the performance of Al and SiC powders is
correlated to the machining scale, powder concentration or prescribed process
parameters. Furthermore, among Al, Cr, SiC and Cu, Al powder generated the best
SKD-11 surface finish and the thinnest recast layer [79]. However, copper (Cu) powder
did not contribute in the process due to high density, which caused this powder to
deposit at the bottom of the tank [78, 79].
A comparative study on micro-sinking PMEDM by Klocke, Lung [80] revealed that for
various I values, adding either Al or Si powder led to optimized performance
parameters. They found that particular combinations of powder and workpiece and
appropriate electrode polarity and pulse parameter settings can produce mirror-finish
surfaces [68]. Another powder material for PMEDM applications is Cr, which appeared
to generate the second highest surface quality following Al. This is due to the higher Cr
density than Al, which increases the particle impact on the melted zone, causing slightly
higher surface roughness [79]. Furthermore, Cr addition was found to cause a thicker
recast layer compared to Al powder, which is attributed to the lower thermal
conductivity of Cr; Cr took less heat and applied more thermal input to the workpiece,
which also resulted in higher MRR, because Al powder suspended dielectric absorbed
more energy [78].
22
Gr powder is another widely used additive powder that increases the electrical
conductivity of dielectric and provides excellent lubricity. Gr powder addition resulted
in increasing MRR and decreasing TWR [81]. Furthermore, Gr has shown to have a
promising application in micro-PMEDM [82, 83]. Adding Gr, MoS2 and Si to dielectric
seemed to provide glossy and mirror-like surfaces to varying degrees in PMEDM of
SKH-54 [68]. MoS2, which is normally used as a commercial solid-state lubricant is
another material used to produce high surface quality by increasing the wetting effect
[84].
Titanium (Ti) and tungsten (W) are other metallic powders employed as additives in
PMEDM. Addition of Ti powder to dielectric appeared to increase the MRR [85],
micro-hardness [86] and machined surface hydrophilicity and also increase the surface
quality by reducing the Ra and surface crack density [87]. Additionally, W powder
mixed dielectric was shown to increase the machined surface micro-hardness by 100%
[88].
Beside SiC, ceramic powders such as titanium dioxide (TiO2), titanium carbide (TiC)
and B4C have been utilized in PMEDM. Adding B4C to deionized water was found to
significantly increase the MRR and fabricate accurate micro-holes in machining Ti-6Al4V [61, 89]. Chen and Lin [90] applied TiC powder mixed kerosene dielectric in
machining AlZnMg. The results indicated that the decomposed Ti migrates to the
machined surface and forms a TiC external layer with higher hardness than the base
material.
23
5.2
Particle size
5.3
Particle concentration
The appropriate particle concentration leads to process efficiency and stability. Note
that the optimum concentration for maximizing performance is dependent on powder
characteristics. Increasing the concentration beyond the optimum value causes short
circuiting, arcing and unstable machining due to the existence of excessive particles
similar to debris particles, whereby too much debris is generally deemed the dominant
cause of spark concentration [78]. Furthermore, the presence of excessive particles in
the discharge gap causes a settling problem and bridging effect, which lead to surface
deterioration [91].
6
A wide range of materials are addressed in available PMEDM research articles. The
main question raised in this regard pertains to what powder material would maximize
24
6.1
Graphite
Among the earliest investigations on PMEDM, Jeswani [81] introduced the addition of
4 g/l of Gr powder (10 m) to dielectric, which enhanced the MRR by 60% and
decreased TWR by 15%. Furthermore, Wong, Lim [68] revealed that addition of Gr
powder (383 m) leads to mirror-finish surfaces for SKH-54 workpieces up to peak
current of 2 A. Kumar, Maheshwari [92] employed cryogenically-treated copper tools in
PMEDM of Inconel 718 in the presence of Gr powder in dielectric, which appeared
effective in reducing both TWR and tool wear ratio during machining. Singh, Kumar [93]
investigated the addition of Gr powder to dielectric for improving the micro-hardness
characteristics of superalloy Co 605 during EDM. They specified that a significant
amount of powder becomes alloyed with the machined surface. Micro-hardness is
influenced by peak current, polarity and pulse on time for EDM and PMEDM.
