Intro Electronics Amplifiers PDF

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U.S. Office of Education, and no official endorsement
by the U.S. Office of Education should be
inferred.
The marriage of
electronics
and technology
is
creating
new demands
for
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with combination
technical specialists.
many
devices of
optical
skills
New occupations have emerged

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Increasingly, technicians
kinds
must be competent
also in electronics. This need for
especially significant for the youngster
is
in industrial
is
combination
preparing for a career
one of
who want
The most
pations.
is
technology.
This manual
for students
who
a series of closely related publications designed

the broadest possible introduction to technical occu-
effective use of these
manuals
as
is
combination textbook-
laboratory guides for a full-time, post-secondary school study program

that
provides parallel and concurrent courses in electronics, mechanics,
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unique feature of the manuals
in this series is
technical laboratory study with mathematics
topic
is
the close correlation of
and physics concepts.
studied by use of practical examples using
modern
Each
industrial applica-
The reinforcement obtained from multiple applications of the concepts

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tions.
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Experience has shown that typical junior
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This manual, along with the others
in the series, is the result of six years

of research and development by the Technical Education
Research Centers,
Inc.,
(TERC),
a national nonprofit, public service
quarters in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
corporation with head-
has undergone a
number of revisions
as a direct result of experience gained with
students in technical schools and
community
It
colleges throughout the country.
Maurice W. Roney
///
The Electromechanical Series
TERC
is
engaged
cal Technology.
The
an on-going educational program in Electromechanifollowing titles have been developed for this program:
in
INTRODUCTORY
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/ MOTOR CONTROLS
ELECTROMECHANISMS/DEVICES
ELECTRONICS/AMPLIFIERS
ELECTRONICS/ELECTRICITY
MECHANISMS/DRIVES
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
UNIFIED PHYSICS/FLUIDS
UNIFIED PHYSICS/OPTICS
ADVANCED
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/SERVOMECH AN ISMS
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/FABRICATION
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/TRANSDUCERS
ELECTRONICS/COMMUNICATIONS
ELECTRONICS/DIGITAL
MECHANISMS/MACHINES
MECHANISMS/MATERIALS
For further information regarding the
its
EMT
program or for assistance
in
implementation, contact:
Technical Education Research Centers, Inc.
44
Brattle Street
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138
iv
Preface
Technology by
its
very nature
such, the laboratory portion of
This instructional material
is
is
As
a laboratory-oriented activity.
any technology program
is
vitally
important
intended to provide meaningful experience
electronic amplifier analysis for students of
The topics included provide exposure
in
modern technology.
basic principles of solidstate
to:
devices, amplifier circuits and applications.
The sequence of presentation chosen
is
by no means
may choose
expected that individual instructors
inflexible.
It is
to use the materials
in
other than the given sequence.
The
particular topics chosen for inclusion in this
primarily for convenience and
economy
of materials.
volume were selected
Some
instructors
may
wish to omit some of the exercises or to supplement of them to better
meet
their local needs.
The
many
materials are presented
sociated with a laboratory manual.
1.
an action-oriented format combining
in
of the features normally found
in a
An INTRODUCTION which
and often includes
2.
A DISCUSSION
3.
A MATERIALS
textbook with those usually
as-
Each experiment contains:

identifies the topic to
be examined
a rationale for doing the exercise.
which presents the background, theory, or techniques needed to carry out the exercise.
list
which
identifies
all
of the items needed
in
the laboratory experiment. (Items usually supplied by the student
such as pencil and paper are normally not included

4.
A PROCEDURE
which
presents
performing the experiment.

are
In
step-by-step
in
the
lists.)
instructions for
most instances the measurements
done before calculations so that all of the students can at

finish making the measurements before the laboratory
least
period ends.
5.
An ANALYSIS GUIDE which
offers suggestions as to
student might approach interpretation of the data
draw conclusions from

6.
PROBLEMS
in
how
the
order to
it.
are included for the purpose of reviewing the rein-
forcing the points covered
in
the exercise.
The problems may be
of the numerical solution type or simply questions about the

exercise.
Laboratory report writing forms an important part of the learning

encourprocess employed in this manual. Consequently, students should be
aged to write at least a brief report for each exercise performed.
the
Students should be encouraged to study the test material, perform
on
report
technical
a
submit
and
problems,
experiment, work the review
an understanding
each topic. Following this pattern, the student can acquire
of,
and
skill
For
the job.
in a
with, basic amplifier circuits that will be extremely valuable on

best results, these students should be concurrently enrolled
course
in
technical mathematics (Introductory Calculus).
series of volumes
This material on basic amplifiers comprises one of a
at Oklahoma
staff
EMT
TERC
the
prepared for technical students by
Tinnell.
University, under the direction of D.S. Phillips and R.W.
principal author of this particular material was R.W. Tinnell.
State
The
An
Instructor's
Data Book
available
is
for
use with this volume.
and comMr. Kenneth F. Cathey was responsible for testing the materials
TERC
the
of
members
Other
piling the instructor's data book for them.
staff
madevvaluable contributions
in
the form of criticisms, corrections,
and suggestions.
It
this
is
sincerely
series,
the
materials will
hoped that
instructor's
make the study
this
data
volume
books,
as well as the other
and
volumes
in
the other supplementary
of technology interesting and rewarding for
both students and teachers.
THE TERC EMT STAFF
TO THE STUDENT
Duplicate data sheets for each experiment are provided
in
the back of
the book. These are perforated to be removed and completed while performThey may then be submitted with the experiment
ing each experiment.
analysis for your instructor's examination.
vi
Contents
experiment
experiment
experiment
experiment
experiment
DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
experiment
experiment
HALF-WAVE POWER SUPPLIES

FULL-WAVE POWER SUPPLIES
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR, OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR, OUTPUT
CHARACTERISTICS
TRANSISTOR INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
TRANSISTOR LOADLINE ANALYSIS
experiment
BIASING
experiment
experiment 10
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER, GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

VACUUM TUBE CHARACTERISTICS
experiment
BIASING
1 1
AND
12
18
...
26
32
37
42
BIAS STABILITY
49
57
65
VACUUM TUBE
74
...
experiments
VACUUM TUBE
experiment 13
FET AMPLIFIER, GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
90
experiment 14
SMALL-SIGNAL PARAMETERS
97
experiment 15
experiment 23
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS

VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIER SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS
FET AMPLIFIER SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS
AMPLIFIER COUPLING NETWORKS
MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER GAIN
AMPLIFIER FREQUENCY RESPONSE
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
FEEDBACK PRINCIPLES
SINGLE STAGE FEEDBACK
experiment 24
SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
171
experiment 25
INTEGRATING AMPLIFIERS
CHOPPER MODULATORS
179
193
experiment 30
CHOPPER-MODULATED AMPLIFIERS
SINGLE-END POWER AMPLIFIERS
PUSH-PULL POWER AMPLIFIERS
AMPLIFIER TROUBLESHOOTING
Appendix
DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS
experiment 16
experiments
experiment 18
experiment 19
experiment 20
experiment 21
experiment 22
experiment 26
experiment 27
experiment 28
experiment 29
AMPLIFIER, GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
vii
82
...
108
120
129
135
141
147
154
159
165
187
205
212
.
217
225
experiment
INTRODUCTION. The
we
shall
examine the
simplest electronic device
DISCUSSION. The
essential characteristic of
an electronic diode
is
ferent characteristics
different directions.
nal
the fact that
it
+
+
in
MATERIAL
DEPLETION
REGION
the P-N junction diode, the avalanche
breakdown diode, and the thermionic high

vacuum diode.
The conductive
conductive materials
properties of so-called
(silver,
copper,
etc.)
acceptor and donor atoms
the region near
in
the junction tend to offset each other's effect

creating a region called the depletion region,
and
because
the insulating materials (mica, quartz, etc.).
of the
relative
absence of mobile
charge carriers (electrons or atoms with
in-
complete valence bands called "holes"). This

process can perhaps be better understood by
order to produce useful semiconduc-
tor devices, small, carefully controlled
P-N Junction of
Semiconductor Material
Fig. 1-1
"pure" semiconductors, such as germanium

and silicon, lay between those of the highly
In
N-TYPE
MATERIAL
sider the characteristics of only three types of
diodes:
P-TYPE
one direction than

experiment we shall con-
In this
characteristics are 'concerned, the diode
the other.
common use is the diode. In this experiment

common types of diodes.
has dif-
when electrons flow in

As far as electrical termi-
conducts more readily

in
in
basic terminal characteristics of three
amounts
observing that there will be more electrons
in
of impurities are added to silicon or germani-
the
um
of the doping process. Similarly, there will be
to produce "doped" semiconductors.
If
the impurity (called a donor) had more va-
N-type.
valence electrons).
Conversely,
if
in
the P-type material than
Conduction electrons
holes in the P-type material.
the im-
the junction, the

will
electrons than the base semiconductor, then
the depleted region.
is
Both
P-
imbalance
see that the P-type material near the junction

is
ductor material are joined together, as

in figure 1-1,
tion.
When
carriers
have a balancing effect, thereby creating
With the depletion region established, we
and N-type semi-
pieces of N-type and P-type semicon-
cated
the region of
in va-
conductor materials are electrically neutral.

If
In
called a P-type material
(P because of the positive
lence electrons).
the
the N-type
two types of charge
purity (called an acceptor) has fewer valence
the combination
in
in
material will drift toward the junction as will
be of the N-type (N for the negative imbalance

in
material than in the P material because
more holes
compared to the base matethen the doped semiconductor is said to
lence electrons
rial,
then
we have
depleted of holes and, therefore, appears to
be negatively charged, while the N-type mate-
indi-
rial
P-N junc-
is
depleted of electrons and, hence, ap-
pears positively charged.
the two materials are joined, the
The
barrier (or junc-
tion) potential created in this
manner
is
nor-
EXPERIMENT! DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
II
EXPANDED DEPLETION
REGION
Fig. 1-2
Reverse Biased P-N Junction
mally about 0.3 volts for a germanium device

and depends on the amount of doping and on
the diode, and the small circuit current
If
we apply
a potential across the device,
as described above, the result will be as indi-
cated
in
figure
Note the direction
1-2.
which the battery
is
in
connected, relative to P
and N ends of the device. With the battery

connected as shown, any conduction electrons
in the P-type material and any holes in the
N-type material
will
flow toward the junction,
expanding the depletion region

rier potential
The net
is
we now
reverse the battery, as
shown
elecin figure 1-3 (note the battery direction),

trons in the P-type material and holes in the
N-type material are drawn away from the
junction, thereby reducing the barrier potenof curtial and allowing a substantial amount
rent to flow across the junction.
This condi-
termed forward
The diode
tion
is
biasing.
current will be
until the bar-
across the junction
that of the battery.
called the reverse or leakage current.
the temperature of the device.
If
(l
is
very near
Q (e
39 E
(1.1)
circuit current
therefore be very small (usually about

10 //A in a typical diode) and relatively constant. This condition is called reverse biasing
will
(assuming the diode temperature to be 20C).

This equation
reasonably accurate for either
forward or reverse bias provided that E
is
Fig. 1-3
Forward Biased P-N Junction
is
EXPERIMENT
Fig. 1-4
Diode Volt-Ampere Characteristic
taken to be positive for forward bias and nega-
lanche or zener breakdown and diodes them-
tive for reverse bias.
selves are called
A
shown
sketch of the plot of equation 1.1

in figure 1-4.
this point that
if
sufficiently, the
larly, if
It
diode
will
is
is
down
diodes break
of the diode and
increased
break down. Simi-
zener diode
increased sufficiently,
its
The
manufacture.
is
is
called the zener voltage
value can be controlled
breakdown
across the diode
is
is
achieved,
constant
and independent of the current flow.
forward current.
possible to destroy a zener diode
power
Returning to figure
1-2,
if
we
down
increase
dissipation,
in
useful characteristic of a
that after
the voltage (E
the diode junction can be destroyed by excessive
which zener
reverse bias voltage at
is
should be observed at
the reverse bias
forward bias
The
zener diodes.
It
is
by excessive
but otherwise the break-
process does not
damage
it.
the reverse bias to a relatively high value, elec-
trons
in
the P-type material (and holes
in
the
It
N-type material)
velocities as
will
be -accelerated to high
they move toward the junction.
Under such conditions, it is possible to knock

valence electrons loose from their parent atoms
in
is
not valid
when the diode
breakdown mode.
is
For practical
determined exclusively by the resistance
ef-
fectively in series with the diode.
even more carriers into conduction. This pheis
1.1
operating
is
tends to avalanche as one carrier knocks several

others into conduction and they in turn knock
or other similar ones
equation
purposes, the diode current after breakdown
and force them into conduction. This process
nomenon
should be noted at this point that
Figure 1-5 shows the schematic symbols
used to represent the P-N junction diode, the
called ava-
K J
HIGH VACUUM
Schematic Symbols for Various Diodes
Fig. 1-5
diode discussed below. The
letter
space charge
vacuum
zener diode, and the thermionic high
included
ZENER
JUNCTION
P-N
only for clarification and do not
first
If
thermionic high vacuum diode
who
unto
itself
space charge electrons and force
it
sive,
repel the
them
is
closer
non-emis-
We
no current flows through the diode.
therefore consider a negative plate potential
1905.
in
Since the plate
to the cathode.
developed the diode as a device
and patented
non-
a voltage to the
on the plate tends to
tive potential
built
ever,
we now apply
emissive plate electrode (iron or nickel), with

the polarity shown in figure 1-6(a), the nega-
about 1884 by Thomas Edison in

conjunction with the development of the incandescent lamp. ItwasJ.A. Fleming, how-
was
said to be at thermal equilib-
rium.
symbols are
usually appear with the symbols.
The
is
(with respect to the cathode) to be a reverse

bias.
The thermionic high vacuum diode is

composed of an evacuated envelope (usually
On
of glass) which contains a cathode capable of
emitting electrons
when
the other hand,
versed, as
heated; a filament to
shown
plate
positive
in
potential
heat the cathode, and an anode (or plate) to
charge
electrons
collect the emitted electrons.
diode.
Figure 1-6(b)
if
the battery
attracts
space
the
and current flows

is
re-
is
1-6(b), then the
figure
in
the
therefore the forward-
biased condition.
The operation
of a
vacuum diode can

As the plate electrode becomes more
and more positive, greater numbers of spacecharged electrons are drawn to it. As elec-
perhaps best be understood by considering

the cathode action with no potential applied
Let us presume that the filament
to the plate.
is
being supplied with
heating the cathode.
its
rated
power and
The cathode
is
trons flow out of the space charge toward the
is
plate, the
coated
attempt to restore thermal equilibrium.
with a thermoemissive material such as barium

or strontium oxide.
As the cathode heats
this coating emits electrons into the
space around the cathode structure.

sult of these
the point
up,
can no
evacuated
As
space charge
sufficiently great that
it
At
where the cathode
longer replace the electrons leaving the
plate as rapidly as they are emitted.

this
repels
any additional emitted electrons back into the

cathode surface coating.
an
elec-
trons flow directly from the cathode to the
This process continues until the

is
finally reached
completely neutralized by the plate and
in
the region of the cathode becomes charged

negatively.
is
in
When
space charge, then the space charge becomes
a re-
emitted electrons, the space
cathode emits more electrons
last
saturated.
condition
say that the diode
This condition rarely occurs
normal operation of
this point the
we
Under
a diode.
is
in
II
CATHODE
CATHODE
PLATE
PLATE
SPACE CHARGE
REGION
(A)
SPACE CHARGE
REGION
REVERSE BIAS
(B)
Fig. 1-6
Current Flow in a
Based on the above discussion, it should

be apparent that the volt-ampere characteristic
of a thermionic high
much
like that of a
vacuum diode
ly
However,
avoided as
it
very
resistor does.
shown
is
Referin fig-
ure 1-7, the static resistance at any point (P)
may
be determined by
(1.2)
sufficient-
this condition should
The dynamic
be
may
physically damages the diode.
resistance,
on the other hand,
be approximated at point P by
AE
the forward-biased direction, a diode
Al
has both a static and dynamic resistance just
Fig. 1-7
any other nonlinear
vacuum diodes
negative plate potential
high.
In
in
Vacuum Diode
ring to the diode characteristic
P-N junction.
Breakdown does occur
when the
is
as
FORWARD BIAS
Determination of Static and Dynamic Resistance
(1.3)
In
the case of solid-state (semiconductor)
static
and dynamic plate resistance (R
most cases the vacuum diode
diodes, the values are referred to as the static
rp).
and dynamic forward resistance and the sym-
ances will be from 200
Rq
bols
and r^ are frequently used.
vacuum diode the two
For
In
solid-state diodes
and
resist-
2000 ohms while

be more like 2 to
to
tend to
200 ohms.
values are called the
MATERIALS
1
Variable
VOM
DC power
supply (0
(volt-ohm meters) or
40V)
FEM
(field effect
meters)
220-ohm
Silicon diode type
resistor
1N914
Zener diode type 1N3018B or equivalent
Vacuum diode type 6AX5GT
or equivalent
6.3V filament power supply

Octal tube socket with mounting board
or equivalent
PROCEDURE
1.
Using the silicon diode, assemble the circuit shown
in figure 1-8.
R = 220J2
1
VARIABLE
DC
SUPPLY
Fig. 1-8
2.
-&J
220-ohm
resistor.
DC
supply
(See Fig.
1-
10,
in
1/2-volt increments
3.
Also record the circuit current (Iq = Ep/R) and the diode voltage Eq.
4.
Return the variable
5.
Repeat steps 2 and
6.
Replace the silicon diode with the zener diode and repeat steps 2 through
7.
Connect the
8.
Repeat steps 2 through
9.
On
circuit
DC
0.
On
and record the
Data Tables, pages 8-11.)
supply to zero and reverse the diode
in
the circuit.
3.
shown
a single sheet of
5.
in figure 1-9.
5.
graph paper, plot the silicon diode volt-ampere characteristic using
your measured data.

1
DIODE
The First Experimental Circuit
Starting at zero volts, adjust the variable
voltage across the
SILICON
the same sheet of graph paper, plot equation 1.1.
Ft
= 220n
AAAr
VARIABLE
DC
SUPPLY
rr
NC
6AX5GT
The Second Experimental Circuit
Fig. 1-9
11.
On
on a
second sheet of graph paper, plot the volt-ampere characteristic of
all
three diodes
single set of axes.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In analyzing these data
to the plot of equation 1.1.
Similarly,
you should compare the silicon diode characteristic

compare the characteristic curve of each diode to the
other two. Discuss any similarities and differences between the

curves.
PROBLEMS
1.
Compute the
diode current
2.
3.
4.
and dynamic resistance of each diode at the points where the

20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 mA.
static
is
On a third sheet of graph paper plot curves of the static and dynamic resistance
(on
the vertical axis) versus current (on the horizontal axis).
Write a brief comparison of the resistance characteristics of
the three diodes.
Plot the silicon diode curve
on a sheet of similog graph paper.
different
from the plot on
5.
Describe
in
6.
Repeat problem 5 for a vacuum diode.
linear
paper?
your own words how a semiconductor diode works.
Why
does
it
look
EXPERIMENT
Silicon Diode
Reverse
Silicon
Biased
Diode
Forward Biased
Fig.
1-10
The Data Tables
Fig.
1-10
EXPERIMENT
The Data Tables (Cont'd)
Vacuum Diode
Vacuum Diode
Reverse Biased
Forward Biased
Fig.
1-10
The Data Tables

10
f Cont'd)
EXPERIMENT
Silicon
In (mA)
Diode Resistance
nD
r
r
20
40
60
80
100
Zener Diode Resistance
D (mA)
20
40
60
80
100
Vacuum Diode
lp
(mA)
Resistance
20
40
Fig.
1-10

11
experiment
some type of DC power supply. The

types of DC supplies are the battery pack (one or more batteries) and the AC
experiment we shall examine the operating principles of one kind of AC recti-
INTRODUCTION.
two most common
In this
rectifier.
HALF-WAVE POWER SUPPLIES
Virtually
all
electronic circuits require
fier circuit.
DISCUSSION.
In
ternating current
many
is
where an electronic
cases a supply of
available
circuit
is
at
AC
perform
to a direct current.
conversion
this
in
the load
is
simply the average of the current taken over
location
one complete
The
to operate.
problem then becomes to convert the

able
The DC current that flows
al-
This current can be
cycle.
found by determining the area under the load
avail-
current curve for a complete cycle.
Circuits used to
this
are called rectifier
we
If
we do
will find that
circuits.
The most elementary
the halfwave diode rectifier shown

2-1.
in
The diode
(D-|) allows
(2.1)
rectifier circuit
current
is
in figure
(i)
to flow
And
since the
DC
load voltage
is
only one direction through the load resistor
During alternate half cycles, the diode
(R).
back-biased and no current can flow. As a
during one half of the input cycle, as seen

figure 2-2.
perfect,
finite
will
it
we have
flows through the load only
current
sult,
E DC" 'dC R
is
re-
If
we assume
that the diode
in
is
(2.2)
has zero forward resistance and
in-
back resistance, then the load current
We should observe at this
be
quantities
m
1
reality
sin cot
ode.
E DC
we never have
completely perfect
di-
of \qq and
than that pre-
will
always be slightly
less
A A
^
RESISTANCE
LOAD
VOLTAGE
*fc
DC
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
dc>
(e)
t
Fig. 2-1
in
In actual practice, the values
AC
point that these
approximate because
dicted by equations 2.1 and 2.2 respectively.
during the nonconducting half cycle.
INPUT
are only
Basic Halfwave Rectifier
12
EXPERIMENT 2 HALF-WAVE POWER SUPPLIES
CURRENT
As we see from the equations
DC
the value of the
Consequently,
given above,
voltage and current de-
pends on the peak value of the

age.
Input Voltage and Load Current
2-2
Fig.
it
is
AC
common
AC
Figure 2-3 shows a halfwave rectifier
operated from a
17-volt
60-Hz
line
and using
is
the
peak
desired
As can be seen
secondary
in figure 2-2,
the
DC
volt-
age and current are by no means constant

quantities.
pulses.
DC
transformer input.
We
Em
input voltpractice to
use a transformer to establish the desired

level.
where
voltage.
is
In
They occur
most
in
the form of 60-Hz
practical circuits, such
not satisfactory.
It is,
pulsed
therefore, usual
practice to use a filter to convert the output
would, of course, choose the trans-
to a
more constant
level.
former to have a turns ratio of
ISL
0.707 E.
"m
117
The simplest type of

shunt capacitor, as shown in
117V rms
60 Hz
Fig.
2-3
Halfwave Rectifier with Transformer Input
single
figure 2-4.
When
filter
is
EXPERIMENT2 HALF-WAVE POWER SUPPLIES
the diode
is
2-4
Fig.
Halfwave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter
to a potential approximately equal to E
When
the voltage across the load decreases
below the value of E m
then the capacitor
discharges through the load, thereby tending
to hold the load voltage constant.
shows
Figure 2-5
voltage across the load (and the capac-
compared to the input
itor)
Unfortunately,
conducting, the capacitor charges
Notice that load voltage

constant than
it
is
AC
if
we make C
larger
and
larger, then we must provide more and more

peak charging current. This peak charging
current must flow through the diode, and
we
eventually reach a point at which the diode
damaged.
filter is
As
result,
is
the single capacitor
not frequently used
in
actual practice.
voltage.
now more
A much
nearly
was without the capacitor
work shown
more
practical filter
is
the
it
net-
in figure 2-6.
filter.
In this case,
The amount
of drop
in
load voltage de-
pends on the time constant of R and C.

the time constant
is
If
very long compared to
in
two
steps,
the filtering
and the diode
excessive charging current

tors R<|
is
is
accomplished
protected against
by the
series resis-
and R2-
the time of one input cycle, then the load

voltage will be quite constant and equal to
We
can, of course, lengthen the time
constant by making either R or

a practical case, however,
or
less
increase
fixed;
is
larger.
usually
and the only alternative
In
more
is
waveform across C<| would

be about the same as that shown in figure 2-5
(as load voltage) and the voltage across the
The
load
2-5
would be even smoother.
to
to provide a long time constant.
Fig.
voltage
Shunt Capacitor
In
some
Filtering
cases, the load current
Action
is
high
EXPERIMENT 2 HALF-WA VE POWER SUPPLIES
vwO
A^JK
-AAAr
R,
117V
60 Hz
Fig.
2-6
Halfwave Rectifier with
ir
Filter
vw
S
117V
60 Hz
Fig.
2-7
LC Filter
117V
60 Hz
Fig.
2-8
enough that the voltage drop across R2
is
R2 may
be
prohibitively high.
In
such a case,
The
high impedance for

relatively
low
DC
filter
AC
choke provides
seen
choke
resistance.
Such
tering
action.
When even
figure
(L<|)
unnecessary.
a filter,
finer filtering
in
is
choke may be included,
2-8.
When
included,
it
is
this input filter
Each LC pair
called an L-Section;
and
L-j C^j
in
more than two sections may be
filis
15
as
also provides over-
current protection for the diode, making
ripple while having a
while being expensive, provides very good
L-Section Filters
required, a second
replaced with an inductor called a filter choke,

as in figure 2-7.
Two
R<|
and L2C2)
extreme
used.
cases,
EXPERIMENT 2 HALF-WAVE POWER SUPPLIES

MATERIALS
0V 220V CT)
type 1N914 or equivalent
Power transformer
Silicon diode,
Substitution box (0
220-ohm 2W
2 10
jtiF,
1 1
100 kft 2W)
FEMorVOM
Oscilloscope
Variable transformer (0
130V)
4 Sheets of linear graph paper
resistor
600W VDC
capacitors
PROCEDURE
1
Assemble the circuit shown
in
figure 2-9. Set the resistance
box for
MAXIMUM
resistance.
DIODE
VARIABLE TRANSFORMER
AkjK
<5>
OSCILLOSCOPE
RL
RESISTANCE
SUBSTITUTION
BOX
TRANSFORMER
2-9
Fig.
2.
First
Experimental Circuit
Set the input voltage for a transformer secondary voltage of

of E m
3.
The
in
50V
peak.
Record the value
the data table, figure 2-10.
Set the resistance substitution box for a
DC
load current of about 5
mA. Record
the
value of R|_.
4.
a sketch of the transformer secondary voltage
Make
waveform, then move the oscilloIndicate the amplitude and
scope to the load and sketch the load voltage waveform.

period of each part of the waveform.
5.
6.
7.
Measure and record the value of the
DC
load voltage E DC
Using the appropriate equations from the discussion with the values of E m and R L
compute and record Iqq and E D q.
Connect the 220-ohm

meter
in
figure 2-9.
diode current.
resistor in series with the
The
diode
voltage across this resistor
is
in
the position occupied by the
now
directly proportional to the
View the diode current waveform and sketch
it.
Indicate period and
amplitude.
8.
Connect one of the 10
9.
Add
fiF capacitors across
a second capacitor
(making the
the load resistor and repeat steps 4, 5, and
total filter capacitance equal to
steps 4, 5, and 7.
16
20
juF),
7.
and repeat
EXPERIMENT2 HALF-WAVE POWER SUPPLIES
10.
1 1
Move one of the capacitors to the other

work filter.
View the waveforms
220-ohm
resistor
forming a
tt
net-
across:
(a)
the transformer secondary
(b)
the input
(c)
the load resistance.
filter
side of the
capacitor
Sketch each of these waveforms.