Other than the investigation conducted by Wu, Yan [71] in which they used Al and
surfactant added to dielectric, Kolli and Kumar [94] investigated the influence of
surfactant and Gr (average size of 20 m) in PMEDM of Ti-6Al-4V. The MRR was
25
found to be at a maximum with 6 g/l surfactant, 13.5 g/l Gr powder concentration and
20 A current. However, the surface roughness was achieved at 4 g/l surfactant and 4.5
g/l Gr powder concentration and 10 A current.
The addition of nano-size Gr powder to dielectric for enhancing micro-EDM was
studied by Jahan, Rahman [91], Prihandana, Mahardika [82] and Prihandana, Mahardika
[83]. Jahan, Rahman [91] studied Gr powder (55 nm) addition to dielectric oil for microEDM sinking and milling of cemented tungsten carbide (WC-Co), which was found to
provide smooth and defect-free nano-surfaces. PMEDM milling showed a wider gap
(Fig. 9(a)) and lower MRR (Fig. 9(b)), tool wear ratio (Fig. 9(c)) and surface roughness
(Fig. 9(d)). The spark gap in both milling and sinking demonstrated an increasing trend
with increasing powder concentration, but MRR in PMEDM sinking appeared to have a
peak at around 0.8 g/l and the optimum surface roughness value in both sinking and
milling was at 0.2 g/l concentration (Fig. 9(e) and Fig. 9(f)). For concentrations over 0.2
g/l, Ra decreased due to settling and bridging. In order to increase the accuracy of microscale PMEDM, Prihandana, Mahardika [82] proposed ultrasonic vibration of dielectric
(43 kHz frequency and 0.4 m amplitude) and found that machining time reduced up to
35% by introducing 2 g/l of Gr powder (55 nm) to kerosene dielectric and micro-crack
appearance on the machined surface diminished. Nano-Gr powder addition also improved
the Ra from 1.37 to 1.17 m at 15 g/l concentration compared to pure dielectric in
micro-EDM of a Ti workpiece, and the machining time reduced by a factor of 20 at 10
g/l concentration [83]. Furthermore, the combination of added Gr nanopowder and
workpiece vibration (1 kHz frequency, 1.5 m amplitude) reduced the machining time
from ~72 to ~3 min. This enhancement was greater than when using either one
separately.
26
6.2
Aluminum
Zhao, Meng [95] reported that adding 40 g/l Al powder (10 m) to dielectric during
machining of steel workpieces optimized the MRR at ton=10 sec and Ra at I=19 A.
Fig. 11(a) through Fig. 11(i) show the influence of adding powder to kerosene dielectric
on MRR, TWR, Ra and recast layer thickness at various ton, particle concentration and
size ranges. Tzeng and Lee [78] and Yih-fong and Fu-chen [79] revealed that among
various Al powder sizes, adding 70-80 nm (the smallest) to kerosene dielectric provided
the highest MRR at 0.5 cm3/l powder concentration and ton=25 sec (Fig. 11(a, b, c)).
Additionally, increasing the powder concentration or ton led to reduced tool wear ratio
(Fig. 11(d) and Fig. 11(e)). Moreover, the lowest Ra and thickest recast layer were
observed for the smallest Al powder particles (Fig. 11(f) through Fig. 11(i)).
Addition of Al powder (1 m) to dielectric through micro-slit EDM of Ti-6Al-4V was
found to increase the discharge gap and improve the material removal depth by around
30% at 5 g/l powder concentration [70]. However, Al powder mixed dielectric
deteriorated the machined slit accuracy as a consequence of excessive overcut (Fig. 12).
27
6.3
Silicon
Kansal, Singh [101] specified the important parameters and their effects on PMEDM of
AISI D2 with Si powder in kerosene dielectric. The optimum machining condition to
obtain the highest MRR found was: I=16 A, ton=100 s, toff=15 s, feed rate=0.83 mm/s
and particle concentration=4 g/l. Si powder concentration and I were the most
influential parameters on MRR. Molinetti, Amorim [108] observed that addition of Si
powder to dielectric (average size of less than 5 m) reduces the surface roughness by a
factor of 5 at peak current of 2 A compared to pure dielectric (Fig. 14). The presence of
28
Si powder in dielectric resulted in the adherence of Si particles to the surface, and in the
case of negative polarity at low discharge current the machined surface properties could
be modified through the formation of silicon carbides.
In PMEDM parametric optimization using response surface methodology, adding up to
2 g/l of Si powder to dielectric improved both MRR and Ra [10]. However, these
performance parameters were still expected to increase for higher particle
concentrations in dielectric according to the response surface. Confirmation tests
showed that the error between experimental and predicted MRR and surface roughness
values was within 8% and -7.85% to 3.15%, respectively. Peas and Henriques [102]
added Si powder (10 m) to dielectric at a concentration of 2 g/l. This method provided
the lowest peak to valley surface roughness (Rz) (Fig. 15(a)) and crater depth (Fig.
15(b)). Moreover, increasing the powder concentration decreased the crater width and
white-layer thickness (Fig. 15(c) and Fig. 15(d)). Fig. 15(e) and Fig. 15(f) show that the
roughness increased for larger tool areas, but had a different trend after adding 2 g/l of
Si powder to dielectric. In accordance to the above study findings [102], Peas and
Henriques [103] showed that although Si powder in dielectric noticeably decreased the
surface roughness, in larger areas the surface quality slightly dropped due to the
capacitive effect. The capacitive effect implies higher peak current than the one set on
the discharge generator, causing the formation of deeper and more irregular craters.
Si powder has also been used in powder mixed near-dry EDM. Bai, Zhang [63]
considered the influence of I, ton, toff, flow rate, Si powder concentration, air pressure
and tool rotational speed on MRR. They showed that under all machining conditions, a
W18Cr4V workpiece and brass electrode resulted in higher MRR, whereas the addition
29
of 9 g/l of Si powder to the three-phase dielectric was necessary to obtain the highest
MRR with around 40% enhancement compared to pure dielectric. An additional study
on powder mixed near-dry EDM using Si powder was reported by Bai, Zhang [64]. The
results indicated that I, ton, toff, flow rate and powder concentration are more influential
on the MRR of powder mixed near-dry EDM than tool rotational speed and air pressure.
6.4
Silicon carbide
Tzeng and Lee [78] observed that SiC powder mixed kerosene dielectric leads to a very
small machining gap increase and about 30% increase in MRR at I=4 A and ton=25 sec
2
with 3 duty cycle. However, the MRR did not notably change at lower I (1.5 A).
Additionally, larger SiC particles (2.36 0.08 mm) failed to form a mirror-finish surface
due to the formation of very distinct and deep craters with high density of global
appendage [68]. In micro-slit EDM of Ti-6Al-4V with a copper diskette tool, adding 25
g/l of SiC powder to kerosene resulted in the greatest material removal depth at ton=10
sec [70]. Nevertheless, electrode wear and slit expansion increased at all pulse
durations and particle concentrations, respectively. Similar to the optimum concentration
obtained by Chow, Yan [70], 25 g/l of SiC mixed deionized water dielectric resulted in
the greatest material removal depth for both average particle sizes of 3 and 5 m in
micro-slit EDM [65]. Moreover, the SiC particles reduced the gap distance, increased the
electrode wear and material removal depth, and enhanced the surface roughness compared
to pure water dielectric.
According to Yih-fong and Fu-chen [79], SiC powder produced greater explosion force
for normal pulse discharge, leading to the formation of deeper craters owing to the high
30
electrical resistivity and low thermal conductivity. Although SiC did not considerably
change the Ra, it reduced the recast layer thickness. Conversely, Ekmekci and Ersz [62]
studied the effects of SiC powder mixed in tap water and oil dielectric on the surface
topology and structure of interstitial free steel. They found that suspended particles
around the discharge column accelerated and gained sufficient velocity to penetrate to the
molten pool before solidification, producing a surface embedded with suspended
particles. SiC powder in both water and hydrocarbon oil also increased the recast layer
thickness, but this was more pronounced when the powder was mixed with water.