12.
Measure and record the load voltage E q for each

D
Circuit Values With
Em
RL
No
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
10juF
20juF
7T
Filter
Filter
Filter
Filter
E DC
dc
Meas
Comp
Fig.
circuit.
E DC
Comp
2-10
E DC
E DC
E DC
Meas
Meas
Meas
The Data Table
In analyzing the results of this
the accuracy with which the equations given
in
experiment, you should be concerned about
the discussion predicted the unfiltered output of
Also consider the extent to which the discussion of
the rectifier.
filter
action was confirmed by
the results.
PROBLEMS
1.
certain halfwave rectifier has an input voltage of
168 sin 377t and a load of 10k

ohms. What would be the approximate values of E q and
D
D q if:
I
a)
the output were unfiltered?
b)
the output
is
filtered
AC voltage. The time

2.
3.
What would be the
effect
by
a single
constant
on E DC
if
a)
appreciable forward resistance?
b)
Draw
is
80
juF capacitor?
(Assume Eq C = the peak
RC.)
the diode
in
problem
had:
back resistance of the same order of magnitude as R ?

L
circuit
diagrams showing
how
halfwave rectifier can be used to produce:
a)
a positive
output voltage.
b)
a negative
output voltage.
c)
both a positive and a negative output simultaneously.
17
exoerimen
FULL-WAVE POWER SUPPLIES
INTRODUCTION. The full-wave electronic power supply

AC to DC converter. In this experiment we shall examine
is
perhaps the most popular type of
the operation of two basic full-wave
rectifier circuits.
DISCUSSION. Let us
of the circuit shown in
If
we apply
consider the operation
(having zero forward resistance and infinite
figure 3-1
back resistance) and the instantaneous polar-
shown
to the primary of the transformer, then the
(e<|,
D2
= E
m
we
will
D2
On
cannot.
e<|
and ^2
the alternate half
through
flows
is
common
ê
(e<|
contact to the load,
the
through the
upward through
the load to point A, then through
back to the transformer winding.
sequently, e2 will be
current flows through D<|

e 2 = "e 1 = "E
m
D<|,
from the upper half
of the transformer secondary
The
w '"
current
complete current path
that they are 180 degrees out of phase. Con-
D<|
and
Since no
on the alternate
half of the input cycle, the current waveform
sin a?t
through
we
can con-
can.
When
have a similar voltage,
main difference between
If
D<|
sin cot
Across the other half of the secondary winding
then diode
of the input cycle, D<| cannot conduct but
for example) will be

e-|
secondary winding to be as
in figure 3-1,
duct and
voltage across one-half of the secondary winding
across the
ity
60-Hz sinusoidal voltage
consider the diodes to be ideal
D<| will
The input
AC
appear as shown
waveform
is
also
in figure 3-2.
shown
for pur-
poses of comparison.
117V rms
60 Hz
Fig. 3-1
Basic Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit
Fig.
18
7T
3-2
2tt
3jt
The Current Through Diode Dj
On
EXPERIMENT 3 FULL-WAVE POWER SUPPLIES
the alternate half of the input cycle,
cannot conduct but D can. During this

2
half cycle, current flows from the lower half
D<|
of
the
transformer secondary through the
ground (common) system to the load, up

through the load to point A, through D and
2
back to the transformer secondary. The current
waveform through D 2
input voltage
is
shown with the
in figure 3-3.
Since both diode currents flow through

the load in the same direction, the load current
waveform
will
be the combination of the
diode currents, as shown
in figure 3-4.
3-3
Fig.
Fig.
3-4
The Current Through Diode
D2
The Load Current
Each of the half-cycle load current pulses

will
be sinusoidal
(if
the diodes are perfect),
and we can find the average

by using
DC
(3.2)
load current
In actual practice the

a " perfect;
(3.T)
and
diodes will not be
as a result, the load voltage
current will be slightly
less
and
than the values pre-
dicted by equations 3.2 and 3.1, respectively.
Now
since the
DC
C
load voltage
DC
is
As can be seen
DC n L
age
quantities.
we
see that
pulses.
19
in figure 3-4,
the
DC
volt-
and current are by no means constant

In
They occur
most
in
the form of 120-Hz
practical circuits, such
pulsed
EXPERIMENT 3 FULL-WA VE POWER SUPPLIES
117V
60 Hz
Fig.
DC
is
not satisfactory.
Fullwave Rectifier with Shunt Capacitor Filter
3-5
It is,
shows voltage across the load (and the capac-
therefore, usual
practice to use a smoothing filter to convert
the output to a
more constant
compared to the input
itor)
Notice that load voltage
level.
constant than
The
simplest type of
shunt capacitor, as shown

a
to
diode
a
When
is
single
in figure 3-5.
When
filter
is
AC
voltage.
now more
nearly
was without the capacitor
filter.
The amount
conducting, the capacitor charges
potential approximately equal to E
it
is
of drop
in
load voltage de-
pends on the time constant of R L and
the time constant
the voltage across the load decreases be-
is
C.
If
very long compared to
dis-
the time of one input cycle, then the load
charges through the load, thereby tending to
voltage will be quite constant and equal to
low the value of E m then the capacitor

,
hold the load voltage constant.
Figure 3-6
Em
We
can, of course, lengthen the time
FILTERED DC VOLTAGE
ÛNFILTERED
DC PULSES
2tt
AC INPUT
VOLTAGE
^y
Fig.
3-6
Shunt Capacitor
20
Filtering
Action
constant by making either R or

practical case, however,
less
fixed;
crease
usually
is
and the only alternative
tering
In a
larger.
more or
to
is
accomplished
is
steps,
and the
diodes are protected against excessive charging

<|.
to provide a long time constant.
Unfortunately,
then
if
we must
peak-charging
we make C
and
larger
current.
This peak-charging
the single capacitor
quently used
filter
is
not
work shown
In
some
cases, the load current
hibitively high.
fre-
In
such a case, R^
placed with an inductor called a
practical filter
in figure 3-7.
and the voltage across
enough that the voltage drop across
in actual practice.
more
is
the
7r
relatively
fil-
low
DC
-VSAr
TO THE
FULLWAVE
RECTIFIER
3-7
ir
Type
Filter Circuit
TO THE
FULLWAVE
RECTIFIER
Fig.
3-8
The
high impedance for
net-
In this case, the
Fig.
3-6
the load would be smoother.
as in figure 3-8.
A much
would
C<|
in figure
we
As
excessive current.
waveform across
(as the load voltage),
eventually reach a point at which the diodes
may be damaged by
voltage
be about the same as that shown
provide more and more
current m.ust flow through the diodes, and
result,
two
current by the series resistor, R
in-
The
larger,
in
Filter with
21
an Inductor
filter
is
R<| is
may
filter
high
pro-
be
re-
choke,
choke provides
AC ripple
resistance.
while having a
Such
a filter,
EXPERIMENT 3 FULL-WA VE POWER SUPPLIES
TO THE
FULLWAVE
nsw^|_j
RECTIFIER
3-9
Double L-Section
3-10
Fullwave Bridge Rectifier
Fig.
Filter
117V
60 Hz
Fig.
When
while expensive, provides very good filtering

action.
a
When
When
figure 3-9.
is
even better filtering
second choke may be included,

included,
it
this input filter
is
ondary polarity
required,
(L<|)
also provides overcurrent pro-
tection for the diode,
making
R<|
unnecessary.
Each LC pair (L 1 C 1 and l_2C 2 ) is called an

L-section; and in extreme cases, more than
two
sections
may
circuit cur-
D4
to the top
of the transformer.
of the small disadvantages of the

in figure 3-1
is
requires a center-tapped transformer.
alternate fullwave rectifier circuit
not require such a transformer

ure 3-10.
shown, the
be used.
fullwave rectifier shown

it
as
load to point A, then through
On
One
is
from the lower end of the transformer through D 2 to ground. (D3 cannot
conduct because it is reverse biased.) From
ground, the current flows upward through the
rent flows
as seen in
choke
the instantaneous transformer sec-
This circuit
is
is
D3 and back
that
An
to the transformer.
the load current waveform
which does
shown
the alternate half of the input cycle,
current flows through D-j, the load (upward),
is
As
a result,
the same as with
the other fullwave circuit.
in fig-
The same types of
called a Fullwave
filter circuits are
used
with both types of fullwave rectifier circuits.
Bridge Rectifier
22
<
EXPERIMENTS FULL-WAVE POWER SUPPLIES
MATERIALS
Variable transformer (0
130V)
0/220V CT)
4 Diodes, type 1N914 or equivalent
1
Transformer
10mF,600W VDC
200ft resistor
1 1
capacitors
Resistance substitution box (0
FEMorVOM
Oscilloscope
100 kft 2W)
2W
PROCEDURE
1.
Assemble the
2.
Adjust the input for 10 volts rms (AC) across one-half of the transformer secondary,
3.
Determine and record the value of E

m
circuit
shown
figure 3-11.
in
117V
60 Hz
D9
RESISTANCE
SUBSTITUTION
10k
BOX
TRANSFORMER
Fig. 3- 1 1
4.
Using the appropriate equation
The
in
First Experimental Circuit
the discussion, compute and record E
5.
Measure and record the actual values of E

DC and
6.
With the oscilloscope, view the waveforms:
(a)
Across one-half of the transformer secondary
(b)
Across each diode
(c)
Across the load
DC
DC
and
DC
resistor.
Make an accurate sketch
of each
waveform showing
amplitude and phase
relative
relationships.
7.
Connect the oscilloscope across the load and watch the change
10 juF capacitor is connected across the load. Sketch the results.
8.
Add
a second
10
juF capacitor across the load,
waveform.
23
in
and sketch the
waveform
as a single
resulting load voltage
9.
Insert a
220-ohm
resistor
between the two capacitors forming a
7r
section
filter,
and
sketch the load voltage waveform.

10.
Measure and record the values of E DC and
11.
Disassemble the
first
DC
with the
ir
filter in place.
experimental circuit and construct the circuit shown
in
figure 3-12.
DIODE
BRIDGE
<<
10k
RESISTANCE
SUBSTITUTION
BOX
TRANSFORMER
Fig.
12.
3 12
Adjust the variable transformer for 10 volts rms across the transformer secondary and
repeat steps 3 through 10.
E DC
Ckt.
Em
(Comp)-
'dc
(Comp)
E DC
'dc
E DC
'dc
(Meas)
(Meas)
(Filter)
(Filter)
First
Second
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE. The
3-13
The Data Table
purpose of this experiment has been to become familiar with the oper-
ation of fullwave rectifier circuits.
Toward
that end you should discuss in your
own words how
Moreover, you should discuss the amount of agreement between your pairs
of measured and computed values of E d q and Iqq. Explain why the differences you observed
such a circuit works.
seemed reasonable.
24
EXPERIMENTS FULL-WAVE POWER SUPPLIES
PROBLEMS
1.
fullwave rectifier (bridge circuit)
to an electrostatic air cleaner.

line,
2.
What would have been the
4.
the system
results in
is
to operate from a 117
VDC
VAC, 60-Hz
ratio?
problem
if
a filter
which held the load voltage
were employed?
power supply (using 2 diodes only) operates from a

What would be the average current through a 780-ohm load
certain unfiltered fullwave
220 VAC, 60-Hz

if
to be used without a filter to supply 15k
what must be the transformer turns
at the value of E
3.
If
is
the transformer
line.
is
center-tapped and has a turns ratio (ISL/NJ of 4.0?
What would be the maximum
initial charging current if a single 100 juF capacitor

was attached to the power supply in problem 1? (Hint: Ignore the load and
assume that the ripple frequency is 120 Hz during the first full cycle of operation.
Also assume that the circuit resistance is close to zero.)
filter
25
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
/I
INTRODUCTION. The
this
experiment we
shall
transistor
is
the basic amplifying device used
examine the output terminal
in
characteristics of
electronic circuits.
two common
In
categories
of transistors.
DISCUSSION.
Transistors
may be
righthand junction (between the
classified
N and P
re-
gion marked base and collector, respectively)
two distinct categories: bipolar devices

which depend on the interaction of two types
into
is
we ignore the
moment, we see that
reverse-biased.
If
lefthand
the only
of charge carriers (holes and electrons), and
side for the
unipolar devices which depend on
current flowing across the base-collector junc-
single
type of charge carrier (holes or electrons).
tion
would be the
reverse current called
Iqq
in a transistor.
Bipolar transistors were

in
1948 and have
shown
bol
is
representation
in
of the
figure 4-1 (a).
shown
introduced
The lefthand junction (between the P

and N regions designated emitter and base re-
Let us consider the pic-
tion in electronics.
torial
first
since risen to a central posi-
PNP
transistor
spectively)
the base region
Notice that the
EMITTER
forward-biased and there
is
hole
flow from the emitter into the base region.
(The schematic sym-
in figure 4-1 (b).
is
BASE
is
very thin
COLLECTOR
iiof a
PNP
Fig. 4-1 (a)
Pictorial Representation
Fig. 4-1 (b)
Schematic Representation of PNP Transistor
26
Transistor
(it is
If
usually only
EXPERIMENT 4 BIPOLAR CHARACTERISTICS
few microns thick in most transistors), then

most of the holes which enter the base region
a
(about
99%
swept on across the
usually) are
base-collector junction
or
Ir-t CO
and contribute to the
Only
collector current (Iq).
a small portion
of the emitter current (about 1%) flows in the
However, when Iqq
base circuit.
'c^'c " 'CO
PNP type
In th.e
is
very small compared to
t 'ien
'cJ'
we have
transistor, figure 4-1 (b),
the holes are considered the majority carriers.

It is
equally practical to produce a second
polar transistor using the
NPN
bi-
shown
in figure 4-2.
ence
that electrons are the majority carriers
is
and the supply

that of a
The only major
polarities
PNP type
(4.2)
configuration
differ-
are reversed
In
from
almost
tion
is
all
practical cases, this
approxima-
reasonably valid.
transistor, as are the cur-
rent flow directions.
Inspection of the transistor configuration

reveals that there are six possible circuit ar-
If
we
rents to be equal to
collector current
+pl^, then the
the
common
c =+a F
nection, and the co
E +
4-2
Pictorial
in
fig-
latter
mmon emitter connection.
connections are shown
4-3 and 4-4, respectively.
(4.1)
C0
EMITTER
Fig.
three most important are:
base connection shown
ures 4-1 and 4-2, the c ommon c ollector con-
total
is
These
l
The
rangements.
consider the portion of the emitter
current which contributes to the col lector cur-
BASE
COLLECTOR
and Schematic Representation of an
27
NPN
Transistor
in figures
NPN COMMON COLLECTOR
(A)
4-3
Fig.
(B)
Transistors in
Common
Collector Configuration
III
M /WW COMMON EMITTER

Fig.
In
PNP COMMON COLLECTOR
any
case,
4-4
(B)
Transistors in
Common
bias current
Emitter Configuration
From the common emitter configuration

we see that
the output current and,
hence, the output voltage can be controlled
by controlling the forward
PNP COMMON EMITTER
on the
base side of the transistor.
The common emitter
circuit
is
by
far the
=
c+ e + b o
i
or
most frequently encountered circuit and will,

one dealt with further
therefore, be the only

in this
(fig-
u re 4-4),
'e =
-'c-
'b
experiment.
Substituting this quantity into equation 4.1
As indicated
in
equation 4.1, the collec-
tor current in a transistor
In
c = +a F E + C0
l
most modern
zero so
we can
renders
is
transistors
Iqq
is
And
very near
often use the approximation
= a
+ aF B +
F c
collecting
Iq
terms on
co
the
factoring
c -f"e
28
c (1 -a F )=a F B +l C0
l
left
and
0O or h fe
or
ftp
"
i
r
C = -z1 -a IdB + 1-ap lm
CO
F
(4.3)7
ô
we
(Vq E
is
relatively constant;
will
above this value, the collector current depends
on the value of lg.

almost zero. So we have
directly
is
In
many
cases
fe
the transistor
common
in
Notice that at
mode
l
of operation.
= 0
//A, the collector
current depends on the term
Above
-
is
sometimes
this very small value Iq
linearly related to
called
emitter con-
Figure 4-5 shows a typical output
figuration.
characteristic for this
and the fraction p/1
g at
Ico^ 1
is
"
more or
a given value- of
= 60
mA
=
40juA
= 30 /iA
B
f
8 = 20 juA
10
mA
OjuA
L
5
V C (VOLTS
Fig.
4-5
Output
Characteristics,
Common
Emitter Configuration
MATERIALS
2 Variable
DC power supplies
(0
40V)
VOMsor FEMs
PNP
transistor, No.
NPN
transistor
2N1305 or equivalent
No. 2N1304 or equivalent
Transistor socket
2W
1k
33k 1/4W
resistor
2 Sheets of
29
resistor
linear
less
Vq E
60 juA
J4
we
have the output or collector characteris-
tics of
Iqq
TT^ = h
versus the collector current (Iq),
and
plot the collector to emitter voltage
If
For a particular transistor, the term on

the extreme right
graph paper
Fig.
4-6
The Experimental Circuit
PROCEDURE
1
Construct the circuit shown
2.
in figure
4-6 using the
PNP transistor.
Measure and record the collector current (\q) for colof 0, -1, -2, -4, -6, -8, -10, -12, -14, -16, -18, and -20
Set the base current (lg) to zero.
(V CE )
Be very sure that the base current and
lector-to-emitter voltages
volts.
Repeat the procedure followed
3.
in
collector current values are read.
step 2 for base currents of 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120,
140, 160, 180, and 200/iA.
TRANSISTOR DATA
I
B 0*a)
20
40
60
'c
'c
80
100
120
140
'
160
180
200
'c
'c
'c
V CE
(volts)
'c
'c
0
-1
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-20
Fig.
4-9
The
First
30
Data Table
'c
On
4.
teristic in
the
Repeat steps
5.
graph paper plot the output characteristics of the device. Plot the charac-
a sheet of
first
quadrant even though
through 4 using the
V CE
NPN
and c are negative

l
values.
Don't forget to reverse both power
transistor.
supplies.
TRANSISTOR DATA
l
(juA)
VCE
20
40
60
'c
'c
80
100
120
140
'c
'c
'c
160
180
'c
'c
200
'
(volts)
0
1
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-20
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
The Second Data Table
4-10
In the analysis of these data
you should consider the extent to which your
output characteristics tend to verify the operation of the device as explained
To what
extent
is
How do
your curve similar to figure 4-5?
in
the discussion.
they differ?
PROBLEMS
1.
Using your curves, show
how
the value of
co
for the
PNP
transistor can be
determined,
2.
How can
3.
How
4.
How did
the value of
aF
for the
PNP
transistor be determined
does ap compare between the two transistors?

the
two
sets of curves
compare?
31
from your curves?
experiment
DUCT, N T
!hiIi
? we
th.s experiment
-
e transistor
shall
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR
is
the bas * amplifying device used
examine the output terminal
gories of transistors, the field effect

transistor.
DISCUSStON.
into
two
Transistors
may
distinct categories:
be classified
bipolar devices
which depend on the interaction of

two types
of charge carriers (holes and electrons),
and
unipolar devices which depend
on a
single
type of charge carrier (holes or

electrons).
The type of
in
this
Electrons entering the

(drain)
by the
no
ever, since
is
the unipolar type.
unipolar transistor
is a device which
depends
on only one carrier for its
operation. The
most commonly encountered unipolar
semi-
conductor device is the field effect

transistor
(FET). This is represented pictorial
ly in fig-
ure 5-1 and schematically
in figure 5-2.
We observe from the pictorial that the

junction (gate junction) is
reverse-biased.
Therefore, the only current flow
in gate circuit is the small reverse current
of the junction.
PN
Fig. 5- 1
Pictorial
comZ
common
In
cate
cate-
end of the dedrawn to the right end

left
positive potential (E
free carriers
may
DS ). How-
flow through
the depletion region around the gate

junction,
of the drain current (l ) must flow
through
all
transistor to be considered
electronic circuits
one of the
vice (the source) are
the channel region.
experiment
in
characteristics of
In a particular transistor
the length of the channel will be

fixed.
The
more
or less
cross-section of the channel will
depend on the size of the depletion region

and hence on the value of the gate bias.
The
channel
is a conductive material,
and its resistance will be directly related to
the length
of the channel and inversely related

to the
channel cross-section. In other words,
the resistance from source to drain
depends directly
on the value of the gate bias (E
GS ).
For a
given bias value, the drain current

will be
DS
'd-rT-
of an N-Channel
32
FET
(5.1)
EXPERIMENTS FIELD EFFECT CHARACTERISTICS

by an amount equal to Alp, then
equation
becomes
'd
5.1
D + Al n
=-
l'
And
substituting g
and
calling
current
DS
(l
5-2
Schematic of an N-Channel
m E GS for AI D
D + AI D
(l'
D ), we
HhhU
Fig.
+ Al,
the
new
on the
right
total drain
have
DS
'D-9 m E GS +-p
From
FET
this equation
relatively constant,
We
(5.2)
we
observe that
then when E
QS
if
is
RD
is
zero,
can define the relationship between

a change in E
(AE
and the resulting
)
q ual E DS /R D and an V change of

from this value will be directly related to E
change
Figure 5-3 shows the output characteristics

of
QS
in
QS
(Alp) as follows:
'd wiN
fi
D
DS
l
such a device.
Al,
AE GS
= g
'm
It
important to notice that,
is
practical devices,
RD
in
most
only relatively constant over small ranges of change of

E
QS
E
and
or
is
AI D =
where g
m
tance
Now,
or
if
we
is
DS
9m AE GS
called the forward transadmit-
transconductance of the device.

allow the drain current to change
Many FETs have characteristics which

are not so linear as the ones shown
in figure
5-3.
Usually the spacing between the
lines
tends to increase as
increases.
'd
ImA)
Fig.
5-3
Common Source Output Characteristics N-Channel FET

33

So
far
we
hancement types are constructed a little diffrom the junction type discussed
have considered only the N-
channel FET. It is equally possible to produce a P-channel device. The operation is the
same, but the majority carriers are holes and
all of the potential polarities and current directions
are
reversed
from
those
ferently
above.
the
of
N-channel diode.
Also,
FET
in
we
type of construction
lar
FET
have concentrated on a type of
which the gate voltage
rent flow in the channel.
a device
or
MOSFET
In this
is
FET. A second type

enhancement type FET is also used.
electrically insulated
called an
rial.
Otherwise, the operation
is
very similar.
Enhancement type FETs may be of

the case of the depletion type.
is
either N-
channel or P-channel construction just as
The operation
necessary
insulation
is
in
is
much
the same as a
handling
juA.
Some
MOSFETs
very thin; so thin
can be destroyed
in
However, en-
is
from the channel mate-
reduced to about 0.0001
value of the drain current rather than limiting

it.
field effect transistor).
junction type FET, but the gate current
enhances the
this case the gate potential
the insulated-gate
type of construction, the gate region
called a depletion type
In
is
(the letters are for metal
oxide semiconductor
limits the cur-
Such
more recent and currently very popu-
as the gate
in fact
by touching
is
caution
that
it
the contacts
with the bare hands.
MATERIALS
2 Variable
DC power
supplies (0
VOMsor FEMs
N-channel, depletion type,
Type 40468
40V)
MOSFET,
or equiv.
Transistor socket
1k
2W
resistor
33k 1/4W
Sheet of linear graph paper
resistor
PROCEDURE
1.
Examine the
MOSFET
and identify the drain, source, and gate leads using figure
5-4.
Notice that the lead wires are twisted together (or otherwise short-circuited) to prevent
Before handling the MOSFET, be very sure
your body has not accumulated a high potential electrostatic charge. This can be avoided
by holding a bare grounding strap while handling the FET.
electrostatic
damage to the
gate insulation.
D=
G=
Fig.
2.
5-4
Drain, S = Source
Gate, B = Substrate and Case
40468 Lead Connections
Leaving the gate (G) and case (B) leads shorted, connect the source (S), drain (D),and gate
(G) leads in the circuit
shown
in figure 5-5.
connect the case lead (B) to the source.
34
Then unshort the
gate and case leads and
Fig.
5-5
Set the gate voltage (Eq5> to -5 volts.
3.
drain-to-source voltages (E
DS
of 0,
Measure and record the drain current
1, 2, 4, 6, 8,
10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20
very sure that the gate and drain voltages are set to the prescribed values
of drain current
is
(l
for
volts.
when each
read.
FET DATA
E GS
(volts)
-5.0
-4.5
-4.0
-3.5
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0. 5
-0.0
'D
'D
'd
'd
'd
'd
'd
'd
'd
'd
'd
E DS
(volts)
0
1
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Fig.
5-6
The Data Table
35
Be
value