6.5
Titanium
using PMEDM. At 20 A current and 50% duty factor, a 5m coated layer of Ti and C
with lower Ra and less surface cracks was achieved. Additionally, fewer micro-cracks
were observed on the surface, since the micro-cracks were filled and substituted by Ti
particles and C that decomposed from the dielectric and acted as a combiner (TiC).
Chen, Lin [87] added Ti powder at various input parameters to deionized water in
micro-current EDM of a Ti workpiece, which led to the formation of a recast layer
containing TiO. A concentration of 6 g/l of powder demonstrated no micro-crack
formation on the modified surface at I=0.1 A for short-pulse durations (50 s), and a
thinner recast layer 4-11 m thick was attained. Machining a Ti workpiece at I=0.1 A
for 30 and 50 sec in dielectric with 6 g/l Ti powder concentration generated a
hydrophilic surface. Hence, an appropriate Ti powder concentration not only prevents
surface crack formation but can also promote machined surface wettability.
6.6
Copper
Cu powder added to dielectric is ineffective in terms of MRR, TWR, Ra and recast layer
thickness due to its high density, which causes settling [78, 79]. However, Sidhu, Batish
[104] employed Cu powder mixed dielectric and copper electrolyte for surface
modification of a metal matrix composite, which increased the machined surface microhardness.
6.7
Chromium
Cr powder mixed dielectric significantly reduced the tool wear ratio and increased the
MRR by about 50% at 0.5 cm3/l concentration, ton=25 sec and 2/3 duty factor [78].
Furthermore, addition of Cr to dielectric also enhanced the Ra and recast layer thickness
32
(Fig. 15(g) and Fig. 15(i)) [79]. Ojha, Garg [105] used response surface methodology for
parametric optimization of MRR and TWR. They employed Cr powder mixed dielectric
for machining EN-8. The results indicated that increasing the powder concentration to 6
g/l and I to 8 A significantly increased the MRR, while TWR slightly varied with
increasing concentration.
6.8
Tungsten
W powder has been mainly applied for surface modification purposes. Kumar and Batra
[88] investigated the influence of W powder mixed dielectric in machining OHNS, D2
and H13. The effect of W particles and rising amount of carbon on the machined surface
indicated that suspended powder particles can react with carbon (from the hydrocarbon
dielectric breakdown) at high plasma channel temperatures to form WC, increasing the
microhardness of all three workpiece materials by over 100%. The rise in surface
hardness directly influences abrasion resistance, which increases the life of dies and
other press tools. Bhattacharya, Batish [106] stated that employing brass and W-Cu
electrodes with W powder mixed dielectric results in good surface finish and higher
microhardness, respectively.
6.9
Molybdenum disulfide
surface. Furutani and Shiraki [107] observed that under friction testing, a surface
machined with MoS2 powder mixed dielectric had a smaller friction coefficient than one
machined in pure dielectric.
34
6.13 Manganese
Molinetti, Amorim [108] used manganese (Mn) powder with particles smaller than 10
m to enhance the machined surface quality of AIDI H13 steel. They found that adding
Mn to dielectric reduced the surface roughness by a factor of two and enhanced the
machined surface hardness by about 40% compared with pure dielectric.
7
The trend of the key research studies on PMEDM from the past years is indicated in
Fig. 16. Thirty-five years ago, Jeswani [81] introduced the addition of impurities (Gr
powder) to dielectric to enhance machining performance. In 1995, Ming and He [112]
observed that adding conductive and inorganic oxide particles to dielectric led to higher
MRR, lower TWR and superior surface quality. The indistinct stage of this technology
continued until 1998 when Wong, Lim [68] compared the utilization of various powder
materials in dielectric. They explicitly disclosed the influence of powder properties on
the performance parameters of EDM. Their research revealed the great potential of
35
36
picture of PMEDM performance. In addition, findings to date indicate that the smallest
particles cause less gap expansion, higher MRR, lower TWR [78], better surface finish
and a thicker recast layer [79], which overall increase EDM performance and surface
finish. However, the influence of particle size of different materials on EDM
performance and the relationship between particle size and optimum concentration
necessitate further attention.