4.
5.
for gate voltages (E

QS of -4.5, -4.0, -3.5, -3.0,
Repeat the procedure followed in step 3
volts.
0.0
and
-2.5, -2.0, -1.5, -1.0, -0.5,
)
Return both power supplies to zero. Disconnect the FET case lead (B) from the source
(S) and twist it around the gate lead (G). Disconnect the drain, source, and gate leads
and twist them

6.
On
all
together.
Disassemble the remaining circuitry.
graph paper plot the output characteristics of the device. Plot the characthe first quadrant.
a sheet of
teristics in
ANALYSIS GUIDE. In the analysis of these data you should consider the extent to which your
output characteristics tend to verify the operation of the device as explained in the
discussion.
To what
extent
is
your curve similar to the one
in figure
5-3?
How do
they differ?
PROBLEMS
1.
Using your curves, show
Egg
2.
are
how
the value of
DS
can be approximated
known.
if
E DS and
How
can the value of g

m for the FET transistor be determined from your curves?
Does the part of the curve you use effect the value of
g ?
3.
What was the approximate
value of the
MOSFET
determine g .)
m
4.
What
region of the curve did
you use
in
problem 3?
36
used?
(Use your curves to
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
In
priate input currents.
important.
In this
any
TRANSISTOR INPUT
CHARACTERISTICS
practical application of transistors
For
it
is
necessary to supply appro-
this reason the input characteristics of various solid-state. devices are
experiment we
shall
examine the input
characteristics of typical bipolar and
unipolar devices.
DISCUSSION. There
of
are,
course,
possible transistor circuit configurations:
mon
three
depletion region to have approximately con-
com-
stant width in the following discussion of the
emitter.
common collector, and common

Since the common emitter configu-
ration
by
base,
is
tered, only
far the
it
will
be considered
emitter circuit shown
matic form
On
most frequently encoun-
Let us consider the
cussion.
input characteristics.
in
pletion region
in this dis-
NPN common
pictorial
the other hand, the base-collector de-
and sche-
"effective base
than
in figure 6-1.
its
actual
base width
If
the electrode voltages (V
BE and
V CE
The
in
re-
As a result the
somewhat narrower
is
width"
is
physical width (the physical
typically only a
in
few microns).
collector voltage
and effectively make the base region even
more narrow.
Any small change
base-emitter voltage will cause very small
change
We
bias.
wide due to the
widen the base-collector depletion region
will
base-
emitter depletion region will be quite narrow
because of the forward
relatively
Moreover, any increase
are constant, then the depletion regions at the
junctions will be of constant width.
is
verse bias of that junction.
As
a result of the reduced effective base
in
the width of that depletion region.
width, an electron passing from emitter to
shall,
therefore assume the base-emitter
base
EMITTER
-BASE
Fig. 6-1
is
even more likely to continue on to the
COLLECTOR
An NPN Common
37
Emitter Circuit
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
EXPERIMENT 6
The
it was at a lower collecmore of the emitter current
collector region than
tor voltage. Since
above
tends to flow through the transistor to the

collector,
to flow
in
ical
is
NPN
overall result of the discussion given
reflected in figure 6-2
which
is
a typ-
transistor input characteristic.
there are fewer electrons available
the base circuit.
As
a result the
The voltages and currents would, of
base current tends to decrease with increasing

collector voltage, provided that
base voltage constant.
If,
we wish to maintain a
then we must increase
collector voltage
is
we hold
course, be reversed for a
Since the input characteristics of a tran-
constant base current,
sistor are essentially those
the base voltage as the
diode,
tively
However, an increase of one volt
from
2 volts causes a
much
Vq E
volt to
larger relative
Vq E
from about 1k to 10k ohms.
=
in
Vq E
If
we examine
the input circuit of a field
effect transistor circuit such as the
10 volts to Vq E = 11 volts. Consequently,

the required change in base voltage \snot lin-
in
figure 6-3,
istics
early related to the change in collector voltage.
we
see that the input character-
such they tend to be about 10
Typical
NPN
Transistor Input Characteristic
38
one shown
are those of a reverse-biased diode.
(ma)
6-2
of a forward-biased
we would expect them to present relalow ohmic values.

And indeed they
typically run
in col-
change
base width than does a change from
Fig.
type transistor.
on the other hand,
increased.
lector potential
PNP
the
ohms.
As
EXPERIMENT 6
Fig.
MOSFET
The
A Common Source
6-3
sistances (about 10
cases).
As
10
to 10
a result the
FET
15
ohms
in
re-
most
high input resistances.
when
presents relatively
dealing
On
the other hand,
with sources which
produce
small current changes (such as strain gages,
few input resistance problems.
etc.),
The
FET
come to is that where loading is a problem,

the FETs have the distinct advantage of very
having an insulated gate
junction tends to offer even higher input
N-Channel
INPUT CHA FtA CTERISTICS
overall conclusion that
the low input resistance of the transis-
tor offers a considerable advantage.
one should
MATERIALS
3
VOMsor FEMs
PNP transistor, type 2N1305 or equivalent

MOSFET, type 40468 or equivalent
1k resistor 1/2W
Transistor socket
33k
2 Variable
DC
supplies (0-
resistor 1/2
40V)
PROCEDURE
1.
in figure
6-4 using the
PNP
transistor.
DC mA
BOTTOM VIEW
METER
33k
DC
SUPPLY
2N1305
Fig.
6-4
The
First
39
EXPERIMENTS
2.
Set the collector voltage supply for a collector voltage of -1.0 volts.
3.
Measure and record the base-emitter voltage for base currents of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80,
100, 120, 140, 160, 180, and 200 mA. Be sure that the collector voltage remains constant at the prescribed value.
4.
Repeat step 3 for collector voltages of -2.5, -5.0, -5.5, -10.0, -12.5, -15.0, -17.5 and
-20.0 volts.
5.
On
6.
Disassemble the circuit shown in figure 6-3 and assemble the circuit shown in figure 6-4.
Observe the Appropriate Precautions to Prevent Electrostatic Damage to the Gate Insu-
a single sheet of graph paper plot the input characteristics of the transistor.
lation of the
7.
and the DC mA meter to its lowest range. Vary the gate

voltage from 0 to -5V and record any indication on the DC mA meter. Prepare a data
Set the drain voltage to +1
sheet
8.
MOSFET.
if
.0 volts
necessary.
Repeat step 7 for drain voltages of
5, 10, 15,
and 20
volts.
V CE
(volts)
<B
(ma)
1.0
5.0
10.0
12.5
20.0
v BE
vB e
V BE
V BE
vB e
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Fig.
6-5
The Data Table
40
Fig.
Disassemble the
9.
Damage
6-6
circuit.
Observe the Appropriate Measures to Prevent Electrostatic
MOSFET.
scribed in the discussion.
to the Gate Insulation of the
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
from the PNP
EXPERIMENT 6
compare the PNP
Explain the results you got with the
transistor results to those de-
FET and compare them
with those
transistor.
PROBLEMS
1
Calculate the approximate value of the static input resistance of the
PNP
Compute the range of the dynamic input
transistor.
2.
resistance of the PNP transistor.

the significance of dynamic resistance so far as a transistor is concerned?
3.
If
the input resistance of an
How does your
input curve for the
PNP
is
10 12 ohms, when would this become an im-
FET were
portant factor?
4.
What
transistor
41
compare to
figure 6-2?
TRANSISTOR LOADLINE ANALYSIS
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
Transistors are widely used

in a practical
transistor will function properly

In this
established.
experiment we
shall
kinds of electronic applications.
in all
application, the
explore
how
DC
can be accomplished
this
Before a
electrode potentials must be

in
the
common
emitter circuit.
DISCUSSION.
Let us consider the
emitter transistor circuit

If
we apply
which we should recognize as a
in figure 7-1.
we
cc
-l
(Vqq and
see that
cR L
linear relation-
ship (straight line) for \q in terms of
Kirchhoff's voltage law to the
collector loop,
'
shown
common
R|_
Vq^.
would both be constants
in a
practical case.)
-V CE = 0
For any specific transistor
we
will
have
another type of information relating Iq to

or,
if
we
solve for \q, the result
^CE
is
V CC - VCE
'c
'
typical
teristic
is
We
This
may
f rm f the output characteristic.
t 'ie
example of such an output

shown in figure 7-2.
can plot equation 7.1 on the output
characteristic
be rewritten
in
the form
equation 7.1
by observing that when

is
equal to zero, then
=_cc
(7.1)
i
Fig. 7-1
A Common
42
charac-
Emitter Amplifier
(when
v CE
o>
Vq^
in
EXPERIMENT 7
LOAD LINE ANAL YSIS
= 0 juA
VCE = V CC
Fig.
7-2
Typical
This point can be plotted at

In =
V CC
Vq E
NPN Common
= 0 and
which can flow through both the 2k load
and the
sistor
(12V/2k = 6
mA
using values from
on the Iq
If
current,
when Iq in equation 7.1

then we may solve for Vq and get
E
Similarly,
V CE
V CC ^hen c
l
and
is
we only knew the value of the base

we could determine the value of Iq
Vq E
for this transistor circuit.
cuit
Vqq
line at
is
Conse-
loadline,
as
outlined
above,
is
cir-
very
important.
= 0)
We may
It
quently, the construction of the collector
This point can also be plotted on the characteristic curve.
Vq E
axis line of the output
characteristic.
zero,
re-
transistor simultaneously for
the given value of (12V) of
L
figure 7-1)
Emitter Output Characteristic
located on the
Vq E
(12 volts using the values
determine the value of base cur-
rent in the circuit given in figure 7-1
axis
by ob-
serving that the loop equation for the base
in fig-
circuit
is
ure 7-1).
Now,
since equation
straight line,
v B b-'b r b- v be
7.1
we can simply connect
the two
which may be solved for
points already found (colored line in figure

7-2).
This
line
is
= 0
represents a
called the loadline of the
2k
_
load resistor acting in series with the transistor T

It represents all possible values of Iq
1
'B
43
lg, giving us
V BB" V BE
(7.2)
LOADLINE ANAL YS/S
EXPERIMENT 7
100
-
^
oil
/
"
/ /
V BB
B
60
b (mA)
40
40 juA
V BB- 0.35V
v\
20
.0.16V
-20
IX
0.1
0.2
0.3
V BE V0LTS
<
may
This equation
7-3
Fig.
NPN Common
Typical
be rewritten
the form
in
0.4
>
Emitter Input Characteristic
therefore, to arbitrarily choose a value of base
current (say 35 /xA) and, using equation 6.2,

solve for the corresponding value of
(7.3)
V BE
v be- v bb-'b r b
Notice that this
of equation as
7.
essentially the
is
1
We may
same form
In this case,
3
therefore proceed
10
just as in the construction of the collector cir-
cuit loadline.
That
is, if
V BE
is
(7.2)
then
= 1.5 - 35 X 10" 6
X 33 X
volts.
The chosen value of B
and the computed value of V
0.35
(35 fiA)
equal to zero,
V BE
BE
(0.35 volts) are then used to locate a second
point on the base circuit loadline.
This point
Vdd
"^
may
(when
V BE
0)
The base circuit loadline may then be

drawn between the two identified points, as
indicated in figure 7-3.
be plotted along the
the input characteristic where
(1.5/33,000 = 45.5
ure 7-1.)
/xA using values
This point
is
axis of
V BB /R B
from
section
characteristic curve (point
fig-
we may
shown plotted on the
V BE
input characteristic in figure 7-3, the point
where
V BE = V BB
input characteristic.
is
common
practice,
read the values of
(0.16V) for the
usually far off of the

It is
At the point of
in figure 7-3),
B (40
/iA)
and
circuit.
second and much quicker method of
arriving at a value for the base current
44
inter-
of the base loadline and the input
is
to
7-4
Fig.
assume
V BE
a value for
germanium
transistors
transistors.
They
Locating the
Q Point on
Use 0.2 volts for
and 0.6 volts for
in
mA
the case illustrated
in
= 41
.5 juA
we
V CE
^ 40 /iA
V BE
will
be 0.16
we may
teristic
and locate the actual quiescent opera-
fig-
"
V BE
"
V CB
" 0
<
7 4>
-
or
With the value of the base current determined,
In the
V CE" V BE
example then
return to the output charac-
ting point of the transistor.
If
the loadline (see figure 7-4) until
V CB =
we move up
we reach the
intersection with the appropriate base current
(40 juA
and
observe that
V CB
line
jtxA
this
At the same
be 5.6 volts.
will
be 40
At
Returning to the original circuit of
-R^V BE+ ^S= 47.55

- 6.05 AtA
Vq E
will
circuits.
see that Iq will be 3.2
volts.
ure 7-1,
we
figure 7-4
and
time
using
above would have been
'c
Loadline
the
both the collector and base

point
silicon
are almost always near these
values and can be used to solve for
equation 7.3. The result
LOADLINE ANAL YSIS
EXPERIMENT 7
in this
example),
we have
Similarly,
we
are related
by
located
the quiescent operating point (Q). This is the

only point on the output characteristic which
5.6
-0.16 = 5.44
see that the terminal currents
=
c +l E + B 0
l
or
'e--'c-'b
simultaneously satisfies the requirements of
45
volts
(7.5)
EXPERIMENT 7
And
LOADLINEANA L YSIS
using values of
the voltage
loadline analysis
l
= -3.2 X 1CT 3 - 40 X 10" 6 = - 3.24
By employing
loadline analysis
mA
we
It
R^
or
EB =
is
=
L
V CC
"
V CE
1Z0
= 6
" 5 6
-
V BB" V BE
-5-0.16= 1.34
volts
Once again the close agreement of the two

methods indicates that our graphical analysis
of the base circuit was accurate.
R = 3.2 X 2 = 6.4 volts

L = c L
or, alternately,
volts
are
also follows that the
voltage across the collector resistor
the value of
Eg = IgRg = 40 X 33 X 10" 3 = 1.34
able to evaluate all of the transistor terminal
voltages and currents.
we may compute
across Rg using
Similarly,
through
c and B found
volts
The
The close comparison between either of these

two methods of calculating E|_ indicates that
discussion
analysis technique presented in this

is
called static loadline analysis or
DC loadline analysis and
is one of the common

methods of determining the DC operating
voltages and currents in a transistor circuit.
our graphical analysis of the collector circuit

was reasonably accurate.
MATERIALS
2 Variable
DC
supplies (0-
40V)
2 Resistance substitution boxes

(0- 100k 2W)
PIMP transistor type
Transistor socket
Set of
VOMsor FEMs
common
2N1305
or equivalent
emitter input and output
characteristics for
2N1305
PROCEDURE
1.
Examine the
circuit
shown
in figure 7-5.
Note the supply voltage
polarities.
R.
2N1305
BOTTOM VIEW
Fig.
7-5
46
EXPERIMENT 7 LOADUNE ANALYSIS
2.
Using the characteristic curves and assuming:
V cc
Determine the values of
computed data
3.
Assemble the
in
= 1,5 volts
V BB
= 10 volts
\q,
Vq E
R L = 3.3k
Vg^, E V^g, Eg, and E L
lg,
R B = 47k
Record the values as
the data table.
assumed
circuit using the values
in
step 2.
Use resistance substitution
boxes for R L and Rg.

4.
Measure and record each of the values computed
in
step 2. (Note:
lg
may
be determined
by measuring Eg, then using lg = Eg/Rg).

5.
Compute
6.
Repeat steps 2 through 5 using:
the percent difference between each pair of data values.
V cc =
Vgg
R L = 4.7k
12 volts
= 2.0 volts
R B = 68k
Similarly, repeat steps 2 through 5 using:
V CC
= 9 volts
R|_ = 2.2k
Vgg
R B = 33k
volt
Circuit
v cc = 10V
R L = 3.3k
Conditions
V BB =1.5V
Rg = 47k
Quantity
'c
'e
V CE
V BE
VCB
EB
Comp. Data
Meas. Data
Diff.
Circuit
Conditions
Quantity
'c
V CC =12V
R L = 4.7k
V BB
R B = 68k
= 2.0V
V CE
V BE
Comp. Data
Meas. Data
Diff.
Fig.
7-6
The Data Tables
47
V CB
EB
EXPERIMENT 7 LOADLINE ANALYSIS
Circuit
v CC = 9V
RL =
Conditions
V BB= 1V
R B = 33k
Quantity
'E
V CE
v BE
2. 2k
V CB
EL
EB
Comp. Data
Meas. Data
Diff.
Fig.
8.
Include your characteristic curves as part of the data and clearly identify each
loadline
and each
point
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
loadline
7-6
method of
how your
circuit analysis,
how
you should consider primarily the reliability of the

computed values agreed, and
well your measured and
computational accuracy could have been improved.
PROBLEMS
1.
What was the
2.
What was the dynamic output
3.
What was the
static
static
output resistance of the transistor at each

resistance at each
point?
point?
and dynamic input resistance of the transistor
at
each of the
points?
4.
What
is
the importance of the dynamic input resistance of a transistor?
48
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
If
the loadline analysis of a transistor
point must be fixed.
In this
point and holding
position.
DISCUSSION.
it in
BIASING AND BIAS STABILITY
experiment
Let us consider the
in
we
shall
is to be reliable, then the quiescent

consider methods of establishing the quiescent
common
figure 8-1.
Under
c = -a F E + C0
l
(8.1)
normal operating conditions, the output characteristic (with collector circuit loadline)
pictured
current
in figure 8-2,
is
where a F is the ratio of the emitter current

which flows in the collector circuit to the
as
and the net collector
is
total emitter current.
Fig. 8-1
A Common
Emitter Transistor Circuit
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE
Fig.
8-2
Typical Output Characteristic
49
EXPERIMENT 8 BIASING AND BIAS STABILITY

This
But from figure 8-1, we see that

i
may
+ c+ b =o
be rewritten
T^
c=
the form
in
J
T
^'co
<
8 2>
-
or
which
i
=
+ B
E -o c
i
the equation usually given for the
is
collector current of a
cuit.
common
typical value for otp
is
emitter
cir-
0.99; therefore,
equation 8.2 typically reduces to something

like
Substituting this quantity into equation 8.1

for
F renders
l
oi
c+
al
From
co
lg
is
100I
B + 100
c0
we
this typical relationship,
see that
constant, then any small change
in
will be reflected a hundred times greater
or
\qq
c (1-a F )=a F B + c
l
is
If
we
perature of the transistor, then
and
_
CT
F B
'CO tenc s t0
l
CO
Fig.
8-3
increase.
shifts the entire
as
shown
more
This increase
tem-
carriers
in
and
Iqq
output characteristic upward
in figure
8-3 (colored
Shift in Q-Point with Temperature
50
raise the
available in the transistor material

'
Iqq
in \q.
the reverse bias current across the
base-collector junction.
become
if
lines).
As the
must also
EXPERIMENTS BIASING AND BIAS STABILITY
characteristics shift, the Q-point
from
shift
its
on the loadline to a new location

result
both Iq and
values, Iq
The
change
in
Vq E
therefore continue to rise and Iq along with
original location (Q)
must
(Q').
also shift to
it
As a
new
destroyed) by
dition
and Vq^.
cur
ratio of the
Iqq
of the circuit
is
until the transistor
change
From the above
discussion,
own
we
damaged
internal heat.
(or
This con-
runaway and does
oc-
poorly stabilized circuits.

the stability factor of tran-
sistor circuits, a resistor
called the stability factor (S)
can see that the stability factor
its
called thermal
To improve
Iq for a given
in
in
is
finally
is
is
frequently inserted
in
the emitter lead of the transistor as shown
in
figure 8-4.
To
see
how
this
improves the
is
stability factor, let us observe that the input
loop equation
now
is
(8.3)
v bb-'b r b- v be +
Using the values cited before,
S=
A
factor
we would have
change
in
Iq
poor
for
recall that
re = 0
(8.4)
equation 8.2
is
stability
small
change) can cause severe problems.
subjected to a sudden change
in
or
Iqq
For ex-
ample, suppose the circuit discussed above
lp(1-a F >=aFl
+ 'CO
R T
F'B
l
is
temperature
which may be solved for B rendering
(perhaps by a nearby soldering iron) and Iqq

increases a small
^=100
transistor circuit with a

(large
However, we
amount. The value of Iq
in-
creases proportionally which generates

2
heat (Iq Rq) inside the transistor.
more
Iqq will
'8
az
'be
BB
Fig.
8-4
Stabilized Transistor Circuit
51
'C
p'C0
(8.5)
Remember
Also equation 8.1
the change
l
c = -a F E + C0
Substituting the
two values
dp
was
times the change
in
words, S was equal to 100.
0.99.)
and
(lg
RE + RB
R + R (1 -ap)
E
B
Ig) into
We
1-a F
c was 100
or, in other
the previous example
(8.6)
Ofr
equation (8.4) provides
'BB
in
Let us now suppose that

=
RB
10k and R E = 1k are used in the same
circuit. S now becomes
CO
co
(ap
be solved for E giving us
may
in
that
RB
'CO
^BE
+ 10(0.01)
,4=io
1.1
have, therefore, improved the stability fac-
by
tor considerably
'c^B
11
1
inserting the 1k emitter
In typical circuits, values for
resistor.
S nor-
mally range from about 5 up to about 20.

Fti
Q!p
CO
= 0
lr
'C
ftp
Up
to this point,
we have always
sidered circuits biased in the
which may be solved for \q rendering
figure 8-1
V BB
a F( V BB- V BE)-'CQ< R E + R B>

!
R E + R B (1-a F
which may be rewritten
F<
R E + R B (1-a F
Now,
if
first
and any change
change
RE
Vgg, ap, V BE
constant, then the

stant
RE + RB
in
Iqq.
in
+R B (1-a F
'CO
This
may
R B and R E are all

term above is a con-
practical
transistor
network
battery equivalent by Th^venizing the circuit

to the left of the points X, X.
Iq must be caused by
therefore write
RE + RB
C-R F + R B (1- ap AI CO
v bb- v ccr7Tr:
Disconnecting
we
the circuit at these points,
equivalent bias battery voltage
AI
bias
be readily reduced to the simpler two
,.
We may
easy to analyze,
is
it is not very practical because it requires two

power supplies (V BB and Vqq). A much
more practical and consequently frequently
encountered method is the single supply circuit shown in figure 8-5.
as
V
BB" Vop)
BE
in
using a separate base bias supply
While such a circuit
con-
manner shown
see that the
would be
(8.8)
and since
and
the Tb^venin's source
would be the
and R'
parallel
we have
RB =
RE + RB
R E + R B M -a F
(8.7)
R 1 R2
R 1 + R,
For purposes of analysis
resistance (R
B
combination of R 1
it is
(8.9)
often convenient
to replace the practical single supply bias net-
52
Fig.
INPUT
source
8-5
The Single Supply Transistor Circuit
SIGNAL
OUTPUT
Fig.
8-6
The Two-Battery Equivalent of Figure 8-5
work with its equivalent two-battery

shown in figure 8-6.
Although
this
discussion
NPN
circuit as
transistors throughout, the results are
equally appropriate for either
has featured
NPN
or
types.
MATERIALS
2 Resistance substitution boxes
meg 1/2W)
1k resistor 1/2W
5.6k resistor 1/2W
33k resistor 1/2W
(0- 10
1
1
2
2
53
2N 1305
transistor or equivalent
DC supplies (0-40V)
VOMsor FEMs
Soldering iron (approximate 35W)
Transistor socket
PNP
Fig.
8-7
The First Experimental Circuit
PROCEDURE
1.
Assemble the
2.
Set
3.
Allow the soldering
4.
Record the value of the collector current
5.
Compute and record the approximate
6.
circuit
to zero
shown
ohms and
in figure 8-7.
the base current to 50 /xA.
iron to
warm
up.
(Iq).
value of
aF
using
aF
-Iq/(Iq +
'b^
Hold the hot soldering iron near the top of the transistor case for about three to
five
seconds.
7.
Record the
maximum
value reached by the collector current 0 ') as

C
it
increases
due to
the heat.
8.
Allow the
ured
9.
in
10.
returns to near the
initial
value meas-
step 4.
Using the
change
transistor to cool until the value of
in
initial
value of
c and
the
maximum
reached
in
step 7,
compute and record the
Iq (AIq).
a p determined in step 5, and the values of R and R compute and

B
record the approximate value of the stability factor (S).

Using the value of
11.
Repeat steps 4 and 6 through 10 for emitter resistor values of 470,

1000, 1500, 2200,
3300, and 4700 ohms. Be sure to reset
to 50 mA before each temperature cycle!
l
12.
Assemble the
circuit
shown
in figure 8-8.
54
USE RESISTANCE
SUBSTITUTION
BOXES FOR
15V
R-
ANDR 0
Fig.
8-8
13.
Measure and record the values of lg and
14.
Compute and record
15.
As
16.
Replace the
17.
Again record lg and
18.
Heat the transistor as
Iq.
the values of the equivalent
Vgg
and Rg.
before, heat the transistor for three seconds and record AIq.
R^
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
R2
bias
network with the equivalent
and Rg.
Iq.
in
step 15 and record AIq.
you should compare the values of the
factors in the first circuit with the observed change in Iq.

sider the extent to
Vgg
In
which the two bias networks appeared to
RE
'c
(ohms)
(juA)
(mA)
the case of the second circuit, con-
give the
'c
aF
(mA)
470
1000
1500
2200
3300
4700
Data from First Experimental Circuit
Fig.
8-9
The Data Tables
55
stability
same
Al
results.
(mA)
ELECTRON ICS/AMP LI
Bias Circuit
R.j,
<B
"c
V BB
(MA)
(mA)
(volts)
RB
Al c
(ohms)
(mA)
R2 Network
V BB' R B Networ k
Data from Second Experimental Circuit
Fig.
8-9
PROBLEMS
1.
2.
3.
What was the
stability factor in the
second experimental circuit?
Does the relationship of the stability factor to the change in collector current
second circuit compare favorably with the trend in the first circuit?
If
the quiescent collector current
factor
is
12.6,
in a certain transistor is
what would be the new value of
from 6 juA to 10 mA?
56
mA
and the
collector current
if
co
in
the
stability
changes
fl
ovn0 r, m0 nt
exper.ment
TRANSISTOR A
GRAPHICAL A*
INTRODUCTION. The basic application of transistors is as electronic amplifying devices. In

this experiment we shall examine the graphical method of analyzing a complete amplifier stage.
Because the common emitter amplifier is the most frequently encountered type, it is the circuit
that will be considered.
DISCUSSION.
Let us consider the
common
R
To make
in figure 9-1.
RiR
n2
1
(9.1)
B"-R. + R
2
t<l
the graphical analysis a
we can Th^venize
circuit
little
easier to handle,
And
the bias network in the base
we
shall
may temporarily
C 2 as well as the
resistance (Rg) using
ling capacitor
V BB
V CC
Fig. 9-1
Fig.
initially
DC
Practical
9-2
Common
The Simplified
57
coup-
These changes are shown
Circuit
we
load (R and
and the emitter bypass
Emitter Amplifier Circuit
DC (Q-Point)
AC
signal source (also the
figure 9-2.
concerned only
quiescent point,
ignore the
(C<|)
capacitor (C3)).
and
r: + R*
be
with establishing the
by finding the equivalent bias battery
(Vgg) and base
since
in
ELECTRONICS/AMPLIFIE
AMPLIFIER GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
EXPERIMENT 9
100 M A
t
E
LU
oc
OC
o
DC
I-
o
LU
=
'b
mA
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE (VOLTS)

Fig.
The output
9-3
Typical Transistor Output Characteristic
characteristics of the transis-
write the input and output loop equations
tor will be similar to those given in figure 9-3.
=
'bb-'b r b- v be + e r e 0
i
For purposes of
illustration, let us sup-
and
pose that the circuit component values are:

R|_ =
1500 ohms
V cc
RE =
500 ohms
V BB
RB =
10k ohms
Using these values
V CC-'C R L- V CE +
5 volts
If
2 volts
we observe
t 'ien
~'c ~ 'B'
V BB
construct the col-
from
V cc on
the col-
-l
V CCV CC
15
RL + RE
1500 + 500
on the collector current
lie
axis.
= 7.5
mA
= 0orl =
c + B
E
l
re duce
the loop equa-
B (R B + R E )-l c R E
_v BE
B R E-'C< R L + R E>-
Solving these
Notice that this
V CE
The quiescent operating point must

somewhere along this loadline.
To
E
can
RE = 0
= 0
V CE
= 0
two equations simultaneously
and eliminating Iq we have
the loadline of the series combination of
and R E
we
and
lector voltage axis to
is
that
tions to
we can
lector circuit loadline
- >B
pR B +
R E )(R L
R^
(R L+ R
+R E
" R
eJ
locate the exact Q-point,
we must
L cc
)(V
Re
BB
-V BE
)
|
j
(9.2)
58
EXPERIMENT 9
O
The Example Circuit
9-4
Fig.
9-5
Fig.
This equation, while being quite involved,
The
AC Equivalent Circuit
duces to a very useful form when the circuit
original
values (and assuming 0.2 volts or 0.6 volts for
with the component values used
Vg[i of a germanium or silicon transistor,
ample
re-
For example, using
used.
are
spectively)
circuit
above
is
shown again
and
given previously,
V CE
it
reduces to
= 42 X 10 3
+ 7.8
= 82k
the
the ex-
following
fore, be plotted
The plot of
is
on the output
this line
they
and may, there-
(shown dotted
may
is
intersection of the bias line and the
collector circuit loadline
is
erating point of the transistor.
we
see that the Q-point
that the
about 9
is
In
circuit
the exam-
(Vq^)
is
about 3 mA, and the base current (lg)
is
R.
let
us
AC
Moreover,
resistance will be very
we may draw
in
figure 9-5.
now
the
Rg
acts in
with the input resistance of the tran-
The
is
That
total effective load in the collector
the parallel combination of R

L and
is,
We must
now
concerned.
RRi
juA.
Having determined the
is
Using these facts
rc
DC
ditions,
signal
is
the collector current (Iq)
about 25
AC
located such
collector-emitter voltage
volts,
sistor.
the quiescent op-
be so small that
the same value as before, but
parallel
The
will
AC equivalent circuit shown
line.
sin cot volts
be considered to be short circuits so
near zero.
called the emitter loadline or the bias
= 0.03
the reactance of the capac-
the battery internal
in figure
far as the
characteristics.
C 2 and C3)
itors (C<|,
relates to the collector-emitter voltage

(lg)
R = 3k ohms
ohms
R 2 = 12k ohms
volts
particular note of the fact that this equa-
(Vq> to the base current
ple,
figure 9-4
in
values:
In a practical case,
Take
9-3)
assuming
in
= 0-2 volts and the component values
^BE
tion
The
conditions within the amplifier circuit.
re-
DC operating
-rtw[
keep
bias circuits not
<
9 3>
-
mind the fact that the

shown in the AC equiva-
in
lent circuit are functioning to establish the
con-
consider the signal (AC)
quiescent operating point.
59
EXPERIMENT 9
160
Fig.
9-6
Typical
The current from the input
Germanium
signal source
The
divides between the equivalent base resistor

and the dynamic input resistance of the transistor.
Transistor Input Characteristic
Figure 9-6 shows a typical germanium
transistor input characteristic.
change
resulting
in
change
. s _ 0.03 sin
8 " ^
2000
In
base current (Alg) and the

base-to-emitter
in
input current to the stage will
We may deter-
mine the approximate value of the transistor's

dynamic input resistance (rj) graphically using
a small
AC
then be
point
voltage
is
cot
v
15X
il=
10
sin cot
the
collector circuit the
still
determined by the
as indicated in figure 9-7.
(AV BE ):
4f% _ B
amps
operating
DC
loadline,
However, the
AC
signal has a load of
r
i
AV,BE
p.^J^L
R
(9.4)
Al B
rTr^
3000X 1500 = innn

1 00ohms
4500
,
and
rr
i
V"
BE
tn
Q
at
This load
may
be represented on the output

characteristic as an AC loadline. We may con-
point
(9.4A)
struct this line

In this case,
0.04V/20 //A = 2000 ohms.
by observing that
it
must pass
through the quiescent point, Q, and have
60
Fig.
slope of -1/Rcsee that,
if
V CE
9-7
Since R c
changes
to 10 volts), then Iq
EXPERIMENT 9
Operation of the
1000 ohms, we
is
volts(from 9 volts
must change by
Common
Emitter Amplifier
AC component
of the collector voltage will be

2 volts peak-to-peak and 180 out of phase
with the
AC
base current.
We
may, therefore,
write
AV CE
which
from 3
is
mA
(at
Q) to 2 mA.
plot the point P (on figure 9.7) at

volts,
Vq E
If
we
= 10
AC
that the AC
loadline through P and Q.
sin cot volts
At the same time, the collector current varies

2 mA peak-to-peak and is in phase with the
AC
base current; therefore,
Notice
is
not the same as the
DC
loadline.
Now, if we apply the AC base current

=
(ig
15 X 10" 6 sin cot) having a peak-to-peak
amplitude of 30 fiA, it will swing along the
AC
loadline
Ig
= 40 juA
V CE
= -1
= 2 mA, we may draw the 1k
loadline
will
from Ig = 10
(at
point O).
mA
(at
point
And
swing from 10 volts to 8
P)
We may
X 10" 3
sin cot
amps
define the voltage amplification
(or voltage gain) of the stage as
to
as a result,
volts.
The
(9.5)

EXPERIMENT 9
The
example above, the voltage gain would
In the
total source current will be
be
Av
"
0.03 sin cot
which means that the
-67
D/
RBr
- P /
" ^
R^+n
18 X 10" 6
AC output voltage is 67
AC input voltage and is
times as large as the

180 out of phase with
We may
*""
The current
it.
- n
- 03
s,n
sin cot
amps
gain
'S
Finally,
fication (or
wt/
we can
power
10,000X 2000
TTooo
mM& m
10~ 3
18 X lO" 6
cation (or current gain) of the stage as
therefore,
is,
A _|L^ 0.67X
also define the current amplifi-
sin cot
define the
power
ampli-
gain) of the stage as
(9.6)
A
where
L is the current through the load

tor (R) and ig is the total source current.
i
In
which,
in this case,
A
In
= _
o_
R
= IA v l|Aj
(9.7)
resis-
our example we see that
would be
67X41^2750
conclusion,
we have
seen
sin cot
3000
used to determine both the
= 0.67 X 10" 3
that the
graphic characteristics of a transistor
sin cot
amps
DC
and
may be
AC
opera-
ting conditions.
MATERIALS
1
Transistor type
Variable
VOM
or
2N1304
DC supply
FEM
Oscilloscope
Audio generator
Set of curves for
(0
or equivalent
40V)
2N 1 304
meg
resistor 1/2
8.2k resistor 1/2W
2 2.2k resistors 1/2W

1
33k
Transistor socket
resistor
1/2W
transistor
BOW VDC capacitors

ohm resistor 1/2W
3 10 mF,
1k
PROCEDURE
1.
On
the transistor output characteristic plot the
figure 9-8.
62
DC
loadline for the circuit
shown
in
EXPERIMENT 9
DC POWER
SUPPLY
Fig.
L
3.
9-8
Simplify equation 9.2 using the circuit component values specified

Plot the bias line
in figure 9-8.
on the output characteristics and locate the Q-point. Record the values
Vq,
\q,
and Ig at the Q-point.
4.
Plot the
AC
loadline
5.
Locate the Q-point on the transistor's input characteristics and record
6.
Compute and record
7.
Compute and
of
result
if
the input resistance of the stage
record the
10
is
on the output characteristics of the
mV
AC
transistor.
Vgg
and
rj.
(Zj).
base current (ig) and the
AC
source current
(ig)
which
rms.
Mark the peak-to-peak swing of the base current on the AC loadline. Record the
in collector voltage and collector current e and
c
c ).
8.
ponding swing
10.
Compute and
11.
Qty.
V CE
values of e 0 and
record the values of
corres-
Compute and record the rms
9.
will
>B
V BE
Av
Aj,
i|_.
and
in figure 9.8.
rj
Z|
le
's
Loadline
Values
Measured
Values
Fig.
9-9
The Data Table
63
'c
Av
'L
A p'
A
i
12.
14.
V CE V BE c
,
and B
l
output voltage, measure and record the
DC
opera-
Move the
rms
oscilloscope to the output of the stage and measure e
volts.
Using a
tor.
16.
Connect the oscilloscope to measure e s Adjust the audio generator frequency to 1 kHz.
Set the generator output level for an e of 10 mV (rms). Make a sketch of the input
s
waveform
in
15.
set for zero
With the audio generator

ting values of
13.
EXPERIMENT 9
Make
VOM,
a sketch of the
Record the value of e

Q
output waveform.
measure the rms voltage across the
Compute and record the input current
resistor in series
with the audio genera-
Using the measured value of e and the resistance of the load, compute and
record the
Q
load current (i ).
L
AC
17.
Using measured values only, compute and record
18.
Using
Av
Av
and Aj from step 17, compute and record
and
AD
Aj.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In analyzing this data, you should compare the loadline

values to the measured ones and evaluate the effectiveness of the loadline analysis in predicting
the circuit perform-
ance.
In particular, discuss
any areas
in
which you
feel that
the loadline analysis was completely
inadequate.
PROBLEMS
1.
What was the
stability factor of the circuit
2.
What was the
value of
compare to R E ? What
3.
What
is
X c for C3
is
in
this
in this
experiment?
the experiment (at
kHz)?
How does
this value
the purpose of this capacitor?
and C2 in the circuit? Could either one of them be

experiment without affecting the results?
the function of
omitted from
used
64
It f VACUUM TUBE CHARACTERISTICS
experiment
INTRODUCTION. The vacuum

are
tube was for
many
years the basic electronic device, and there
some applications in which it is used. In this experiment, we

two mcfst common types of tubes.
still
shall
examine the terminal
characteristics of the
DISCUSSION. The
constructed
vacuum tube
triode
by inserting a
helically
tial
is
wound
the grid tends to force the space charge back
grid wire between the cathode and plate of a
toward the cathojde.
thermionic high vacuum diode.
rangement
is
to the grid, then the negative charge on
Such an arshown schematically in figure
On
the other hand,
when we apply
positive potential to the plate, the electrons
10-1.
are attracted to
it.
Because the grid
is
much
closer to the space charge than the plate
we
If
there
is
no
um
is
the grid has the greater influence of the two.
potential applied to either the grid
The grid is consequently able to control the

amount of plate current that flows for a given
value of plate voltage. For this reason we call
formed
diode.
is,
when
consider the cathode action
or the plate electrodes,
charge
Now,
we
see that the space
just as in the case of a vacuif
we apply
a negative poten-
Fig. 10-1
this
Triode
65
element a control grid.
Vacuum Tube
EXPERIMENT
10
the grid-to-cathode voltage (E GK is

that
zero, then the amount of plate current
will
be
flow
dp)
will
)
If
And
we
since
started with
value of
AEq^
We may
therefore write
=
'P
where Rp
is
effective static plate resistance.
some value of
is
now
amount (Alp) which

change (AE
GK )
of proportionality
(g
current
is
under
The constant
The change
will, therefore,
in
The
p =
plate
Rp
m and
If
(10.1)
Eq^
are both
the plate current
not linearly
9m AE GK
itself.
is
constant,
and
somewhat non-
plate voltage are
related.
be
total plate current will

I
Eq^
PK
-r
static conditions.
ever, since g
If
AI P =
then the
then lp tends to vary directly with Epj^. How-
linear,
called the transconduc-
of the tube.
GK
0,
as the equation for plate current in a triode
proportional to the
is
in grid voltage.
If
ap-
the plate current will change by an
plied,
tance
(Eq^)
grid voltage
9m
'P
Eq^
be equal to
will
now
Eqk
'
held constant, then the Ep^,
lp characteristic
diode.
be
is
Changing
essentially that of a
Eq^
but does not alter
p + p
its
tends to shift the curve

basic shape
typical triode characteristic
vacuum
is
much.
shown
in figure
10-2.
or
PK
gm AE GK +-^
E
lp
G*
Let us
now
turn our attention to the
input (control grid) characteristic.
0V
-3.5 V
(mA)
150
200
250
300
350
E pK (VOLTS)
Fig.
10-2
Typical Triode Output (Plate
66
Characteristic
400
If
we apply
EXPERIMENT
10
DUU
- 400
+I
-E
GK
G1
(mA)
- 300
(VOLTS)
- 200
1*"
o
I
NOTE THE SCALE CHANGES

IN BOTH E
QK AND Q1
h-
0.1
at -
0.2
0.3
0.4
+E QK (VOLTS)
0.2 "
0.3
0.4 -
Fig.
10-3
a positive voltage to the grid,
forward biased diode.
is
is
On
negative,
G1 (MA)
Typical Triode Input (Control Grid) Characteristic
then
it
will
Vacuum
draw
current from the space charge and act just like
the grid voltage
_I
the other hand,
connected
in
tubes, like transistors,
considered
flowing, an occasional electron will collide
cathode
in this
circuit.
experiment)
The diagram
ration as well as those for the
grid current (about 0.1 juA usually).
and
Figure
0-3 shows a typical triode input characteristic.
common
grid circuits are
is
the
common
of this configu-
common
shown
The Three Vacuum Tube Circuit Configurations
67
plate
in figure
10-4.
(C)
Fig. 10-4
be
The most common arrangement (and the one
if
and plate current
with the grid wires causing a very small reverse
may
any one of three configurations.
COMMON GRID
EXPERIMENT
10
(A)
Ip
A VACUUM TETRODE
& G2 (mA)
l
E pK (VOLTS)
(B)
Fig.
10-5
A Vacuum
Tetrode and
we insert a second grid (called a screen

between the control grid and plate as
If
grid)
is
increase until they reach a point
where they
strike the plate so vigorously that
they
literally
from
it.
knock other electrons loose
These secondary emission electrons

are collected by the screen (grid) causing a
used for a while but were never very popular

because of the severe dip in the plate current
The dip
Output Characteristic
also
ities
shown in figure 10-5, the result is a four-element tube called a tetrode. Tetrodes were
characteristic.
its
dip
caused by secondary
in
plate current
and
a rise in screen cur-
rent as seen in figure 10-5(b).
emission of the plate current electrons.
As the
Electrons leaving the space charge region
are attracted toward the plate by the com-
bined effect of the screen grid and the plate.
At
plate voltage
is
As
potential
is
further
in-
it
attracted back to the plate as soon as they

are knocked free.
low values of plate voltage, the

electron velocities as they approach the plate
are also low and the characteristics in this rerelatively
gion are similar to those of a triode.
plate
becomes large enough to dominate

the screen and the secondary electrons are
creased,
To suppress the undesirable, secondary

emission effects a third grid (called the suppressor grid G ) is inserted between the screen
the
increased, the electron veloc-
68
EXPERIMENT
10
(A)
A VACUUM PENTODE
v G1 = ov
50
200
150
100
300
250
350
E PK (VOLTS)
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC
(B)
Fig.
A Vacuum Pentode and its
10-6
shown
grid (G2)
and the plate
10-6(a).
The five-element tube thus created
is
(P) as
in figure
Output Characteristic
high
tively
back to the
called a pentode.
in
is
tied electrically
which
plate.
and
is
is,
therefore, at a potential level
is,
repelled
therefore,
no dip
in figure 10-6(b).
is
Both triode and pentode vacuum tubes
quite negative with respect to the
Secondary electrons seeing
There
are
The input characteristic of a pentode

very much the same as that of a triode.
to the cathode (either inside the tube or externally)
plate.
potential
the typical pentode output characteristic
shown
This suppressor grid
negative
are in
this rela-
common
use today.
MATERIALS
High voltage, variable
volts)
(0
Low
DC
400
supply (0
with separate bias supply
50
volts)
and 6.3V filament supply
voltage, variable
DC
supply (0
40V)
Vacuum tube type 6AU8 or
9-pin miniature tube socket
10k ohm,
20W
resistor
VOMsor FEMs
69
equivalent
EXPERIMENT
10
6AU8 BOTTOM VIEW

Fig.
10-7
The
First
PROCEDURE
1.
Assemble the
circuit
shown
in figure
10-7.
Do not
forget to connect the filament to
the 6.3-volt power supply.

2.
Set the grid circuit supply for a grid-to-cathode voltage of -14.0

volts.
3.
Measure and record the plate current

tings of 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, etc.,
(|
p and plate voltage (E pK for plate voltage
up to the limit of variable plate supply.
)
set-
4.
Repeat steps 2 and 3 for grid voltages of -12.0, -10.0, -8.0,

-6.0, -4.0, -2.0, 0.0, and +2.0.
5.
Plot the output characteristic of the triode
6.
Disassemble the circuit given in figure 10-7 and assemble the

one shown in figure 10-8.
Use the bias supply output of the high voltage power supply
for the screen grid voltage
and be careful to connect all power supply polarities
on a sheet of graph paper.
properly.
7.
Set the grid voltage to -5.0 volts and the screen voltage
to
70
+150 volts.
EXPERIMENT
10
6AU8 BOTTOM VIEW
Fig.
8.
10-8
Measure and record the plate current

tings of 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, etc.,
9.
10.
(lp)
and plate voltage (E pK
up to the
for plate voltage set-
limit of the variable plate supply.
Repeat steps 7 and 8 for grid voltages of -4.0, -3.0, -2.0, -1
On
.0,
and 0.0
volts.
second sheet of graph paper, plot the output characteristic of the pentode.
71
EXPERIMENT
10
EGK
I
,
(volts)
1*
-14
-12
-10
-8
'P
In
'P
In
In
'P
-6
-4
-2
+2
'P
'P
'P
'P
'P
C PK
(volts)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
GK
-4
(volts)
-2
-1
'p
'P
'P
E PK
(volts)
'P
'P
'P
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Fig.
10-9
The Data Tables
72
EXPERIMENT
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
In analyzing these data,
10
you should examine your curves and compare them
to the principles of operation of the tubes as explained in the discussion.
why
In particular explain
the pentode curves do not look like diode characteristics whereas the triode curves do.
PROBLEMS
1.
Compute the
2.
Repeat problem
3.
Discuss briefly the trend in
4.
Do
a similar
static resistance of
1
at
Eq
each device at
Eq
= 0 volts and Ep = 200

K
Rp
= 0 volts and E ^ = 100

p
volts.
for each device using the values in problems
examination of the dynamic resistance
73
volts.
(r
p ) of the two devices.
and
2.
/ / BIASING VACUUM TUBE
experiment
INTRODUCTION. Some
electronic devices (transistors) respond to variations

a quiescent input current level. Other
biased by establishing
These devices are

tubes, for example) respond to variation
devices (vacuum
input voltage only and must, therefore, be
biased by
in
establishing quiescent input voltage level.
input current.
in
In this
experiment we
shall
consider ways of biasing
voltage-actuated devices.
DISCUSSION.
Let us review briefly the op-
eration of a triode
heater (or filament)
which determines the
vacuum tube. The tube

warms the cathode which
filament supply
plate electrode
by the applied
grid)
is
the negative grid bias

practical
case.
obvious way,
age supply.
is
C 1 and
into
bad
may be
This method
the figure,
in
an opera-
teristics, as
shown
the quiescent operating
we
use the output charac-
in figure 11-2.
in
which
supplied
in
For purposes of illustration, let us suppose that the circuit component values in
figure 11-1 are:
is
in
the
function to couple the
and out of the
resistor.
shown
Eg = 200
E
cir-
Q=
volts
3 volts
In this circuit the capac-
plate voltage supply

cuit
(the
point of the tube,
The first, and perhaps most

by using a separate bias volt-
cuit in figure 11-1.
signal
it
in
The
supplied with a negative bias voltage.
There are three different ways
itors
To determine
effectively control the

if
of the bias.
ting circuit.
plate potential.
instantaneous plate current flow
level
not shown
but must, of course, be present
emits electrons charging the space nearby.