Fig. 19 shows the improvement in performance parameters of EDM according to ton, I,
powder material and concentration. Based on the machining condition (ton and I), a
suitable powder can be selected depending on the most important performance
parameters which are considered for designed machining outputs. Al powder is found to
enhance the MRR and SR in wide range of 0.01I4 A and ton50 sec which also at
concentration of 15 g/l enhances the SR. Comparing the performance of Al, Si and SiC
at Fig. 19(a) points out that lower concentration of Al is required to improve the
performance parameters compared to SiC and Si, which can be attributed to higher
thermal and electrical conductivity of Al. In addition, Al concentration of higher than 35
g/l leads to higher micro-hardness and wear resistance of machined surface. Adding Ti
powder to dielectric specifies the surface with less micro-cracks and higher
hydrophilicity. At high discharge energy (through increasing ton or I), Ti powder
improved MRR and surface roughness, where no significant deposition of Ti occurred
on the machined surface. It worth mentioning that the influence of toff should be
considered, especially for surface modification.
Employing ultrasonic vibration to the tool, machining area or machining tank in
PMEDM has been investigated in order to improve powder addition effectiveness.
38
Ultrasonic vibration induces stirring and cloud cavitation effects, resulting in better
debris ejection from the gap and preventing tool material deposition on the surface
[111]. Similarly, workpiece vibration with low frequency of 1 KHz has shown to boost
the effect of powder addition to dielectric [83]. The difference between the effect of
applying ultrasonic vibration or vibration at low frequencies on PMEDM performance
and the relationship between powder size and concentration with the influence of
vibration frequency and amplitude on PMEDM performance is still indistinct.
Powder particle deposition at the bottom of the tank reduces powder participation in the
process. Using ultrasonic vibration of the machining tank can be a key solution to
constantly prevent powder suspension and agglomeration throughout the process. In
order to present EDM as a viable machining technique, it is necessary to investigate the
performance parameters under more realistic machining conditions such as fabricating
cavities for longer machining time. Unlike available studies that mainly consider shorter
machining times, it is recommended to consider this point in prospect studies.
8
The advantages of PMEDM have been presented in numerous research studies, but
there are still problems challenging the industrialization of this technique. The problems
start with cost effectiveness and unclear lifetime of a powder mixed dielectric [3]. Fig.
20 schematically illustrates a basic PMEDM circulation system that contains a
machining tank, including a workpiece holder, pump, stirrer, magnetic filter, pipes,
nozzle, etc. This system is equipped with a magnetic filter that enables the constant
reuse of powder mixed dielectric.
39
The first question regarding PMEDM is how to effectively supply the powder particles
to the dielectric. Injecting the powder particles through the tool electrode is possible, but
maintaining a constant powder concentration in dielectric is problematic with this
method. Other main concerns are the circulation of dielectric fluid containing powder
considering the deposition of particles of the elements and the filtration of debris
particles from the suspended powder. In order to address the filtration issue, a magnetic
filter is either placed in the machining tank or the secondary dielectric reservoir and the
distance between the dielectric suction point and nozzle outlet is kept as short as
possible to ensure the complete suspension of powder in the discharge gap [3].
Assessing the powder concentration uniformity and amount of debris after filtration and
through the process is a problem that was investigated using environmental scanning
electron microscopy [85]. Furthermore, powder agglomeration and deposition in the
machining tank is costly and varies the powder concentration during machining. In
order to avoid powder aggregation and deposition, and to ensure homogeneous
suspension of particles in the dielectric fluid, the powder is usually mixed with
dielectric by conventional methods like implementing a stirrer in the machining tank
[90] or blending the powder with dielectric in advance [110]. The addition of surfactant
to powder mixed dielectric was proposed to increase powder homogeneity in the liquid
[71] and ultrasonic vibration of the tank to prevent powder deposition at the bottom of
the tank [84]. In some cases, both the pump and stirrer are located in the machining tank
(closed system) [115], which considerably increases pump abrasion.