The space charge electrons are attracted to the
The control grid can
is
and R
L
EQ
is
AC
We may
is
the
line
the plate
cir-
stage.
is
Eg
the grid bias supply
construct the
R|_ =
33 k ohms
RQ =
DC
megohm
plate circuit load-
from Eg on the plate voltage axis to

r = 6,06 mA on th e plate current
p = Eb^ L
axis.
The quiescent operating point of the
EXPERIMENT
located at the intersection of the
DC
loadline and the bias curve representing
Eq
tube
is
(-3 volts).
erating
We
plate
voltage
tube,
VACUUM TUBE
electrons collide with
cases this grid leakage current
mA.
(frequently about 0.1
jiiA)
This separate supply method of biasing
tube
only
in
is
occasionally used
in
shows
practice but
very special cases.
large value of
X
Br.
a circuit using this
cause the grid current
Rq
is
Triode Circuit With Grid Leak Bias
75
in a
the grid
In
most
very small
Figure 11-3
type of
bias.
Be-
quite small, a very
normally required to pro-
^Rf
Fig. 1 1-3
is
is
the
but can be used to
establish the grid bias voltage.
is
method. As plate current flows
some
wires causing a grid current to flow.
would be about 100

would
volts while the quiescent plate current
be about 3.2
BIASING
second method of biasing a tube
grid leak
see in figure 11-2 that the op-
11
EXPERIMENT
11
VACUUM TUBE
BIASING
ft
F/^. 1 1-4
vide practical values.
voltage
is
Triode Circuit With Cathode Bias
For example,
to be 3 volts and
R G must be
is
if
bias
0.1 juA, then
In
most cases
less
Rq
be about
will
megohm
or
and can be ignored.
analyzing a cathode-biased circuit, we

draw the plate circuit DC loadline using R
In
G ~
'G
= 30 megohms
~;
10~7
L
+ R K (that is, the loadline which extends
from p = E /(R + R
B
L
K to Eg), as shown in
figure 11-5 (assuming a value of 1000 ohms
for R ). Then we plot equation 10.1 on the
K
l
As
the case of the separate bias supply, grid leak bias is used
occasionally, but
only
in
in
output characteristics by choosing values of

E and solving for
Q
p The results in this case
very special cases.
bias
The third and possibly most common

method is called cathode or self bias. In
are
method, plate circuit current flowing into

the cathode electrode is used to produce
the
bias voltage. Such a circuit is shown
in figure
this
lp
= -E
G /R K
11-4.
E
In
this circuit, as in the previous ones,
the grid bias
may
be defined as the
to-cathode voltage.
equation,
If
we
DC
lp
(volts)
(mA)
-2
-3
-4
grid-
write the input loop
we have
These points are then plotted at O, Q, and P
=
"'g r g-'p r
in figure
line
And if R is not extremely large, then

Q
IqRq term may be ignored, giving us
E
-l
pR
<
11-5.
and the plate
Q-point of the
the
(11.1)
tics
76
The
intersection of Xh\s bias
circuit
DC
loadline
is
the
circuit.
pentode vacuum tube has characterisonly slightly different from those already
EXPERIMENT
Fig.
discussed.
1-5
it is
for a triode.
VACUUM TUBE
Determining the Q-Point With Cathode Bias
Bias for a pentode
lished just as
BIASING
11
may be
In
The
estab-
resistors
R-j
and R2 are a voltage
divider used to establish the screen voltage
the case of a
separate bias supply or grid leak bias, the analysis
is
identical to that of a triode.
"2
In the case
of cathode bias, the analysis differs only be-
G2-
EB
r^Tr^
cause the pentode's screen grid current must
be considered.
pentode
Figure 11-6 shows a typical
The capacitor C3
circuit.
is
the screen bypass capac-
itor used to hold the screen voltage constant.
77
EXPERIMENT
BIASING
11
VACUUM TUBE
PLATE VOLTAGE (VOLTS)

Fig. 1 1-7
The output
characteristics of the
be similar to those shown

In analyzing a
draw the plate

R K as before.
pentode
in figure
pentode
Locating the Q-Point of a Pentode
circuit,
circuit loadline using

In this
example
let
will
1-7.
we
Combining these three equations and

for
EpK
solving
renders
first
E PK = E
R L and
G2 R L +E G
(11 8)
-
us suppose
that the circuit values are:
R L = 20 k ohms
Using the circuit values and equation 1 1

.2, we
see that the screen voltage is 150 volts.
From
= 5 k ohms
the output characteristic

is
R G = 470 k ohms
Eg = 200
portion of the curves. Using this value
volts
relatively constant at 1.5
mA
9.6
we
from Eg = 200 volts

shown. To plot the bias
observe that the bias voltage
And
as
"'k R K
the plate circuit loop equation
mA) and
E pK = 230 + 28
is
B -l p R L
Finally,
we
-E pK
-l
KRK = 0
(l
G2
we can
Eq
is
(11.6)
E pK
notice that the cathode current
K - lp+ G2
Q2
linear
gives
(volts)
(volts)
-2
-3
-4
174
146
118
Plotting these values at points N, O, and

P on
the output characteristic, we see that the Qpoint is located at E
135 volts,
can be described by
Choosing values of -2, -3, and -4 volts for E

Q
(11.5)
EG
E
mA over the
the circuit components,

reduce equation 1 1.6 to
loadline will extend
to lg
line,
observe that
R 2 = 15 k ohms
1.5
The
we
R K = 740 ohms
(11.7)
3.2
78
mA, and E
Q
pK
-3.5 volts.
EXPERIMENT
11
BIASING
VACUUM TUBE
MATERIALS
ohm resistor 2W
6AU8 vacuum tube or equivalent
9-pin tube socket
150-ohm
Variable
18 k
resistor
2W
DC power supply
DC power supply (0-40V)

VOMsor FEMs
10 k ohm resistor 2W
Set of curves for 6AU8 tube
Variable
(0-400V)
-megohm
resistor
PROCEDURE
1
DC loadline for the circuit shown

6AU8 tube (triode section).
Plot the
the
in figure
1-8
on the output
characteristics of
10k
MEG
350V
150J2
Fig.
2.
The Triode Cathode Bias Circuit
1-8
Using equation 11.1 and the component values, plot the bias
line
on the triode output
characteristics.
3.
Locate the Q-point and record the values of Ep, p and Eq.
4.
Assemble the
circuit
and measure the quantities determined
in
step 3.
Don't forget the
filaments.
5.
Remove the
grid
and cathode
resistors
from the
circuit
and reconnect the
circuit as
shown
in figure 11-9.
DC
Record the reading as Eq.
6.
Set the meter to the lowest
7.
With the meter reading and the resistance of the meter, compute and record the grid
voltage range.
current (Iq).
8.
Measure and record the values of Ep and
9.
On
p.
the loadline used with the previous circuit, determine the value of
sponds to the values of Ep and
lp
measured
79
in step 8.
Record
Eq which
corre-
this value as loadline data.
EXPER'MBNT11
BIASING
VACUUM TUBE
10k
350V
Fig. 1 1-9
10.
Disassemble the triode circuit.
11.
On
The Triode Grid Leak Bias Circuit
the output characteristics of the pentode section of the

the circuit shown in figure 1 1-10.
6AU8
tube, plot the
DC
load-
line for
12.
13.
Compute and
record the value of the screen grid voltage E
Q2
Using the
Q2 curves on the output characteristics, estimate the value of G2 near the
middle of the range grid bias range. Record the value of your
estimate in the data table.
l
14.
Simplify equation 11.6 using the circuit component

values and plot the bias line on the
output characteristics.
15.
16.
Locate the Q-point and record the values of Ep,
p , and E Q
Assemble the circuit shown in figure 11-10 and measure E

p
Record these values in the data table.
p E P1
,
E r0 and
10k
350V
Fig. 1 1- 10
The Pentode Experimental Circuit
80
GZ
'
EXPERIMENT
Quantity
11
BIASING
'P
VACUUM TUBE
Loadline
Data
Measured
Data
Triode Cathode Bias Data
Quantity
'p
'g
XX X
Loadline
Data
Measured
Data
Triode Grid Leak Bias Data
Quantity
G2
g2
Ep
'P
G1
Loadline
Data
Measured
Data
Pentode Data
Fig.
11-11
The Data Tables
ANALYSIS GUIDE. The

bias voltage analysis.
In
objective of this experiment has been to examine graphical methods of

your analysis of the experimental data you should consider the extent to
which the graphical analysis accurately predicted actual
circuit
performance.
Also, consider the extent to which the analyses of the bias circuits of the various devices
were
similar.
PROBLEMS
1.
Would
grid leak bias
work
as well with a
pentode as with a triode?
Explain your
answer.
2.
Why was
this
3.
it
unnecessary to include screen grid and cathode bypass capacitors
in
experiment?
What would be the

plate current
bias
was 2.5
oh
a triode
if
the cathode resistance was
mA?
81
ohm
and the
1/
experiment
VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIER

GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION. The
basic application of a triode or pentode tube

is as a voltage amplifier
In
shall examine graphical methods of
determining the voltage gain and power
sensitivity of a vacuum tube amplifier.
this
experiment we
DISCUSSION. In analyzing the performance

vacuum tube amplifier it is first necessary
axis to
to establish the quiescent operating point.
values,
of a
this end, consider the circuit
12-1.
The loop equation
shown
DC
for the
To
in
p = E BB /(R L + R K ) on the plate curIf we have the following

circuit
in figure
plate cur-
rent circuit will be
Ebb-'pRl-Epk-'pRk^
rent axis.
12 -1>
RL
=10k
R = 10 k ohms
RK
=270 ohms
Rq=
megohm
sin cot volts
E BB = 300 volts
the form
then the
DC
loadline will be as
shown
in fig-
ure 12-2.
'
=PK_ +
~R|_
+r k"
rl
BB
+r
If
we
write the grid-cathode loop equa-
tion assuming the grid current to be zero,
This
equation
represents
the
DC
which may be plotted on the triode output

characteristic from E
BB on the plate voltage
Fig. 12-1
we
have
loadline
EG +
R = 0
p K
l
Typical Triode Amplifier
82
(12.2)
100
EXPERIMENT
150
VACUUM TUBE ANAL YSIS
300
250
200
12
400
350
450
PLATE POTENTIAL (VOLTS)
Fig.
12-2
Locating the Triode's Q-Point
Solving equation 12.1 and 12.2 simultaneously
for
EpK
line
renders
and the bias
we have
line
we
operating point and
observe that the quies-
cent point values are E

1
E PK" E BB + E G
mA, and E Q -3
we
duce
this
can
re-
several
a triode
ient
volts, lp
it
works well for
FETs,
etc.).
vacuum tube,
In the special case of
it is
often
more conven-
to plot the bias line using only equa-
tion 12.2:
Choosing appropriate values for Eq and evaluating Ep|< gives us
EG
-2.5V
-3.0V
-3.5V
E PK
205V
186V
167 V
These points are plotted as the bias

ure 12-2.
At the
EG
line in fig-
intersection of the
DC
'P
load-
83
electronic devices (triodes, pentodes,
transistors,
= 300 + 38 E
G
185
locating the Q-point used
above was presented because
equation to
E pK
p^
volts.
The method of
Using the circuit values specified,
the quiescent
-2.5V
9.26
mA
-3.0V
11.1
mA
-3.5V
13.0
mA
EXPERIMENT
12
VACUUM TUBE ANALYSIS
'
Fig.
Using this method
is
The A C Equivalent Circuit
12-3
quicker than the one de-
scribed previously but
really
is
This
only practical
slope of -1/R'
frequently encountered.
shall
cuit.
If
voltage
are low
now
consider the
AC
equivalent
change
cir-
total effective
circuit will
AC
be the
in figure
12-3.
AI
of R
L
If
R,
and the plate
circuit loop equation
E pK +l
p R'L
we
let
AE pK
Al
(12.3)
L"RjJTR
becomes
(AE pK and comput)
change
in
plate
current
-AE PK
RI
= 50
volts,
50
= -
5X
10 3
then
-10mA
using values of R
L and R given previously.
Then starting at the Q-point, we move right
50 volts and down 10 mA to point P (see figure 12-4).
The AC loadline may then be
drawn passing through points P and Q.
=0
or
voltage
resulting
The
and R,
load resistance in the plate

parallel equivalent
loadline
(Alp) using equation 12.4:
power supply have impedances that

enough to be ignored, the AC equiv-
shown
AC
the
in plate
the
ing
the circuit capacitors and the plate
alent will be as
represents
This loadline may be plotted on the output characteristic by choosing an appropriate
With the Q-point conditions established,
we
equation
which passes through the Q-point and has
vacuum tube. Consequently,

more involved method is most
for the triode
the previous,
^~ E PK
With the
(12.4)
may determine
84
AC
loadline constructed
we
the voltage gain of the ampli-
EXPERIMENT
200
150
50
450
400
350
300
250
12
PLATE POTENTIAL (VOLTS)

Constructing the
Fig. 12-4
fier.
If
the input
AC
signal (e
defined as the power output per rms input
sin cot)
volts squared:
swings two volts from peak-to-peak along the

AC loadline from -2 volts to -4 volts, the
plate voltage will swing
to about
230
from about 150
This
volts.
is
volts
a total peak-to-
peak swing of 80 volts and the voltage gain
Av =
-!o
AC Loadline
Power Sens =
(12.5)
E e2
is
Since the output power to the load
_80
is
given by
2
2
E
ro
The
negative sign indicates the phase reversal
(the
plate voltage goes positive as the grid
we may
write equation 12.5 as
voltage goes negative).
Power Sens =
The power
sensitivity of
an amplifier
,V\
-
Es
is
85
'
1
^=
IV
(12.6)
EXPERIMENT
12
Inspection of the original circuit will

veal that the input current
re-
R Q (assuming the grid current to

Therefore, we may vary the input
current over a considerable range

by choosing
different values of R
Because of
tion,
e /R
s
,M R G__A
UJ~R~
A
a
= !o_foVR
-R-) (12.7)
p-.-TT-
when
this situa-
the current and power gains

of a vacuum
tube amplifier are usually of
only casual interest. They can, however,
be determined by
= 'L_
A: =-i
and
depends only on
the value of
be zero).
(12.8)
desired.
The
amplifier
graphical analysis of a pentode tube
the same as that of a triode tube

However, the screen current in a
pentode does flow through the cathode
resistor and must, therefore, be
considered in
is
amplifier.
de-
termining the Q-point.
MATERIALS
Vacuum tube type 6AU8 or equivalent
Set of triode and pentode
characteristics
1
1
for the tube
9-pin miniature tube socket

Variable DC power supply (0
1
1
1
VOMorFEM
Audio generator
400V)
Oscilloscope
//F50WVDC
capacitor
3 0.1 M F600WVDC capacitors

1
10
1
1
560 ohm resistor 2W

ohm resistor 2W
k ohm resistors 2W
150
2 10
PROCEDURE
1-
Using the triode output

characteristics, plot the
ure 12-5.
DC
loadlinp of
of th
Q circuit
+
loadline
the
shown
in fig-
2.
EXPERIMENT
Plot the bias line and locate the Q-point.
3.
Compute the
value of the
4.
Assuming an
AC
AC
12
Record the values of E
load resistance Rj_ and plot the
AC
pK
p , and E Q
loadline.
input voltage of 2 volts, peak-to-peak, determine the peak-to-peak

out-
put voltage.
5.
Determine the voltage gain and power
6.
Assemble the circuit (do not forget to connect the filament to

audio generator for zero output.
7.
Measure and record the values of E

pK ,
8.
sensitivity.
p and E Q
,
its
rated voltage). Set the
Connect the oscilloscope for measuring the audio generator signal and set the
generator
1 kHz.
Make a sketch of the input waveform.
for a 2-volt peak-to-peak output at
Move the
9.
oscilloscope to the output of the amplifier. Measure and record the

peak-topeak output voltage. Make a sketch of the output waveform.
10.
Using the values from steps 8 and 9, compute and record the value
of the amplifier's
voltage gain.
11.
Using measured values (and the value of R) compute and record

the power sensitivity
of the stage.
12.
Disassemble the circuit.
13.
Using the pentode output characteristics plot the
DC
figure 12-6.
Fig.
12-6
The Pentode Experimental Circuit
87
shown
in
EXPERIMENT 12 VACUUM TUBE ANAL YSIS

14.
Repeat steps 2 through 12 using the pentode

in determining the Q-point.
circuit.
current
Do not forget to
include the screen
"
rUWcl
Qty.
E PK
EG
'P
(P-P)
Av
Sens.
Graphical
Values
Measured
Values
Fig.
12-7(a)
Triode Amplifier Data
Qty.
PK
"P
R'l
(P-P)
Power
Sens.
Graphical
Values
Measured
Values
Fig. 12-7(b)
Pentode Amplifier Data
ANALYSIS GUIDE. The
purpose of this experiment has been to compare

values arrived at
through graph.cal analysis to those measured in an actual
circuit. In analyzing these data you
should evaluate the extent to which this objective was
reached. In particular evaluate the effectiveness of loadline analysis in predicting circuit
performance.
PROBLEMS
1.
Explain
in quantitative
had on your
2.
terms the effect that ignoring the screen

current would have
results in the experiment.
Compute the reactances of the capacitors in the

experiment and compare each one
to the resistor it is working with. Do
you feel that the assumption used in the analysis (that the reactances could be
considered zero) was reasonable?
88
3.
What would have been the
EXPERIMENT
12
voltage gain of the triode amplifier
the load resistor (R) had been
in
the experiment
if
megohm?
4.
Repeat problem 3 for the pentode
5.
Which of the two amplifier circuits

Would this always be the case?
circuit.
in
the experiment had the higher power gain?
89
experiment
INTRODUCTION. The
.
f le
electronic devices.
In this
an FETamDlifier.
FET AMPLIFIER
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
13
d effect transistor
iransisior is raniHiw
rapidly k
becoming one of the most important
experiment we shall examine t h
\_
*
the graphical
DISCUSSION. The quiescent operating point

FET amplifier shown in figure 13-1
may be determined by plotting the DC load-
of the
and the bias
line
13-2.
The DC
by writing the drain
may be
This equation
of
This line
ure 13-2 for circuit values of:
V DD = 20 volts
Rq = 1 megohm
constructed
R = 2200 ohms
circuit loop equation,
Vdd-'dRd-Vds-'d
may be
<
technique of analyzing
drain current axis.
as indicated in figure
line,
loadline
1 3.1)
To
is
shown
R D = 2200 ohms
Rg = 200 ohms
e = 0.3 sin cot volts
s
plot the bias line
we must
solved for
in
terms
V DD- D R D- V
DS- D R
,
RD + R
S
V DS .
V(
+
v dd- v ds-'d( r
V DD on the drain
V DD/(R D + R g on the
However, we
Fig. 13-1
.<?
=0
or
V DD
r^th;
This line extends from

voltage axis to
write the
output loop equation
V DS
-1
in fig-
Typical
is
recall that
the bias voltage (E
related to the drain current
FET Amplifier Circuit

90
=
d + rs 0
by D = -E /Rg.
G
I
EXPERIMENT
Fig.
Substituting this value of
13-2
into the loop
Plotting these points reveals that the Q-Point

is
located at
V GS w
RD + R
S^
V DS
FET AMPLIFIER ANALYSIS
Locating the FET's Q-Point
equation gives
V DD" V DS + E G
13
V DS *
12V,
D *
-- 7V ^ as indicated
in
3.5
mA, and
figure
13-2.
These values could, of course, be measured
in a
functioning circuit.
rendering
If
we now
direct our attention to the
operation of the circuit,
'ds- v dd + e g
we
see that,
AC
if
the
various capacitors are assumed to be short
cir-
the input frequency, then the AC

equivalent circuit may be drawn as shown in
cuits
(13.2)
at
figure 13-3. (The drain supply, V

DD is also
assumed to be a short circuit so far as AC is
,
Using the circuit values specified above gives us
concerned.)
V DS
And
if
= 15 + 9.33E
G
we choose
-1 .00 volts for
The
values of -0.60, -0.80 and
Q we have
to an
total effective load (R
AC
equivalent of
Eq
V DS
1
(volts
(volts)
1
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
12.8
10.4
8.0
R D and
91
L ) presented
drain current will be the parallel

R.
RDR
L~R
+ R
(13.3)
EXPERIMENT
13
Fig.
And
DS
13-3
The
AC Equivalent Circuit
the drain circuit loop equation will be
= H R
D L
or
To make the
compute
plot of the
line passing
<
13 4 >
this relationship as
an
AC
load-
through the Q-point and having
slope of -1/R
shown with
loadline,
we
first
-R ^ V DS
+ R
==
RDR
We may draw
AC
The previous
characteristic
2200 + 2200
(2200) (2200)
^-0,91 X 10"3 mhos
Then we compute the change in

D which
would accompany a chosen change in V
is
this line plotted in figure 13-4.
DS
<
H
2
LD
D
O
z
<
Q
10
12
14
DRAIN POTENTIAL (VOLTS)

Fig. 13-4
The
92
AC Loadline
16
18
20
W
we choose AV DS
If
EXPERIMENT
as +2.0 volts, then
we
13
The input current
a function of
is
Rq
have
AI
DS
AV DS =
= _
R^L
-0
91 X 10
X2
if
we move down
starting at the Q-point,
mA
.82
and over 2
we draw the AC
volts to point P.
loadline through P
AC
With the
Finally,
varied simply
and Q.
loadline plotted,
this
(13.5)
power
of only small interest

is
it
type
Power
gain (A
most
in
=
p
|Aj|
cases.
input
customary to discuss amplifiers of

terms of their power sensitivity.
sensitivity
is
defined as the power out-
AC signal
(e
= 0.3
sin cot)
be from approximately
10.1
volts to
which
is
volts
(E
= 13.9 - 10.1 volts).
p p
we may compute
Since
13.9
We may
^DS
'
the output power
voltage
therefore describe the output voltage as
(13.6)
using the resistance (R) and the rms output
peak-to-peak voltage of 3.8
is
E c2
The redrain-to-source voltage would
volts
Power sens =
swing from -0.4 volts to -1.0 volts.
|AJ)
How-
to the Q-point, the gate-to-source voltage will
sulting swing in
is
in
put per square rms volts of input. That
we apply the
be
by changing the value of Rq.
Similarly, the
is
ever,
If
usually of no interest.
we may
10
AV
p
may
Consequently, the current gain of the stage
defined as
is
As
zero.
's
determine several other factors of amplifier

performance. For example, the voltage gain
of the stage
is
the current gain (Aj =
result,
Then
FET
the gate current of the
mA
= -1.82
= -2R
<j0t
equation 13.6 becomes
The minus
sign indicates the
reversal (as
V^g
increases,
apparent phase
V^g
decreases).
(13.7)
The voltage
A v = Z
e
gain
is
= -1.9
therefore
which
sin cot
is
a convenient
6.33
0.3 sin cot
ical
form for use with graph-
data.
MATERIALS
1
MOSFET type 40468 or
Set of output characteristics for the
Transistor socket
VOMor FEM
10012 resistor 1/2
Audio generator
Oscilloscope
Variable
equivalent
FET
(0- 10
1/2W
-megohm resistor 1/2W
3 10-//F,50WVDC capacitors
1
1kS2 resistor
Resistance substitution box
93
megohm 1/2W)
DC power
supply (0
40V)
EXPERIMENT
13
FET AMPLIFIER ANAL YSIS
Fig. 13-5
The Experimental Amplifier Circuit
PROCEDURE
1.
On
the
FET output
characteristic, plot the
DC
shown
in figure
13-5.
2.
3.
Also plot the bias
and locate the Q-point. Record the values of
Set the resistance substitution

characteristic.
4.
line
box
for 2.2k and plot the
Record the value of R

L
in
AC
V DS
loadline
D and V QS
,
on the output
the data table.
Graphically determine and record the values of the voltage gain and the power sensitivity.
e is one volt peak-to-peak.
s
Assume
5.
Repeat steps 3 and 4 for resistance substitution box values of 4.7k, 10k, 22k and 47k ohms.
6.
Assemble the
the
FET
circuit exercising appropriate precautions against electrostatic
gate insulation.
Set the input e
damage to
to zero and the resistance substitution box to
47k.
7.
Measure and record the values of
V DS
D and V GS
,
using a
VOM.
8.
Connect the oscilloscope for measuring the value of e

Set the audio generator for an
g
output of one volt peak-to-peak at a frequency of 1 kHz. Make an accurate sketch of the
input waveform.
9.
Compute and record the
10.
1 1
12.
value of the reactance (X
c)
of a 10-mF capacitor at
kHz.
Move the
oscilloscope to the output and record the peak-to-peak value of e

Q
accurate sketch.
Make an
Using the values of e and e

s
Q compute the actual voltage gain of the amplifier.
,
Compute the power

ting
and the value of
sensitivity of the amplifier using the resistance substitution
Av
determined
in
step
94
1 1
box
set-
EXPERIMENT
13
Repeat steps 7, 8, 10, 11, and 12 for resistance substitution box settings of 22k, 10k,
13.
4.7k, and 2.2k.
on the
Plot a curve of the amplifier voltage versus the load resistance (resistance
14.
hori-
zontal axis).
Xc @
V DS
(Volts)
V GS
D (mA)
kHz
(ohms)
(Volts)
Resistance
Box Value
4.7k
2.2k
10k
22k
47k
10k
22k
47k
RL =
\=
Power sens =
(A)
COMPUTED DATA
Resistance
Box
VQg
Setting
2.2k
4.7k
(volts)
Iq (mA)
V GS
e
e
(volts)
(volts p-p)
(volts p-p)
Power
sens.
(B)
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
ity
13-6
MEASURED DATA
The Data Table
of the analysis techniques used, and
you should be primarily concerned with the
in particular,
consider the following specific points:
Why?
1.
Did the Q-point shift as the load on the amplifier changed?
2.
Did the computed and measured values of voltage gain and power sensitivity agree?
3.
Did the input or output waveform change shape as the load changed?
95
Why?
valid-
EXPERIMENT
13
FET AMPLIFIER ANAL YSIS
PROBLEMS
1.
Would the Q-point of an FET shift if the total

drain circuit
was held constant wh.le the ratio of R to R
was
varied?
D
s
with a numerical example.

2.
certain amplifier has a
operating a
3.
0k ohm
load.
resistance (R
Mlustrate
power sensitivity of 0.01 watts per

What is the voltage gain?
D + Rs
youFanswer
volt squared
when
the load or a stage is increased (R is made

smaller), will the voltage gain
increase
or decrease? W.ll the current gain increase
or decrease? Will the power gain
increase
or decrease? Illustrate your answers with
an example showing the AC leadline
for
each case.
If
96
I/I SMALL-SIGNAL PARAMETERS
experiment
INTRODUCTION. In many practical cases, an amplifier must handle very small signal levels. In
this experiment we shall explore ways in which amplifier circuit analysis may be approached
when the
signal levels are
DISCUSSION.
In
too small to plot on the output characteristic curves.
analyzing the small signal
performance of an amplifier,
we
and
establish the
quiescent operating point using the bias and
= h
+ h Qe V CE
fe B
(14.2)
where:
When the very small AC signal is

applied, we assume that the variation around
the Q-point will be small and linear; then we
loadline.
consider only the
AC
h ie "
operation of the am-
9V BE
and
input resistance when
plifier.
h re
Consider the simplified amplifier stage
shown
in
figure
14-1.
(V BE ) and output current
The input voltage

(i
c must both be
9V BE
and
av CE
age amplification
(i
B ) and
(Vq E ).
fe=3iJ
and
amplification
In
many
cases the relationships used to

'oe
le'B
constant.
is
the reverse volt-
when
ig
is
constant.
is
the forward current
when Vq E
is
constant.
9ir
represent the transistor are
v BE-
is
Vq E
linear functions of the input current
the output voltage
the dynamic
is
3ii
+ h v
re CE
Fig. 14-1
and
is
output admittance when
(14.1)
9V CE
Simplified Amplifier Circuit
97
the dynamic
ig
is
constant.
EXPERIMENT
14
Fig.
re
14-2
V CE(
Transistor
These quantities are referred to

as the hparameters for the common emitter
configu-
ration.
Hybrid Equivalent Circuit
much
Based on these equations, we can

draw
the hybrid equivalent circuit
of the transistor
shown
in figure 14-2.
Notice that equation

describes only the input half
of the
14.1
in
figure
equivalent circuit
shown
as
simpler equivalent circuit than the one
shown
One such
14-2.
is
simplified
the hybrid-ir arrangement
in figure 14-3.
In this equivalent circuit the

value of the
transconductance g
m
will
usually
be quite
close to
equivalent circuit, while equation

14.2 applies only to the output
side of the equiv-
m - 39
Iq
mhos
alent circuit.
and the input resistance
Take
this
is
particular notice of the fact that
the equivalent circuit of the

transistor
alone and does not include the
components
used with the transistor in an
is
amplifier circuit.
Most modern small-signal

transistors are
sufficiently linear that
we can usually use a
The main advantage of

alent
is
that
it
this small-signal equiv-
involves only the
~o
'BE
o-
-o
Fig.
14-3
The Hybrid-n Equivalent Circuit
98
two param-
Fig.
eters
ters.
EXPERIMENT
14-4
Simplified
Vacuum Tube Amplifier
and g m instead of the four h-parameAlso it includes parameter changes due to
ait
in
the g
m definition.
Vacuum tubes may be analyzed in very

much the same way. For example, consider
the simplified
figure 14-4.
(i
p)
must be
and
de.
is
the dynamic trans-
conductance when ep
is
constant.
3ep
vacuum tube circuit shown in

As before, we observe that the
output current
Circuit
where:
Q-point shift by using Iq
14
and
is
(plate) resistance
a function of the
the dynamic output
when e^
is
constant.
output voltage (ep) and some input variable.
From
Since the input current {\q) will be zero for

practical purposes, then
a 9e
e Q^ as t 1e
'
frequently used
we
equation
lent circuit for a
use the input volt-
n P ut variable.
this
figure 14-5.
The equation
This
we can draw
vacuum tube
is
the equiva-
as
shown
in
the equivalent circuit of
the tube alone and does not include other am-
is
plifier circuit
components.
(14.3)
Fig.
14-5
It is
worth noting
at this point that there
The gm eQ Equivalent Circuit for Vacuum Tubes
99
EXPERIMENT
14
r
e
1
Fig.
is
a third
signal
14-6
The e G Equivalent Circuit for Vacuum Tubes
commonly used vacuum tube
parameter called
product of g and r
m
p
M=
mu
(//)
which
smallis
the
figure
14-6.
we
m rp
(14.4)
multiply equation 14.3 by
'P
9m r P e G +
3i
/3e
3ip
M
If
Returning to the definition of
M(M = g m r p ) and recalling that g

m =
while r = 3e /3i
we
have
p
p
p
3e
p we have
3e
'
p _ 3e p
"
3i^
3^
Consequently, ju may be interpreted as the

forward voltage amplification factor when
p
or
is
=
P
'P
P "
constant.
Both of the vacuum tube equivalent cirThe first one (figure 14-5) is
usually used with pentode tubes while
the
second (figure 14-6) is most useful with
9m r P e G
cuits are useful.
And
since
jjl
= g r we have
m p
,
p = p r p -jue G
Using this equation,
vacuum tube
we may draw
equivalent circuit, as
Fig.
triodes.
(14.5)
14-7
Field effect transistors are also frequently

a
second
shown
used as small-signal amplifiers.
in
shows
Simplified
100
a simplified
FET
FET Amplifier Circuit
Figure 14-7
amplifier circuit.
EXPERIMENT
As before, we can observe that the drain

a function of the drain voltage
and the gate voltage (\q
0).
frequently used to describe the
The equation
FET
An FET Equivalent Circuit
Fig. 14-8
current will be
14
Let's
closely.
sistor
look at the second method more
The
je
and h re for a tran-
may be approximated from
characteristic.
is
values of h
hj
is
(14.6)
the input
defined as
av BE
ie"
dl
and may be approximated by
same as g m
D
m
and rp for a vacuum tube. We can draw the
equivalent circuit shown in figure 14-8.
where
and
are defined the
In the case of
an FET,
we can
also define
when Vqe
= g r
m D However, the m factor
used in analyzing FET circuits.
.
The
is
constant.
This relationship can

in figure
14-9a.
rarely
small-signal parameters for a parti-
cular device (transistor, tube, or
determined
in several
FET) may be
ways:
<
H
Z
Manufacturers often supply data sheets
(a)
ie
be evaluated graphically as indicated
the forward voltage amplification factor as

li
is
AV BE
LU
showing typical parameter values.
cc
They may be approximated
(b)
using the
LU
input and output characteristics of the

device.
They may be measured.
(c)
The
ther
wish
first alternative will

in
to
this
discussion;
look at
some
not be examined
fur-
however, you
may
typical
0,1
0.2
0.3
0.4
BASE-EMITTER VOLTAGE
data sheets
Fig. 14-9a
yourself.
101
Approximating h je
EXPERIMENT
On
14
the other hand,

h
3V BE
9V CE
re
can be approximated by
when
this
\q
is
re
constant.
approximation
On
is
BE
AV CE
Graphic evaluation of
shown
the other hand, h
in
figure 14-9b.
being defined as
fe
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.5
BASE-EMITTER VOLTAGE
fe"^-
B
Fig.
may be approximated by
Determining h
re Graphically
and can be approximated using
Al n
if
14-9b
- ^| when V CE
B
is
constant
h
n
while
oe
when
AV CE
lg
is
constant
These two parameters may be found graphi-
ôe
cally using the transistor
av CE
output characteris-
tics as indicated in figure 14-10.
40
B = 40 /uA
30
30
10
12
20 juA
mA
10mA
14
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE
DETERMINING h
Fig. 14-
10
10
12
14
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE
h
(A)
mA
mA
20 iiA
10
mA
e =
(B)
AÊ =2i^= 83X10
mhos
DETERMINING h-PARAMETERS GRAPHICALLY
Determining h-Parameters Graphically
102
"6
EXPERIMENT
14
For Tubes
dep
For FETs
AEp
de
r
9ip
35
&
AU
9
AE D
AI
D ^ Alp
9e ~AE
G
G
ai
D-3i D
^ AEp
^-3e G ~AE G |p= K
3ep
parameter values for tubes
Small-signal
and Field Effect transistors are determined

the same
way
voltmeter.
Of
as those illustrated above.
their
parameters
small-signal
approximations used are shown
in
(Vpg)
The
resistor
the table
AC
is
ammeter. At the same
and the source
C<|
We may,
bypass capacitor Cg.
fore, calculate the value of g
ammeter reading
voltmeter reading
measuring the small-signal parameters
we
(3i
held constant at the Q-point value
is
dividing the
of a device,
drain current
by the bypass capacitor
above.
In
AC
measured by the
is
time, the value of the drain-to-source voltage
may be found
using only the output characteristics.
which
The varying
measured with the
FETs and tubes do not require

amounts of input current, all of
course, since
significant
OVgg)
voltage
in
(in
(in
there-
mhos) by
amps) by the
(in volts):
hold one variable constant,

9ir
vary a second, while measuring a third as well
For example,
as the first two.
if
we
9m
wish to
measure the g
m of an FET, the circuit shown
in figure 14-11 could be used. The quiescent
We
when Vpg
is
constant
GS
shall
use methods similar to the one
operating conditions are established as usual.
above to measure some of the small-signal
The audio generator provides
parameters.
audio
f~
generator!
a varying gate
Fig.
14-11
Circuit for Measuring
103
gm
EXPERIMENT
14
MATERIALS
1
MOSFET type 40468
Transistor type 2IM1304 or equivalent
Complete
or equivalent
2 220-ohm resistors
ohm resistor
1.8k ohm resistor
2.2k ohm resistor
10 mF BOW VDC capacitors
Set of
Audio generator
above devices
Transistor socket
DC supply (0 40V)
VOMsor FEMs
330k ohm resistors 2W
Variable
2
2
1k
set of characteristics for
vacuum tube output
characteristics
PROCEDURE
%
Using the transistor output characteristics,

graphically determine the value of h, near
fe
= 2 volts and
= 25 A.
V CE
2.
Assemble the
circuit
jit
shown
in
figure 14-12.
10V
AUDIO
"
GENERATOR
Fig. 14-
3.
Connect
12
Circuit for Measuring
h fe
meter across the 330k resistor and set the audio

generator for
1 kHz.
a reading of
2.5 volts rms at

4.
5.
Compute and
record the
7.
base current 3ig.
Connect another meter across the 220-ohm collector

at this point (e
6.
AC
Compute and
Compute
fe
AC
resistor
).
record the
Record
AC
collector current
this value as a
9i
measured quantity.
104
and record the
AC
voltage
8.
Using the
FET output
V DS
= 7 volts and
near
9.
Assemble the
electrostatic
circuit
damage
EXPERIMENT
characteristic, graphically
V QS
shown
= -1 .0
in
the region
14-13.
in figure
Observe the necessary precautions to prevent
13
Circuit for Measuring r
kHz and the output
level for
readable
on the two meters.
AC
11.
Record the
12.
With the
13.
Compute and
14.
With the
10 volts
VOM
voltage from drain-to-source as

reading,
9V D g,
compute and record the
AC
drain current 3i
record the value of rp.
FET output characteristics,

and D = 6 mA.
graphically determine the value of g
near
V DS
shown
15.
Assemble the
16.
Adjust the audio generator to

rately.
determine the value of
volts.
Adjust the audio generator output frequency to

values
to the FET.
Fig. 14-
10.
14
circuit
Record this value as
in figure
14-14.
kHz and
3VQg.
1
VTVM
reading just large enough to read accu-
17.
Measure and record the voltage across the 220-ohm drain
18.
Compute and record the AC
19.
Compute and
record g
m
drain current, 9ip.
105
resistor.
(e
A Q>
EXPERIMENT
14
-VNAr
m
"
40468
10juF
AUDIO
GENERATOR
220to
1k
10juF
22on
'1.8k
10mF
30V
jFig.
14-14
Circuit for Measuring g.
fe
Values from
Characteristic curves
Transistor
FET
Data
Data
9V DS
e
AC
9i
9V GS
fe
AC
9m
Fig.
14-15
The Data Table

106
9m
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
EXPERIMENT
14
you should discuss each
circuit used
and the extent
to which your graphically determined values agreed with the measured values.
PROBLEMS
1.
Using the output characteristics of the transistor, graphically determine the values
of h
2.
je ,
re ,
and h
Qe
With the vacuum tube characteristics supplied with the experiment, determine the
m r p and ju near E = 250 volts, Eq = -2 volts.
values of g
3.
Draw
4.
Explain
a circuit
pK
diagram for measuring the m of a triode vacuum tube.
how you would
determine g m and
107
for a transistor.
INTRODUCTION.
we
shall
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER
SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS
15
experiment
Transistors are frequently used as small-signal amplifiers.
examine the performance of such an amplifier using the
DISCUSSION. The common emitter amplifier

shown in figure 15-1 is one of the most widely
used transistor amplifier circuits.
cent operating conditions
The
we
shown
we can
AC
simplify
operit,
If
in figure 15-3.
get figure 15-3b
GRB
e
s
B
Using this circuit
compute R B and R using

L
V BE
RtR 2
we can
RG + R
=
'C
B r 7T
9m V BE
'CC
Fig. 15-1
> CE
Typical Transistor Amplifier Circuit
108
write input and
and
R2
we
GRB
output loop equations
R 1 + R0
hy-
have the circuit
will
To
its
simplify the input circuit using
as
R 1 and R 2 appear to be in
do R c and R. We may, therefore,
we
shown
source,
KB
Rc + R
replace the transistor with
equivalent
in figure 15-2.
parallel as
we
brid-7r
The component values

may be found by observing that, from the
signal
RCR
may be determined
are interested in only the
ation of the circuit,
small-signal parameters.
RiL =
using the customary graphical techniques of
If
experiment
and
quies-
loadline analysis.
In this
EXPERIMENT
CIRCUIT WITH TRANSISTOR EQUIVALENT
(A)
(B)
Fig.
CIRCUIT WITH INPUT SIMPLIFIED
15-3
The Hybrid-it Equivalent
can use these two equations to find the
five basic amplifier parameters.
3.
2.
The current
The
gain (Aj = \qI\^)
voltage gain (A
V CE /V BE
The power
=
These param-
eters are:
1
TRANSISTOR ANAL YS/S
The Simplified AC Equivalent Circuit
Fig. 15-2
We
15
IAj|
gain (A p
109
Vce'C^BE'B
|A V |)
4.
The input
5.
The output
resistance (Rj
resistance (R
Each of these quantities
will
=
0
V BE /ig)
=
V CE /i c
be discussed
indi-
EXPERIMENT
TRANSISTOR ANAL YSIS
15
Fig. 15-4
vidually after
we
The Hybrid Amplifier Equivalent Circuit

output current to the input current
have examined another equiv-
alent circuit.
we
If
replace the transistor with
brid equivalent,
we
will
its
hy-
have the hybrid equiv-
This has been done

The input circuit has also been
further simplified by using its Th^venin's
alent of the entire stage.
From equation 15.2 we have
in figure 15-4.
'C
= h
+ h V
fe'B
oe CE
equivalent:
RG R B
e
d
And from the hybrid

15-4), we see that
GRB
For the input circuit of the transistor we
V CE-
may
write the equation
V BE
And
five
tVB
_i
CR L
Combining these two relationships we have
+h V
re CE
for the output circuit
We
equivalent circuit (figure
we
write
= h
+ h V
fe'B
oe CE
c -h fe B -h oe c R L
i
Collecting the i^ terms renders

(15.2)
'C
'choe^-hfe'B
can use these two equations to find the

basic
amplifier
parameters
listed
prei
viously.
cussed
in
Each of these quantities are
dis-
the following paragraphs.
Current Gain.
As suggested above, the
rent gain of an amplifier
=
c (1+h oe R L
)
fe
Therefore,
'C
cur1
is
the ratio of the
'B
110
1+h oe R L
(15.3)
15-5
Fig.
This equation
is
EXPERIMENT 15
commonly used
the current gain of a
common
Signal Current in an Amplifier Stage
to calculate
or
emitter tran-
sistor amplifier.
'C
should be noted at this point that,

since h
Qe R L is often much much less than
unity, then
=,
Rc
o^
+R
It
ratio of
(15.4)
^fe
is
The
to ig
is
the current gain
Aj,-
therefore,
_ic_
o tR c +R)(R B
+R
)
i
frequently a valid approximation for the
current gain.
which may be rewritten as

Equations 15.3 and 15.4 apply only to
the transistor, not to the circuit as a whole.
Returning to the original circuit, we see that
could be redrawn as shown in figure 15-5
the AC action alone is considered.
R B RC
(R B +
RjMR c +
R)
it
if
The
circuit
The base
signal current
is
Q /i can be interpreted as the whole

gain (&) and we have
ratio
related to the
generator current by
R B R c Aj
R.
<R
=
B L9 R + Rj
B
while the output current

collector current
+R)
(15.5)
for the entire amplifier circuit.
related to the
by
Jlc
'o
is
B + Rj)(R c
'C
Voltage Gain.
c+R
Solving for the voltage gain of
a transistor stage
111
is
somewhat more involved
EXPERIMENT
TRANSISTOR ANALYSIS
15
than solving for the current gain. As indicated

previously, the voltage gain
V CE
Collecting
left gives
terms on the
us
is
V CE A h + V CE ^=- h fe V BE
or
To determine
we must
this ratio
solve equa-
tions 15.1 and 15.2 simultaneously.
the best method
by the use of determinants.
is
Therefore
The equations to be used

= h
V BE
ie
V CE(^h + ^)=-hfeV B E
Perhaps
are
+ h V
re CE
Av =
(15.1)
'CE
^fe
A h + h ie/ R L
V BE
and
And
'C"
+ h V
fe'B
oe CE
(15.2)
Vq^
These equations may be solved for
if
we
multiply both the numerator and
denominator by
re-
A vw =
sulting in
v CE
h V
ie'C- fe BE
h h
" h fe h re
ie oe
we
R|_,
fe
+
ie
have
RL
(15.7a)
Ah R L
The denominator of
which
is
an h-parameter equation that can be
used for finding the voltage gain of a
When
emitter transistor amplifier.

this expression
is
common
the hybrid-
usually
7r
equivalent
is
used, the voltage gain
is
simply
called delta-h(Afr).
Ah
= h h
ie oe
" h fe h re
Av =
(15.6)
Actually
symbol for the denominator,
Using the
from the
h
ie'C" h fe V BE
From the
= n
ie
C-
itself.
V BE
we
and
is
appropriate
However, since
see that
V CE
then the whole circuit gain (K = e /ej)

v
Q
equal to the value given in equation 15.7.
n fe V BE
equivalent circuit (figure 15-4)
=
in
(15.7b)
equation
original circuit
or
V CE A h
this
mR L
only for the transistor
we have
_
-g
we
KV = A V
is
(15.8)
see
r
CE
Power Gain. The power gain of an amplifier

may be most easily found by determining Aj
and Av as described above and then using
We may therefore write
V C EA h
Ap =
h ie V CE
-^kf=-hfe V BE
112
|Aj|
|A V
(15.9)
And
for the
whole amplifier
K =
p
|Kj|
EXPERIMENT
circuit:
TRANSISTOR ANA L YSIS
15
or
IKJ
(15.10)
!=
YBE
>B
input resistance
we
To
And
since
Placing
with equation 15.2.
of the right side terms over the
all
=
C n fe B + h oe V CE
gives us
p _
c = -V CE /R L we may write
,
V CE_
~R7"-
ie
+ h h
ie
oe R L
fe
+h v
oe CE
fe re
RL
two numerator terms
gives
d ^
i_
+h oe V CE
- h
ê^L
Factoring R|_ from the
ie
+ h h
h h
ie oefe re)
(
1+h oe R L
"
-hfei B
Finally,
V CE
'
or
Factoring
solve for the amplifier's
start
common denominator
i
ie_:rThoÎ
Input Resistance.
fe re
we
observe that the terms within the

parentheses is the quantity previously called
out of the lefthand terms
A n We may therefore write

.
+
Vrc
CE -5R
V L
h rt
J
=-hn (fe'B
h
R: =
1
or
"h
R,
Ah R L
(15.11)
1+h oe R L
fe'B
Using this h-parameter equation we may compute the input resistance of the common emitter amplifier. For the hybrid-7r equivalent, Rj
+h oe
Multiplying both denominator and numerator

by R L gives us
-n
ie
fe B
_
V CE_1+h
'
equal t0
As before,
the transistor
RL
this
equation applies only to
itself,
not to the amplifier as a
whole.
R
oe L
In figure 15-5,
Substituting this relationship

15.1 (V
into equation
BE = h je B + h re V CE for
i
V BE
- "ie'B -
Then factoring
V CE
in
fe
- re
sistance of the
whole
we
see that the input re-
circuit will
be
renders
(15.12)
RL
+ ho R
B
; L
i
Output Resistance.
We may
determine the
value of the Thevenin's equivalent output im-
the righthand terms
pedance (R =
0
VQ E /i c
by
starting with equa-
tion 15.1.
fe re L
lh
V BE-'Bihie-fTh^
V BE
113
= h
ie
+ h V
re CE
(15.1)
EXPERIMENT
15
Observing from the hybrid equivalent circuit

(figure 15-3) that
if
v BE
is
short-circuited, then
_i
B RS
therefore write
Ah
Using this relationship
+ h oe R S
R
h
ie* S
equation 15.1
in
we
Finally, since R equals V

Q
CE /i c we
the reciprocal of each side and have
,
have
may
take
-'BRsîe'B + hreVcE
(15.13)
Collecting ig terms on the lefthand side gives
R S" h ie'B- h re v CE
-'B
which
use
the h-parameter equation
is
in
we
shall
determining the value of R Q for the

alone.
When using the hybrid-^
transistor
i
B (R s
je
)--h re V CE
it
in
we assume
equivalent
that R Q
is
so large that
can be ignored.
the form
The output impedance of the

h
re
V CE
(excluding the load resistor R) will be the par-
""hie + R S
combination of
allel
Substituting this value of ig into equation
15.2
(i
c=
fe
entire stage
Rq and R Q
RCRQ
(15.14)
B + h oe V CE gives us
)
For the hybrids circuit Z

Q
equal to Rq.
is
approximately
'c-êVcE-hJ+RgÊ
To
Dividing both sides of the equation by
Av
Vq E
eters
renders
use the equations developed for Aj,
and R Q the values of the h parammust be known. They may, of course,
Ap,
Rj
be determined from the input and output

h
_,
'C
characteristics of the transistor.
fe re
In
a practical situation, the
problem
is
frequently the measurement of the circuit

Placing
all
of the righthand terms over the
common denominator
parameters rather than their calculation.
provides
this point
niques
'C
'CE
ie
oe-
fe re
ie
+ h R
oe S
we
appropriate
for
carrying
first
as those
+R S
two numerator terms
we
out these
measurements.
Voltage Gain Measurement.
The
At
turn our attention to tech-
shall
are the
have been calling A^.
same
of an amplifier
We may
may
the circuit shown
114
The
voltage gain
be readily measured using
in figure
15-6.
An
appro-
EXPERIMENT
15
LOAD R
Fig.
priate signal
is
15-6
Measuring Voltage Gain
applied while the values of the
readily be
input and output voltage are measured with
The voltage
voltmeters.
gain
is
shown
then
measured using a
in figure 15-7.
put current
is
<o4
(15.15)
p.
e
circuit of the
In this circuit
in
while the input current
Current Gain Measurement.

uation
it
gain that
is
is
In a practical sit-
normally the whole circuit current
is
of interest.
*9
This quantity can
LOAD
Fig. 15-7
Measuring Current Gain
115
Rj
type
the out-
EXPERIMENT
15
Fig.
The current
15-8
Measuring Input Resistance
gain of the amplifier circuit
is,
very high resistance),
therefore
e;
we may
e
write
*in
or
(15.16)
(15.17)
Input Resistance Measurement.
The input
resistance of an amplifier circuit can be de-
termined
in
number of ways.
One
of the
ways is illustrated in figure 15-8. Since the

same current (i
flows through both Rj and
g
R jn (assuming the two voltmeters to be of
)
Output Resistance Measurement. The measurement of the output resistance of an amplifier
is
slightly
more involved than were the

It can, how-
three previous measurements.

ever, be carried
one shown
out using
in figure 15-9.
a circuit
such as the
EXPE RIMENT
the equivalent generator voltage

e
A is
held constant, then the
output loop equation
with only load R connected
will
15
If
be
^-'oRo-'o""
e
And
since
o( R o + R
Tr(R 0 +
Since e
'
is
is
the
two equations
is
R>
R Q renders
(15.18)
ft'*)
which allows us to determine
R Q using the
load voltage measurements
and the two
two
load resistance values.
Rj
now
The value of Rj should be chosen to
provide a change in output
voltage of about 10
percent.
A=#(R 0+
R')
MATERIALS
2N1304 transistor (or equiv)

Set of transistor curves for the
above
Transistor socket
Breadboard with
1
1
47k
clip terminals
1/2W
7.5k resistor 1/2W

470-ohm
resistor
10-MF50WVDC
capacitors
Variable DC power supply

(0-40V)
Audio generator
VOMsor FEMs
Oscilloscope
220-ohm
1.8k
1/2W
box
megohms 1/2W)
Resistance substitution
(15-10
resistor
the
R')
'
we may equate
Solving this relationship for
RR;
and the loop equation
for e
we connect load R, in parallel

with
load R, the total load (R')
becomes
R +
value of output voltage.
#(R 0 + R)=^(R 0 +
if
R' =
new
held constant,
= e /R, we have
Q
e
Then
where
ohm
resistor
resistor
2W
1/2W
PROCEDURE
"
Z ^^T^T
4.
Assemble the
circuit neatly
on
,he discussion ' compu,e and record
a breadboard.
117
K" K
EXPERIMENT 15
J
Fig.
15-10
5.
Using a meter, measure and record the values of
6.
Construct the audio generator circuit shown
7.
Connect the audio
in figure
Iq,
in parallel
with the 2.2k
and
Also connect the oscilloscope to
load resistor.
Adjust the output of the audio generator to a frequency of

that which
lg.
15-11.
signal to the input of the amplifier.
the output of the amplifier

8.
Vq^,
kHz and
produces a visibly distorted sinewave at the amplifier
output
1.8k
AUDIO
GENERATOR
2200
Fig.
15-11
AUDIO
SIGNAL
Audio Generator with Voltage Divider

118
a level well
below
9.
10.
EXPERIMENT 15
TRANSISTOR ANALYSIS
Record the peak-to-peak audio output voltage.
Move the
oscilloscope to the amplifier input terminals

and record the peak-to-peak audio
input voltage.
1 1
12.
Record the value of
Kv thus
measured.
Using the appropriate techniques and the

resistance substitution box for
record Kj,
Qty
R jn and R
Q
V CE
R if measure and
1
'c
ie
fe
re
oe
Kv
K,
R in
Ro
Computed
Values
Measured
Values
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
to which the
15-12
The Data Table
experiment, you should consider the extent

ones. Explain any major disagreement
computed values agreed with the measured
between them.
PROBLEMS
1.
If
the value of h
|e
for a particular transistor changed
would R change? Assume that

jn
2. Will Kj
3.
Is
R0
always be greater or
less
all
than Aj?
a linear or nonlinear quantity?
by 100 percent, how much
other quantities remained constant.
Why?
Why do you
119
think so?
experiment

16
INTRODUCTION. The vacuum
tube amplifier, while not the most popular circuit, is still found
this experiment we shall examine some of the more important
some electronic applications. In

vacuum tube amplifier parameters.
in
DISCUSSION.
In
this
experiment we
shall
If
consider both triode and pentode amplifier

circuits.
Because
it
is
slightly simpler
we assume
negligible,
(no
that the grid current \q
is
then the input resistance becomes
equal to the value of the grid resistor (Rq).
screen grid current), the triode will be considered
first.
R in" R
G
Triode Amplifiers.
plifier
is
quiescent
shown
in
operating
basic triode
figure
16-1.
point
is
am-
The DC
located
In order to
using
determine the value of the
stage voltage gain,
conventional loadline analysis techniques.
AC
plate current
we must observe
is
The AC characteristics of the amplifier

can be examined using the equivalent circuit
shown
(16.1)
in figure 16-2.
BB
R,
that the
EXPERIMENT
16
AW
K 6-
Fig.
where R'
L
and
is
the parallel combination

of R,
Also,
the
the cathode
if
(16.3)
+ R
adequately bypassed by
(Z
at
^
the
0
signal frequency), then
K
is equal to e
We may therefore rewrite
AC
jn
we now have
RLR
Ri
CK
Equivalent Circuit of a Triode