Other than the abovementioned points regarding equipment, the selection of suitable
powder material, size and concentration considering optimum machining condition is a
crucial point for commercializing this process. Furthermore, if PMEDM is not
40
Conclusion
With recent progress in material science, such as the introduction of high hardness
alloys, nano-structured materials, ceramics and composites, machining processes face
increasing demand to attain high productivity, high-dimensional and geometrical
accuracy and environmental safety. EDM, which was introduced 60 years ago, is found
to be one the most successful non-traditional techniques for stock removal of highhardness conductive materials. However, low MRR and the requisite for post-surface
treatment due to low surface quality limit the vast application of this technique. Among
various solutions to overcome such limitations is PMEDM, which appears to
predominantly attain high surface quality over a short time. Since the introduction of
PMEDM, high numbers of powder materials in combinations of various dielectrics have
been used by researchers. Nevertheless, selecting appropriate additive powder materials
41
remains disputed due to the intermingled effect of machining scale, electrical and nonelectrical parameters, and tool and workpiece material, with the effect of additive
powder. Accordingly, this article provided a thorough review of the influence of powder
addition on the EDM mechanism, the most influential powder parameters,
comprehensive insight into available powder materials and future trends in this
technology. The following conclusions are drawn based on the presented literature:
1. Among various types of dielectric used in PMEDM, hydrocarbon dielectric is still
the most efficient one; however, water and gas have found increasing application in
recent years due to:
i.
ii.
iii.
Deionized water results in low carbon content in the gap and smaller heataffected zone. In addition, low-resistivity deionized water as dielectric
facilitates achieving a simultaneous EDM-ECM process, which reduces the
recast layer thickness and prevents the necessity for post-processing.
42
i.
ii.
Wider discharge gap and smaller spark size decrease the crater size, which
remarkably enhances the surface roughness.
Gr and Al powders are the most widely used materials, which improve the
machining efficiency in terms of MRR and surface quality.
ii.
Gr, Al, Ti, W, TiC, Si or SiC powders have shown to result in surface
modification during machining.
iii.
iv.
Ceramic powders, such as SiC and B4C produce smaller gap expansion due
to their lower conductivity than metallic powders.
v.
vi.
Most researchers have used powder concentrations below 20 g/l and microsize powders ranging from 1 to 55 m or nano-size powders ranging from 20
to 150 nm.
4. By considering PMEDM over the past 35 years, the main trends and suggestions for
future research are summarized below considering the data collected in this review:
i.
43
iii.
iv.
Findings to date indicate that the smallest particles cause less gap expansion,
higher MRR, lower TWR and a thicker recast layer, which overall increase
EDM performance. However, the influence of particle size of different
materials on EDM performance and the relationship between particle size
and optimum concentration necessitate further attention.
v.
44
vii.
Although findings to date have shown that the smallest particles appear to
exhibit the highest overall performance improvement, the influence of the
particle size of different materials on EDM performance and the relationship
between particle size and optimum concentration has not been considered.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the University of Malaya for providing the
necessary facilities and resources for this research. This research was fully funded by the
Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia with the high impact research (HIR) grant
No.HIR-MOHE-16001-00-D000001 and University of Malaya, Malaysia with the
University of Malaya Research Grant (UMRG) Program No. RP039B-15AET.
45
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56
Fig. 1
57
Fig. 2
58
Water
Water as dielectric propose
lower viscosity, less gap
contamination, safer and
healthier operational
environment [25]. However,
electro-chemical dissolution
always occurs [29].
Gas
Dry EDM propose low tool
electrode wear, thin recast
layer and its safer and healthier
operational environment.
However, occurrence of arcing
and debris reattachment on the
machined surface are
problematic [30, 31].
59
Deionized water
[32], [33], [34], [35], [36], [37],
[38], urea solution in water [39],
water in oil emulsion [40]
Tap water
[41], [42], new power supply
[43]
Low resistivity deionized
water
[29], [44], [45], [46]
Oxygen
[50], [47], [51], [52], [31], [53],
[54], [55]
Air
[47], [48], abrasive jet hybrid
EDM [49]
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
60
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
61
Fig. 8
62
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
63
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
64
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
65
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
66
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
67
Fig.
19
Fig. 20
68