Amplifier
R.
r;
16-2
is
plate current equation as
as the voltage gain of

the triode amplifier.
The
amplifier
Me in
'P-r p+
we can
while the output load current
'o
Therefore
The current
nce
*. overa,,
Rg
observe
0 --i p R'L
by noting that
L
'm
it
is
R'
the equivalent circuit

that the output voltage is
si
can, however, determine
the input current
From
And
gain of a vacuum tube

of only casual interest
because
the tube does not respond

to current inputs.
We
i
current
is
is
= e /R
o
gain
is
then
p + Rj_
vo lte9e sain
is
Zô^Yn^Z
defined a S
may be determined, however,

(16.2)
Kn =
121
IK,
IK V/
in
the usual way:
(16.5)
EXPERIMENT
16
The output
resistance (R
of the triode
stage (Thevenin's equivalent resistance) can be
determined by removing the load resistor (R

in figure 16-2) and examining the remaining
between the output terminals. When

done, we see that R
Q is simply R|_
resistance
this
and
is
in parallel.
Pentode
triode
tube,
Amplifiers.
the case of a
the output characteristics are
similar to those of a constant voltage source

(a
small change in e
large
change
in
).
produces a relatively
p
Hence, we usually see a
p
constant voltage equivalent circuit to represent
a triode.
From the output

pentode tube we see
(16.6)
large
in
In
ip
changes
in e
16-3
Typical Pentode Amplifier
122
that
even
relatively
produce only small changes
(figure 16-3).
inO
Fig.
characteristics of
As
a result,
we
usually
EXPERIMENT
use a constant current equivalent

circuit to
represent a pentode amplifier. We
can arrive
at the pentode equivalent circuit
16
output resistance
is
by Norton-
izing the circuit given in figure

16-2.
this we short circuit the output
To do
(16.6)
terminals and
compute the
circuit current,
which
_e
and since n/r

p
Then because
m we may
,
(i
Q through load R)
write
'o
m e G R^Tr
9m G
the internal resistance of the

draw the constant current
shown
in figure 16-4.
of course, only applies for
circuit,
to the triode case.
The output current
is
equivalent circuit
identical
be
will
And
r
we may
tube,
Me G
equal to g
is
'>
also
is
AC
the current gain becomes
This
quan-
The DC parameters are found using

conventional loadline techniques.
tities.
From
this
equivalent
R in
if
ig
if
is
cathode
is
Similarly,
circuit
we
see
equal to e
is
as
is
that
The power
=R G
jn ,
(16.1)
the case
effectively bypassed
gain
may
when the
by C
K>
be determined as
before with
zero as was the case for a triode.

if
the load (R)
Kp =
is
IK,
removed, then the
Fig.
16-4
The Pentode Equivalent Circuit
123
IK
(16.5)
EXPERIMENT
Finally, the voltage gain can
denominator
be found by
toR 0
recognizing that
e0 =
-i
16
in
equation 16.8
may be reduced
RQ + R
R=-9meG^R
RQ
if
R0
and the voltage gain becomes
And
the voltage gain
is
K v ~-g m R
r0 r
(16.8)
n R + R
Q
e in
(16.9)
Amplifier Measurements.
the case with other amplifiers, the five
Vacuum Tube
when eg =
As
ej
in
is
basic circuit
One
value of
special case
R0
is
much
is
of interest.
larger
If
parameters (Kv Kj, K p , Rj n ,

be measured using the arrange-
and R 0 ) may
ments shown in
the
than R, then the
figure 16-5.
e
K =
K p = Kv
l
Kjl
(A)
(B) Ft,
Fig.
16-5
FOR BEST RESULTS
Measuring Amplifier Parameters
124
EXPERIMENT
(C)
R1
e
e Q'
Fig.
16-5
^Rjn FOR BEST RESULTS
16
CONSTANT FOR BEST RESUL TS
is
o with R connecte d
'
^0.9 e Q
for best results
Measuring Amplifier Parameters (Cont'd)
125
EXPERIMENT 16
MATERIALS
1
1
Vacuum tube 6AU8

Complete
set of
z n
*
or equivalent
output
characteristics
hP finOVW \/nr ranapitnrc
muqio genciaiur
Resistance buuoLiiuuun uux
9 pin miniature tube socket

Breadboard
7.5k resistor 1/2W
VOM
1/2W
150ft resistor 1/2W
300k resistor 1/2W
Variable
1.8k resistor
22012
1
1
1
1
1
10k
10
resistor
juF,
50W VDC
or
FEM
DC power
supply (0-400V)
1/2W
resistor
2W
capacitor
PROCEDURE
1.
the triode characteristic curves, locate the quiescent operating point for the circuit
On
shown
in figure 16-6.
Record the values of Eq, Ep, and
p.
Fig.
16-6
The Experimental Amplifier
126
EXPERIMENT
16
1.8k
AUDIO
GENERATOR
AUDIO
SIGNAL
220fi
Fig.
2.
Audio Generator and Voltage Divider
16-7
Using the characteristic curves, determine the

values of
the Q-point. Record these values in the data table.
3.
Select the appropriate equations and
4.
Assemble the
5.
Measure and record the values of E

c , E p and p
Connect the oscilloscope across the 10k load resistor.
ju,
and
in
compute the values of K

v K jf K p R jn and R Q
,
circuit neatly
on
7.
8.
in figure
16-7
Set the audio
kHz.
Connect the audio

level
9.
Assemble the audio generator and voltage divider

shown
generator to a frequency of
a breadboard.
6.
the vicinity of
signal from the voltage divider to the

amplifier signal input
of the generator for a small undistorted sinewave
at the amplifier output.
Set the
Using the resistance substitution box for R,

and the appropriate techniques, measure and
record Ky/ K;, K
R jn , and R
,
Q
p
.
Quantity
EC
EP
'P
Kp
R in
9m
Computed
Values
Measured
Values
Quantity
Computed
Values
Measured
Values
Fig.
16-8
The Data Table
127
Ro
EXPERIMENT
16
ANALYSIS GUIDE. The
objective of this experiment has been to examine the parameters of a
vacuum tube amplifier. In analyzing these data you should consider the extent to which the
computed values agreed with the measured quantities. In particular, you should explian any
major diagreements.
PROBLEMS
1.
Using the
shown
2.
If
6AU8 pentode
curves, repeat experimental steps
1, 2,
and 3 for the
in figure 16-9.
an input of 0.5
sin
1256t volts
is
a)
the output voltage across the
b)
the
AC
applied,
1
what
will be:
-megohm load?
plate current?
MEGJ2
Fig.
16-9
Circuit for
128
Problem One
circuit
p ET
AMPLIFIER
experiment
2/
>xsî^^r^
typ^^^ t tr.^
fl
^-.parameters
of a
DISCUSSION. The AC
flows
drain current which
a field effect transistor
in
governed
is
by the equation
If we multiply each
term by the
we have
DrD
-II
ne
f the m
exa mi ne the small-
If we connect
the FET into a common
source amplifier circuit such
as the one shown
(17.1)
become
has
figure
17-2,
we
find
that
its
output
characteristics are of the constant

current type
That is, a large change in V
a
small
DS produces only
change
in
if
v QS
is
constant.
value of
9m r D v DS + VDS
Recognizing that g
m r D = M and rearrangwe have
ing the expression,
" V GS-'"D r D + v DS
We may
interpret
this
=0
relationship
as
being the output loop equation

for the FET.
circuit
shown
is
which would produce
this equation
in figure 17-1.
'GS
O-
10
15
20
V DS (VOLTS)
Fig
1 7- 1
Equivalent Circuit of an
FET
Fig.
129
17-2
FET Amplifier and Characteristics
EXPERIMENT
FET AMPLIFIER
17
Fig.
Current
Because of the constant current nature

of the
FET
characteristics
probably more
it is
equivalent
convenient to use a constant current equivalent

circuit based
shown
on equation
7.
'o
we must determine
tional loadline analysis techniques.
When
we
is
Ro
\/
m GSr q +
Ro
R
in
RQ + R
while the input current has a value of
Then we
the vicinity of the
in
these things are done,
use the equivalent circuit
simplified
the
quiescent operating condition using conven-
Q-point.
(i
this
observe that the out-
such as the one
determine g m and
Using
Gain.
circuit
put current
in figure 17-3.
In a practical case
FET Amplifier
Constant Current Equivalent of an
17-3
shown
in
_ "in
we may
'in"
figure 17-3
FU
to determine the amplifier's parameters.
Consequently,
FET
is
very small,
have, for the current gain
of the stage
Input Resistance. Since the input current

of an
we
we normally assume
that the input resistance of the amplifiers
is
(17.4)
equal to
Rq:
R in" R G
(17.2)
Output Resistance.
load resistor (R)
the
output
in
If
we
disconnect the
figure 17-3,
we
see that
(R 0 )
the
parallel
resistance
is
combination of rp and Rq. That
is
(17.3)
Redrawing the equivalent
we have
circuit to
the circuit shown
in
show R Q
figure
17-4.
Fig.
130
17-4
The Simplified Equivalent Circuit
EXPERIMENT
Voltage Gain. With the value of output

current
known we may
Is
readily determine the
o=
-i
0R =
K = " Kv
i
gmeinR^R-
And
if
9m R +R
e
in"
o
RQ
R,
then
is
useful
K =
p
approximation of voltage
F0R BEST RESULTS

Fig.
17-5
IKJ IK V
(17.7)
basic amplifier parameters discussed

above
can easily be measured using the circuits shown

gain.
in figure 17.5.
'
^ R in
FET AMPLIFIER MEASUREMENTS.

The
R =
R1
(17 6)
Power Gain. As in the case of any other

power gain of the stage can be
found using
K v~9m R
a
W)
amplifier the
therefore
is
This fact becomes apparent when equations

17.4 and 17.5 are compared to each other.
(17.5)
RQ + R
re-
Ro R
=_lo =
~
by
lated
from which we see that the voltage gain

k-
perhaps worth noting at this point
that the current and voltage gains are
value of the output voltage,
Ro R
is
FET AMPLIFIER
17
r^Tr
e
R!
^R
= e
o
in
WITH S CLOSED
FOR BEST RESULTS
Amplifier Parameter Measurements

131
FOR BEST RESULTS
jn
CONSTANT
EXPERIMENT
FET AMPLIFIER
17
MATERIALS
1
MOSFET type 40468
Set characteristic curves for the above device
2 200ft resistors
Transistor socket
Variable
Breadboard
Oscilloscope
0.1 juF capacitor
Audio generator
VOM
320k
jiiF
or equivalent
600W VDC
capacitors BOW VDC
resistor
(100K + 220K) 1/2W
1.8k resistor
or
(15 -10
1/2W
2W
DC power
supply (0
40V)
FEM
box
megohm 1/2W)
PROCEDURE
1.
Using the output characteristics of the FET, determine the quiescent operating conditions
for the circuit shown in figure 1 7-6. Record values for V
Vgg, and
D g,
2.
From the
curves determine the values of
Record these
3.
/i,
and r^
in
the vicinity of the Q-point.
values.
With the appropriate relationships, compute and record values for K

v
4.
Construct the circuit neatly on a breadboard.
5.
Measure and record the values of V^g, V^g, and p.
Kj,
R jn and R Q
,
o+
V DD
= 18
VOLTS
SIGNAL %k LOAD
OUTPUT^
R
2.2k
SIGNAL
INPUT
Fig.
17-6
The Experimental Amplifier

132
EXPERIMENT
17
FET AMPLIFIER
1.8k
^\ j
AUDIO
/generator
220n,
AUDIO
SIGNAL
Fig.
6.
7.
17-7
The Audio Generator and Voltage

Divider
Connect the oscilloscope across

the 2.2k
rL ^
in figure
d iv der to th
'
amplifier output.
eVe
reOTd
your analysis you should consiriP th
QTY
V DS
V GS
'D
signal (e
Ki '
Kp
9m
i?,.
Kv
- *
sinewave at the
also
LtT
7-7
nput of the amp,ifi
Ri "' and
Sma "
'
Measure the peak-to-peak value of

the output
"
In
load resistor.
Assemble the audio generator and

voltage divider shown
9.
ohm
r -
'"--
measured these same
Kj
Kp
R in
Computed
Values
Measured
Values
XX
77-5
r/?e
133
Data Table
values.
EXPERIMENT
17
FET AMPLIFIER
PROBLEMS
1.
A
of
2.
FET has a g m of lOOOju mhos and an r D of 8K. What would

K v and R Q if this device were used in the experimental circuit?
certain
Make
sketch of
Kv
versus R
(the circuit
load)
be the values
for the amplifier used in the
experiment.
3.
Does the value of R Q depend
in
any way on the value of R? Explain your answer
in detail.
134

experiment
sr*
18
ln ,his
experimen '
"
DISCUSSION. As mentioned
in the introfrequently necessary to couple

two (or more) amplifier stages together
to
achieve a desired result. Figure 18-1
duction,
it
two amplifier
stages
&
Z Change the frequency of the signal

8. Add or remove signal information
each type (input, interstage, or output}

the coupling network must effectively
convey
In
the desired signal
from
input to
its
or perform any other specialized
plished without the loss
output.
its
Because a comprehensive study of coup-
would be accomof any energy. In
practical situations such lossless

coupling
scope,
is
is
of necessity very broad
shall limit this
common
experiment to only
circuits.
Untuned (nonresonant) amplifiers employ

basic methods of coupling.
These
basic methods are:
conveying the desired
Change the level of signal

Block undesired signal frequencies
1.
Resistance-Capacitance (RC) coupling.
2.
Transformer coupling.
3.
Direct current (DC) coupling.
o-j
INPUT
COUPLING
j
NETWORK
I.NTER-
|
i
|
|
STAGE
COUPLING
NETWORK
Fig. 18- 1
I
|
I
NETWORK
The Three Basic Types of Coupling Networks

135
COUPLING
1
I
OUTPUT
in
three
from circuit to circuit the coupling

network may do one or more of the following:
2.
we
the most
signal
/.
networks
ling
rarely possible.
to
ser-
vice required.
ideal conditions this
addition
Delay the signal by a specified length

of time
and three basic types of
coupling networks.
In
Limit the signal amplitude

Serve as an impedance matching device
Change the phase angle of the signal
5.
shows
Under
3.
4.
is
EXPERIMENT
18
INPUT COUPLING
INTERSTAGE COUPLING
Fig.
We
shall
consider
each
of
18-2
these
OUTPUT COUPLING
RC Coupling Circuits
briefly.
Notice that
if
impedance matching
is
impor-
it must be accomplished by adjusting

R s and R jn (or R). The value of the
tant then
RC Coupling: This type is one of the

most frequently encountered basic coupling
When
methods.
sistance
of
the
it
used the output
is
driving
circuit
R0
(or
capacitor
is
re-
Xc
coupled
is
chosen such that
in
(18.1)
(or R)
through a capacitor to the input resistance

of
the driven circuit.
typical
examples of such
18-2 shows
Figure
at the lowest
frequency to be coupled.
circuits.
Transformer Coupling:
RC
coupling
is
used
when economy
an important factor and the goal
AC
signals while blocking
any
is
is
to couple
DC component.
are to be coupled and
transformers
may
be
used.
INTERSTAGE COUPLING
OUTPUT COUPLING
18-3
signals
DC component
blocked while effecting an impedance match,
INPUT COUPLING
Fig.
When AC
any
Figure
18-3
EXPERIMENT
shows typical examples of transformer-coupled circuits.
As
mally
18
(direct current) or
when the DC component

can be used to establish the desired
quiescent
conditions in the driven stage.
stated before, transformers are nor-
when
used
impedance
matching
important as would be the case

amplifier or
turns ratio
power
is
in a
There are many ways
is
current
may
coupling
The transformer
shows only
normally chosen according to
coupled to
T-j
amplifier.
limit the
lo,(
R in
(18.2)
^2/
when an impedance match

Transformer coupling
used when:
1.
signal
is
desired.
is
also frequently
phase reversal
is
desired (the
may
be
reversed to effect 180 phase shift),
when the
signal
18-4
is
base current.
is coupled very
such that the collector voltage of
is equal to the
base voltage of To.
T 2 couples the signal to T through a
break3
down diode (Dj) which causes a fixed re-
duction
voltage.
in
through the
T3
is
coupled to
resistive voltage divider
T4
R 2 and
R3
By adjusting the values of the resistors,
the base voltage of T
may be set at any
DC
frequency
is
-V BB and the positive collector

T 3 Finally, T 4 is coupled directly
point between
voltage of
to the load R.
In
are
used
Figure
using a single series resistor to
T2
nections.
is
which direct
few popular ones. The source
directly to
The driving circuit and driven circuit

do not have common ground con-
Direct Current Coupling:
in
achieved.
windings of the transformer
2.
be
summary we should note
three
that there
basic
coupling methods:
RC,
transformer and direct coupling. All are
used
coupling
near zero
in practical circuits
may be
used
and more than one method
in a single
application.
-o +v cc
Fig. 18-4
Various Direct Coupling Methods
137
EXPERIMENT
18
MATERIALS
1
1
1
Transistor type
2N1304
or equivalent
type 40468 or equivalent

Set of curves for the above
FET
2 Transistor sockets
1
Breadboard
3 10
juF capacitors
BOW VDC
meg
1k resistor 1/2W
470^
resistor
1/2W
220S2
resistor
2W
VOMorFEM
Oscilloscope
Audio generator
Variable DC power supply (0-40V)
Capacitor substitution box (0.0001
1/2W
100k resistor 1/2W
1
68k resistor 1/2W
1
7.5k resistor 1/2W
1
resistor
-1.0 /xF
600W VDC)
Sheet of graph paper
PROCEDURE
1.
conditions for both

Using the characteristic curves determine the quiescent operating
V CE and V BE in the data table.
of the amplifiers shown in figure 18-5. V DS V GS
,
Fig. 18-5
ends of the same breadboard.
circuits at opposite
Assemble both amplifier
3.
Measure the quantities computed
5.
The Experimental Amplifiers
2.
4.
in
step
and record the
results in the data table.
Using the capacitor substitution box, couple the two amplifiers together as indicated
figure 18-6. Set the box for its maximum capacitance value.
Connect the oscilloscope, audio generator,

and 10
/xF
capacitor as
shown
VOM,
in figure 18-6.
138
2.2k load resistor,
megohm
in
resistor,
EXPERIMENT
18
VOM
Fig.
6.
18-6
Set the audio generator to a frequency of 1kHz and adjust the
level for
the
maximum
undistorted output sinewave.

7.
Record the overall current gain of the
circuit
and the value of the capacitor substitution
box.
8.
Reduce the capacitor substitution box one step and repeat step
9.
Continue reducing the capacitance, repeating step 7 for each value available
7.
in
the
substitution box.
10.
Interchange the positions of the transistor amplifier stage and the

steps
4 through
9.
Quiescent Conditions
QTY
FET
v DS
Circuit
vGs
Transistor Circuit
V CE
Computed
Value
Measured
Value
First
Test Circuit
Capacitor
Second Test Circuit

Capacitor
Fig.
18-7
The Data Tables

139
V BE
FET
stage
and repeat
EXPERIMENT
11-
On
18
a single sheet of graph paper plot curves of the current gain versus the values of
Xc
for the data runs.
ANALYSIS GUIDE. In the analysis of these

Explain why the gain went down
results.
data you should discuss the trend revealed by your

as
Xq
went up and why the two
sets of results
were different.
PROBLEMS
1.
certain amplifier has an output resistance of
8K2 and
82 load.
transformer having 3000 primary turns
secondary
is
found to be tapped
18-8).
How would you
is
at 100, 300, 1000,
is
to be used to drive an
available.
The transformer
and 1500 turns
(see figure
connect the transformer for the best impedance match?
1500
TURNS
1000
TURNS
3000
TURNS
300 TURNS
Fig.
2.
Explain
why RC and
situation described in
18-8
Transformer for Problem
direct coupling
100
TURNS
TURNS
would probably not be
problem one.
140
satisfactory in the
experiment
mlesome
hP.nmT?,
becomes roub
19
V CaS6S the gain 0f 8 multi age amplifier
to handle.
common
It is
log r.thm.c un.t called
is such a large number that

it
practice in such a case to express the
gain in a
a decibel. In this experiment

units are applied in amplifier
gain analysis.
,
DISCUSSION. An
some signal power
electronic circuit
(P,)
applied to
having
its
input
we
which
examine the ways
shall
in
which these
of course, the same as the product
is,
of the three individual gains.
and subsequently reproducing it at

a different
output level (P ) is said to have
a power
0
K pT - K p1 Kp 2 K p3
gain of
Expressed
in
decibels this
(19.3)
becomes
(19.1)
G T = 10
often convenient to express this
gain
terms of decibels as
It
K pT
is
G = 10
log Kp(decibels)
in
or
G T = 10
G T = 10
additive.
For example, consider the three

stages shown in figure 19-1,
where the gains
and
are given as ratios.
If
we apply
the power at
will
have
kW.
1.0
will
10W and
The
overall
mW
at P
mW. At
P2
log
K p1 + 10
log
K p2 + 10
log
K p3
finally
Gj - Gpi
to the input, then
be 100
K P1 K p2 K p3
which we may rewrite as
the advantages of expressing gain

decibels is that successive gains
are simply
in
log
(19.2)
One of
log
+ Gp2 + Gp3
(19-4)
we
Q the power will be
power
gain
million
K PT
is
one
In
other words,
we may simply add
the
individual stage gains to get the total gain
PT-rmW =1
they are
all
expressed
in decibels.
In the
example, the individual gains are
'
Fig. 19- 1
3-Stage Amplifier
141
if
above
EXPERIMENT
19
G = 10
and the
K v1 = 10K v2 = 50 and K v3 = 20
100=20 db
log
'
total gain will be
these gains could be expressed in decibels as
A v1 =20
G T = 20 + 20 + 20 = 60 db
which
result
A v2
= 20 log 50 = 34 db
A v3
= 20 log 20 = 26 db
of course, equivalent to the previous
is,
(K pT = 106 ).
may
Since the input and output powers
And
10= 20 db
log
the total voltage gain
in
db would be
be expressed as
A vT
e-
Pi
=1*7-
P0
20+34+26 =
80 db
=^
The input and output powers can
also be
expressed as
we may
rewrite equation 19.2 in the
form
P =
i
= 10
log
R andP0 = 0 2 R L
i
2
0 /R|_
Therefore, equation 19.2 can be written as
/Ri
*i
And
if
Rj
and R|_ are equal, we may write
G = 10
-10
And when
which may be arranged
G = 20
Rj and R|_ are equal,
= 10log(-)
(19.5)
(decibels)
log
we have
the form
in
log
2
0 RL
e
i
In
many
to R|_.
practical cases, Rj
Equation 19.5
is
is
as
not equal
nevertheless,
monly used to express the voltage
com-
= 20 log f- (decibels)
(19.7)
gain in
decibels.
Even when Rj
A =20
log
K v (db)
is
not equal to
Rj_,
we
use this
relationship to express current gain in decibels
(19.6)
as
Voltage gains
in
decibels are handled in
the same ways as power gains

instance,
if
figure 19-1
in
db.
Aj = 20 log Kj (db)
(19.8)
For
the voltage gains of the stages
in
And,
were
142
as in the case of
power and voltage
gain,
the total gain of several stages
by
EXPERIMENT 19 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER GAIN

may be found
addition.
K i1 "
10^
express
them
voltage, current,
K j2 =
in
A i2 =
in
figure
and K
=
i3
2,
5,
K v = 5/10 =
19-1 are
we may
Kj
20log
Expressing the gains
2= 6db
total current gain
Av
14 db
would be
Aj
A jT =20+6+14 = 40db
some
= 20
log 0.5
the output
be
less
level.
than one.
level
may be
= 10
log
in
illustrate this,
consider
the circuit shown in figure 19-2.
Fig.
= 0.01
-20
log
= -20
= 10
100 = -20 db
Notice that the decibel gains are negative
A Passive Network
143
log
log
numbers and may be considered
19-2
50 = -34 db
log 0.01
= -10
log
we have
2 = -6 db
log 0.02
log
decibels
greater than
In such a case the gain will
To
=20
= -20
cases (particularly with passive
the input
~ 3
= -20
In
0.5
= 10/500 = 0.02
= 50 x
Kp
p
10 = 20db
A j3 =20log 5=
circuits),
this
decibels as
A n =20 log
And the
and power gains of
network are
the current gains
If
The
losses.
EXPERIMENT
19
'
Av
= -6 db
Av
= -30 db
Aj = -3 db
A; -
30 db
G =
Odb
db
0>
I
IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
FIRST AMP
SOURCE
Fig.
Most
19-3
LOAD
NETWORK
SECOND AMP.
COUPLING CKT.
Typical Multistage Amplifier
Ajj = 26
practical multistage amplifiers have
- 3
+ 30 + 30 = 83 db
both positive gains and negative gains present

in
the circuit.
arrangement
Gj
= 20 -
+ 24 + 0 = 43 db
In this case the total gains are
are
Decibels
= 40 - 6 + 34 - 30 = 38 db
used
amplifier
discussing
A vJ
very
frequently
performance
and
in
are,
therefore, important to the technician.
MATERIALS
2
1
1
NPN
transistors
(2N 1304 or equivalent)
100k resistor 1/2W

47k resistor 1/2W
2 6.8k resistor 1/2W
Oscilloscope
Audio generator
(15-10 megohms 1/2W)
(25W VDC)
2 100 mF capacitors (25W VDC)
2 10
3.3k resistor 1/2W
ohm
100 ohm
2 560
resistors
resistor
supply (0-40V)
Variable
2 4.7k resistor 1/2W

1
DC power
1/2W
1/2W
jizF
capacitors
PROCEDURE
1.
Assemble the
substitution
shown in figure 19-4

about 22k ohms.
circuit
box
for
neatly on a breadboard.
2.
Assemble the audio generator and voltage divider
3.
Set the generator frequency to
4.
Connect the source to the input of the amplifier.
kHz and
circuit
the output
the 4.7k load resistor.
144
shown
level
in
Set the resistance
figure 19-5.
to zero.
Also connect the oscilloscope across
EXPERIMENT
19
-O
15
VOLTS
4.7k
RESISTANCE
SUB.
10;uF
BOX
To
ft
2N1304
SIGNAL
^\
4.7k
INPUT
100
6.8k
juF
>
'
560ft
100mF
^
r/?e
^/ff.
5.
Increase the source level until
&
you have the maximum undistorted
6 reSiStanC6 SUbSti,U,i n b X
fW
^ktoed
?
'
8.
*
10
'
SSI?"
'
7 a ,ernattlV Un,H
*e
'
he
b rand g
0SC Pe
rnd
*" '"^
?T*
n <Kv3
'
OSCillOSCOPe '
" d re0 rd
T
'
he Si9nal
GENERATOR
19-5
The Experimental Source
145
POSSible undistt
*.
<2>
Than compute the gam
AUDIO
Fig.
undis,orted
4.7k
step 7 <e).
100k
100ft
signal across the
^
in
* * *
U,PL" '
?g ro*d
^ ,nd
"
maXimUm
maXimUm
Record the peak-to-peak output voltage

achieved
y^J^
lta e
<
e1
between
in
db and
< collector
EXPERIMENT
12.
K y2 and A v2
voltage gains (both
of the coupling network.
Move the oscilloscope to the audio generator terminals and measure

e
value. Compute e s using e and the voltage divider values. Record s
g
13.
14.
15.
Compute and
e
and
voltage gains (K v1 and
A v1
record the overall voltage gains (K VT and
Record the
g
in
the data table.
A VT
using the values of
Using A' vT compute and record K' vT
7.
of the input stage.
A v1 A v2 and A y3
Determine the overall voltage gain by taking the sum of

values as A^j. Compute and record K' v y.
16.
19
Record the
Input Stage Data
Output Stage Data
A v3
Kv3
e2
eo
e
g
K v2
A v2
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE. The
K vT
19-6
To
A vT
Av-j-
K'
VT
The Data Tables
objective of this experiment has been to
relationships in a multistage amplifier.
two methods
A v1
K v1
Overall Gain Values
Coupling Circuit Data

e
become
familiar with gain
that end you should consider the extent to which the
of expressing gain are consistent.
PROBLEMS
the value of
1.
If
2.
Would the
3.
If
4.
Adding
Av
is
K v for
results
a certain amplifier
be the same
in
doubled,
is
problem
for
K v change?
G by 10
P /Pj increase?
146
increase?
K and G?
decreased by 20 db, by what factor must

a stage to an amplifier increases
how much does A v
db.
How much
did the ratio of
20
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
AMPLIFIER FREQUENCY RESPONSE
All amplifier
circuits include some reactive quantities.

Because these quanchange reactance with frequency, the gain of an amplifier
also varies with frequency
In this
experiment we shall examine the way in which gain varies at low,
medium, and high
tities
frequencies
DISCUSSION. For
there
fier,
a given single-stage ampli-
nearly always a range of frequen-
is
which the reactive effects of the

circuit components may be ignored. This range
cies within
of frequencies
is
called the
mid-band
range.
mid-band range the gain of the amplinot affected by the reactive components
In this
fier
is
and we may compute the gain value using the

familiar small-signal equations.
the mid-band gain

the symbol
Am
is
The value of
usually represented
by
If
we
then we can draw the low frequency equivalent circuit of an amplifier as

shown in figure 20-1. In the mid-band range,
the reactance of the coupling capacitor will
be
much less than the amplifier input resistance.
Consequently, the gain of the coupling netwill be approximately

)
work (C c and R
jn
zero decibels (that
we
allow the input signal frequency
elements
es
Am
jn
).
The
overall
to decrease, the reactances of

itive
is,
gain will, therefore, equal
As the
If
consider only the input coupling
network,
the
in
all
circuit
(f)
of the capacwill
signal
frequency
increases until at
some point
R in
we have
At
this point
is
lowered,
(f|)
it
Xq
equals
increase
according to
X C =R in
:
X C"2^fC
In
most
practical
capacitors
effect
will
on the gain
cases,
the signal coupling
have the most pronounced

at
low frequencies.
27rf-,C
= R;
in
Fig.
20- 1
An Amplifier Low Frequency Equivalent Circuit

147
EXPERIMENT 20 AMPLIFIER FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Solving this equation for
f<|,
we
see that
it
The
is
overall gain at
f^
is,
therefore, either
equal to
A
f1 =
27rR
in
A m A45
= 0.707
(20.1)
Cc
at
or
This frequency
is
normally considered
A=
to be the lower limit of the mid-band range.
Below
this
and that
-n
R jn and C c form
ej
will
= e
s
this equation
-j
At frequencies below
a voltage
A 1o
(20.2)
Rjn -jX c
cies,
'in
es
R in -i R in
e
in
;
= c
e
s
1.414Z.-45
A m\i
Rin<i-iD
the overall gain
then
the
if
is
shown
we
(f-,/f)
increased.
if
the
At high frequen-
may be
ignored.
increase the frequency enough,
shunt
we
of
capacity
At these
significant.
frequencies,
= 0.707 e c A45
(20.3)
j
the same thing occurs
frequency
However,
= e<
Cs
\i-ji
the coupling capacitors
becomes
1
Somewhat
becomes
in
f<|,
continues to decrease according to
be
R;
es
expressed as
or in decibels, respectively.
signal
Gjn
is
can determine the overall gain by
observing that
At
Am
depending on whether
e /ej
divider
3) decibels
frequency the coupling network
has an important effect on the overall gain.
We
(A m -
the
amplifier
relatively high
can use the equivalent circuit
in figure 20-2.
Notice that
Ct
is
the
total equivalent shunt capacity of the amplifier
And
the gain of the coupling circuit
is
device, circuit,
and
load.
It
has been lumped
together for simplicity.
= 0.707 =
-3dbatf 1
As the
Fig.
20-2
An Amplifier High
signal
frequency increases, a point
Frequency Equivalent Circuit
148
(f
2)
will eventually
equal R
At
be reached where
frequency we
this
x ct
will
X Ct wil
have
and the
overall gain will be
A m ^-45
= 0.707
= R<
o
at f-
or
A=
27rf
2 Ct
=
no
" R.
(A m -3) decibels
Beyond
2 the gain
will
continue to
decrease according to
Therefore,
2 must have a value of
1
2 ~ 27rR C
0 t
A hi
If
-i
= e
0
xc
R 0 -ix Ct
Am
(20.4)
At f 2 the voltage divider formed by C

t
and R
0 will produce an output voltage of
e'
(f/f
(20.5)
2)
we now combine the low, mid, and

we have an equivalent
high frequency effects,

circuit like the
one shown
in figure 20-3.
The
frequency response of such an amplifier

will
fall off at both the low and high
frequency end.
= 0.707 e n Z.-45*
If
we
would
plot gain versus frequency, the result

be as shown in figure 20-4.
1
Fig.
203 A
Broad Band Amplifier Equivalent

149
Circuit
It
is
worth noticing that the gain
usually plotted in decibels while frequency

in Hertz.
Semilog graph paper
is
is
from
amplifier extends
<|
to i^.
is
BW =
normally used
(20.6)
f-j(Hz)
2-
for plotting frequency response curves.
usually taken
usually
Frequency response data
considered to be the mid-band range between
by holding the
input signal
the -3 db points on the frequency response
while varying the signal frequency and meas-
The bandwidth of the amplifier
curve.
In
is
uring the output
other words, the bandwidth of the
is
level
constant
level.
MATERIALS
1
Integrated operational amplifier
(type
SN724 or
DC
equivalent)
supply (0-30 volts)
Variable
IC socket for the amplifier
VOMor FEM
Audio generator
Oscilloscope
1/2W
220k
47fi resistor 1/2W
resistor
Breadboard
Sheet, 3 cycle semilog graph paper
(K&E 46 5490
1
megohm 1/2W)
0.01 juF capacitor
0.1 juF capacitor
600W VDC
2 1k resistors
600WVDC
150
or equivalent
Resistance substitution box (15-10
2W
ELECTRONICS/AMPLiFIERS
EXKmHEHTX
AMPLIFIER FREQUENCY
-15V
Fig.
20-5
PROCEDURE
1.
Assemble the
isolated
shown
circuit
In figure 20-5.
from ground.
Be sure tkat hth

b th P Wer Suppl terminals
V
are
2.
Connect the oscilloscope across the

amplifier output terminals.
3.
tXl^T
he
ZcL
erator for the
PUt V0 ta9e h6,d

'
s of:
100 Hz
200 Hz
300 Hz
400 Hz
500 Hz
600 Hz
700 Hz
800 Hz
900 Hz
maximum
~'
kHz
2 kHz
3 kHz
4 kHz
5 kHz
6 kHz
7 kHz
8 kHz
9 kHz
1
5.
6.
On
7.
Using the 220k resistance and
undistorted output at
meaSUre 9nd
"
10 kHz
20 kHz
30 kHz
40 kHz
50 kHz
60 kHz
70 kHz
80 kHz
90 kHz
semilog paper, plot the frequency

response of the amplifier.
0.01
M F, compute and record
757
kHz
Record the
tne output vo,ta e at

g
gain in decibels for each

frequency in step 4.
Cc =
f,
fre-

No
f
(Hz)
(volts)
Cap.
\
(db)
Series Cap.
*
(volts).
Both Cap.
\
(db)
(volts)
(db)
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
e
900
1k
in
u
Comp.
2k
3k
Curve
4k
5k
Comp.
6k
h
Curve
7k
8k
9k
10k
20k
30k
40k
50k
60k
70k
80k
90k
Fig.
152
20-6
The Data Tables
&
9.
"F
'Si
From your
EXPERIMENT* AMPLIFIER FREQUENCY

RESPONSE
aPaCi,0r
"
MrieS Wi,h
curve, determine the value

of
^< " A and repsa, ep
10.
Using the 47fi resistance (R

2 ) and
S^T^V'
1
From your
2.
of th'"
0.1
M F, compute and record
capacitor across the input of the

amplifier at point B and
curve, determine f
23îff
Some
them
consider
Cs =
d3ta
""n?'
Did the computed
th6re arS S6Veral
'
are:
and graphical values of

measured frequency response curves
agree with figure 20-4 in general
shape?
U
1
that
you should
agree?
Did
PROBLEMS
1.
If
the value of
second stage
2
is
for the first stage of a two-stage

amplifier is 50
150 Hz, what would be f , for the whole
amplifier?
f
d ' band 93in

"
at
5oH^?
e
"
4.
aH 0
C nd St
"e 8b0Ve
ab Ve
f,
1
100 (4 db) what wou| d be

'
for the
its
gain
What wou,d be '*
gain
'
m, d " band 9ain
H z?
What would be the
iS
Hz and
overall gain
f 140 (4 db)
"
above at 10 Hz? At 200 Hz?
153
vZ
"
experiment
NTRODUCTION.
21
Differential
are
circuits
amplifier
experiment we
In this
applications.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
used
great variety of
in
some of the most .mportant
shall consider
eleônic
character.st.es
of these circuits.
DISCUSSION.
measurement
In
many
situations,
compare two electronic

an output
would thereoutput of a practical amplifier
instrumentation and
it
is
signals
fore be
necessary to
and produce
proportional to their difference.
is
amplifier which performs this function
amplifier.
called a difference or differential
An
in
Let us consider the amplifier shown
indeed
If the amplifier does
figure 21-1.
amplify the difference between

then the output voltage will be
e
We may
and e 2
e-j
mode
which shows
that,
Aei
if
gain.
Al + A;
(21.2)
= Ae 2
While this
output.
in
most
is
practical cases
if
e<|
and
are
different.
the difference amplifier
to operate ideally, then both
the other hand,
exactly equal (and non-zero), then the output

should be zero since the difference voltage
_ e
In practice this will not be
is zero.
e(|
2
the case because A<| and A 2 are slightly
we
If
define the
common mode
input voltage e c to be equal to the average

of
and e 2 must
to
experience the same gain (A) from input
is
e-j
On
form
(21.1)
and e 2 are different (non-zero)

average
values, then the overall gain will be the
difference
of A-| and A 2 and is called the
If
= Aie-i
e
M 1 e 1 - Aoe
2 2
ei - e 2 )
rewrite this relationship in the
e-j
and e 2
e-|
e-j
theoretically possible,
and e 2
will
undergo
amplification.
slightly different values of
The
+ e2
= e we have e c - Q\ - e 2
2
and equation 21 .1 becomes
Then when
e-,
A 1 e c" A 2e c
-^=A -A 2
1
This ratio
e
(e /e
c)
is
called the
gain (A c ) of the amplifier:
A C = A 1 -A 2
Fig.
common mode
21-1
Differential Amplifier
154
(21.3)
EXPERIMENT 21 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
COM.
Fig.
The
quality of a differential amplifier
by taking the
usually judged
mode
difference
is
Ad
Measuring
is
Then
we have
collecting voltage terms,
of the
ratio
common mode
common mode
gain to the
This ratio
gain.
21-2
called the
A +A ?
1
rejection ratio
Ai +
However, since
common mode and
the
(21.4)
respectively,
and
is
we
define
frequently expressed
It
worth noting
is
the
= e
d
1
and the
difference
input
_e 2
common mode
e
mode
if
which
as
we may
mode
gains
Ad e d
A ce c
<
21 7 >
-
the equation normally used to describe
is
of measuring
input as
shown
+ e
2
If
(21.6)
e-|
-) are
Equation 21.7 also provides us with
solve simultaneously for
difference
the output voltage of a difference amplifier.
< 21 5 >
the
then
then
and
we have
e
in decibels.
at this point that
A2
(A<| -
and
Ad
Ac
and
means
Consider the circuit
in figure 21-2.
two
resistors in figure 21-2 are equal,
e-|
-e
and from equations 21.5
and 21.6
2 and get
e
1
= e + 1/2 e and e = e ~ 1/2 e

c
d
2
c
d
e<|
- e
e-j
- (-e
e<|
2 volts
and
Substituting these values into equation 21.1
<
+ 1/2 e d>
A2
<
ei
renders
c " 1/2 e d>
Since e
c
+ e2
e<i
is
zero,
A
A
e
1
e
1
-A 2 e c +
A2
d
e
155
'
- = 0 vo
we can measure
and compute Aj.
or
ei - e 9
(-eo)
ts
Q and e^
-m
COM.
e
21-3
Fig.
Similarly,
shown
we can measure A c with
in figure 21-3.
therefore, e d =
0 and
= 1/2
Therefore, by measuring e 0 and e c
Measuring
(e<|
= e
2
using any type of active
+ e 2 ).
we have A c
Ac
maybe constructed
devices and may have
Differential amplifiers
the circuit
In this case e
or
either
balanced
shown
in figure 21-4.
unbalanced outputs, as
Ac4
c
In
With
Ad
common mode
and
Ac
some
rejection ratio using equation
achieve a
BALANCED OUTPUT
Fig.
21-4
the emitter resistor
is
replaced with a third active device (transistor

or FET). When this is done, it is possible to
known, we find the
21.4.
(A)
cases,
common mode
(B)
UNBALANCED OUTPUT
Transistor Differential Amplifiers
156
gain close to zero.
MATERIALS
1
Integrated operational amplifier (type

or equivalent)
SN724
1
1
1
Data sheet for the above IC

Variable DC supply (0- 40V)
VOM
or
Oscilloscope
IC socket
Breadboard
2 10k resistors 1/2W
FEM
2 220
Audio generator (with balanced underground output)
ohm
resistors
1k resistor
2W
2W
100k
AUDIO
GENERATOR
30V
DC
SUPPLY
(OUTPUT
(UNGROUNDED)
UNGROUNDED)
220H
Fig.
21-5
The
First
PROCEDURE
1-
Assemble the operational amplifier
2.
Connect the oscilloscope to the amplifier output
3.
Set the audio generator for an undistorted amplifier output at
4.
Record the value of the output
5.
Move the
6.
Compute and record e^ and
circuit
signal, e
shown
e-|
and e 2
Compute and record
8.
Compute
the
either
Ad
common mode
or
Be sure to use the correct
Ac
kHz.
these calculations.
7.
oscilloscope to the input and measure

e
in figure 21.5.
as the case
may
be.
rejection ratio of the amplifier, p.
157
signal polarities in
making
30V
DC
SUPPLY
(UNGROUNDED)
Make the changes
9.
21-6
Fig.
in
the circuit shown

the input connections required to produce
in
figure 21-6.
10.
Repeat steps 2 through 7 using this
1 1
Compute the common mode
circuit.
rejection ratio of the amplifier, p.
In the analysis of these data,
ANALYSIS GUIDE
you should compare your measured values
data
and p to those given in the manufacturer's
any difference between the values.
of
Ad
Also consider possible reasons for
sheet.
PROBLEMS
1
'
volts
= -0-5V. When e-, =

value of A d A c and p?
1V and e 2 = 1V, the output
What would be the output
voltage in problem
2.
50
output of
certain differential amplifier has an
3.
Draw
0.05
ei
volts.
= 0.5V and
What
is
the
a circuit diagram of an
Qty
is
when
FET
e1
if
Ckt
Second
Ckt
!
21-7
and e 2 = 0?
differential amplifier with a balanced output.
First
Fig.
The Data Table

158
Ac
Ad
SS
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
with
signal
In electronic amplifiers
the input signal to
examine
shall
FEEDBACK PRINCIPLES
a typical
it
type of feedback and
DISCUSSION. To produce
its
electronic feed-
back, a sample of the output voltage or the
output
current
more common, we
shall
the
is
input
perhaps
common
in
effects
us
21-1
a portion of the
examine the
circuit
case of voltage feedback.
shown
put voltage
(j3
is
connected
the
sum
is
of the signal voltage and the feedback
voltage,
In this circuit
in
= e + e
0 o
s
we
Substituting
gives
this
value
into
equation
us
is
A=
o8 +
pe 0
(22.1)
in
and that the output voltage
with
the input circuit such that the input voltage
given by
(j3).
in series
in
generalized
that the gain of the amplifier alone
feedback network
we
limit this discussion
which represents
output
on amplifier performance.
Let
mix
practice to
the circuit performance. In this experiment
it.
figure
see
to
Since voltage feedback
circuit.
to
back
fed
is
is
produce a change
is
sampled by the
portion of the out-
Fig.
22-1
Aes +
A(3e 0 = e 0
21.1
ELECTRONICS/ AMPLIFIERS
EXPERIMENT 22 FEEDBACK PRINCIPLES
Collecting the e 0
on the
There are several advantages to be had

by employing negative feedback. For example,
let's consider what happens to the overall gain
right provides
Ae s = e 0
A0 e 0
(A')
and
if
overall gain
Ae s = e0
- A/3
is
A' =
- A/3
the form
in
Differentiating A' with respect to
1_
that the ratio of e Q /e s

gain with feedback.
we
If
(22.2)
the
illustrate
suppose that
j3
equation 22.2
When
j3
two
raises
negative)
then
This condition
sign,
A'
is
ie.,
both positive or both
can
be greater than A.
(|3e
is
in
is
dA' =
is
and
0.1,
equation,
this
= -1000.
From
we have
-1000 =
-9.9
1-Aj3
101
suddenly (or otherwise) changes to
A'
A(1-Aj3)
Therefore,
signal.
=
dA
u
"
when
-9.9
81,900
X 100=
changed
by
is
-0.0121
10%,
A'
changed by only about 0.1%. That is, when A

changes from -1000 to -900, A' changes from
employed extensively
oscillator circuits but
if
of
effect
(22.3)
-900 then dA would be -100 and dA'
fed back
phase with the input
This type of feedback

in
Now
called regenerative or pos-
feedback and occurs when the
voltage
(A and
positive
is
- A0)
~m dA
A' =
possible feedback situations.
the product of Aj3
have the same
itive
very important one
is
A(1
Ad
we have
This equation
A'
dA' =
this overall
call
A'
Bl =
- A/3
and
To
it
have
observe
the overall
in fact,
is,
dA
we
Returning to the original circuit
as
A we
1-A/J
dA'
gain A', then
The
the open loop gain (A) changes.
only rarely used
-9.9 to -9.8. As a result
with amplifier circuits.
we
say that the feed-
back has stabilized the gain against variation.
On
(A and
j3
the otherhand,
have opposite
when
signs,
Aj3
is
negative
bne
ie.,
Another advantage of degenerative feed-
positive
and the other negative) A' will be less than A

and the situation is termed degenerative or
negative feedback.
common
This
is
by
far the
case in amplifier circuits.
degeneration, the output sample
To
(j3e
back
Consider
more
desired
is
the area of distortion reduction.
an
amplifier
which produces the
output voltage and adds some
tortion voltage (D) of
achieve
)
in
is
its
own.
the net distortion voltage
fed
(/3D')
dis-
fraction of
is
fed back
back 180 degrees out of phase with the input
180 out of phase with the input signal and
achieved by
appears at the output amplified by an amount
signal.
having a
In
most cases
this
is
The net output

the sum of the original
equal to the open loop gain.
negative gain (-A) and a' positive
distortion (D') then
<+/.
160
is
ELECTRONICS /AMPLIFIERS
EXPE Ft I MENT 22 FEEDBACK PRINCIPLES
distortion plus the amplified fraction that
is
fed back
"m
A'u:
hi
D' =
D+
"
Am +
/3
and
f/f
and
Am
Aj3D'
=
a'
A
1o-1-A
and
m ^-jf
/f
and the upper and lower three db points
become
(22.4)
Using the previous example,
if
f2
the open
f 2<
-A m 0)
and
f^d
A m 0)
loop distortion was 10 percent of the output

then the distortion with feedback
(22.5)
voltage,
would be
Feedback also tends to alter the input

and output resistances of an amplifier. In the
D =
'
**
case of the input resistance, the voltage fed
ao01
back
out of phase with the input signal
is
and therefore opposes the flow of

or approximately
.1
percent of the output.
As
current.
result
increases with feedback
The bandwidth of an amplifier is also

affected by feedback. Under normal circum-
R';
= R
(1
the
input
input
resistance
by an amount
_ Aj8)
(22.6)
stances the high and low frequency gains of
an amplifier are equal to
A hi
TTjW2 a
In the case of the
reduce
Am
the mid-band gain,
and f 2
lower and upper three db points,
respectively, while f is the operating frequency.
is
it.
general
change
where
output resistance, the
gain stabilizing effect of feedback tends to

It
is
very difficult to arrive at a
expression
which
will
predict
the
output resistance caused by feedback. However, in many cases

in
are the
(22.7)
If
we
substitute these
two
relationships
into equation 22.2, they reduce to
is
a useful
approximation.
MATERIALS
1
ntegrated operational amplifier
SN724 or
C socket
Breadboard
Variable
Oscilloscope
equivalent
DC power
supply (0- 40V)
Audio generator
0.1
100k
100n
3 1k
(15-10
megohm 1/2W)
161
mF
capacitor
1/2W
1/2W
1/2W
resistor
resistor
resistors
600W VDC
2W
7.5k resistor
VOMorFEM
EXPERIMENT 22 FEEDBA CK PRINCIPL ES
PROCEDURE
1.
Assemble the amplifier
Fig.
2.
circuit
shown
22-2
The
in figure
First
22-2.
Assemble the audio generator and source voltage divider as shown
in figure 22-3.
100k
I,
^/
AUDIO
GENERATOR
>
(BALANCED
OUTPUT)
AUDIO SIGNAL
TO AMPLIFIER
* 100T2
INPUT
>
Fig.
3.
22-3 The Audio Source
Connect the oscilloscope to the amplifier output and the audio source to the amplifier
input.
4.
Adjust the audio generator for the
Record the output voltage
(e
maximum
0 ).
162
undistorted amplifier output at 1kHz.
5
"
(Air"
.o7ga!n
&
7.

amP,if,er inP
"
V ,tage (e
s>-
JS-t' " "

0Ut
Co
VO ta9e
^ ^ ~rd
te
' 7 7
'
"
the open
Increase the
input signal level until the

output waveform is quite visibly
distorted
Record the peak-to-peak output (e
and
)
make a sketch of the waverorm.
x
wavefo
Reset the
input level to that established
4.
in step
th e reSiStanCe SUbStitUt
"
Rfa nd R o
9
e
'
fture2
0.
11.
12.
13.
4.
'"
0n
arV Chan96S
Fig.
Remove the source
22-4
ex P erimental| V<
record the values of
drCUit t0 produce the
*"
ci
ôwn
in
voltage divider
from the audio generator and repeat step
Adjust the audio generator for the

same output as
Repeat steps 5 through 7 recording the
results as
Increase the input signal level until

the output
sketch of the waveform.
Repeat step 8 and record the
êrmine and
results.
163
is
in
step 4.
3.
Record the value as
"feedback values"
equal to that recorded
in
e'
the data table.
in step 7.
Make
'

15.
In this circuit,
and record
16.
equal to the voltage divider ratio of R 1 and R
is
Compute
this value
it.
With the value of

the values of A'
m
QTY
and the open loop parameters measured above, compute and record
2 R'j and R 0 using the equations given in the discussion.
j8
f
s
Ro
Rj
Open Loop
Values
Feedback
Values
Computed
Values
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
22-5
The Data Table
of your results you should consider the effect of feedback

on the amplifier parameters and the extent to which the equations given in the discussion
In the analysis
accurately predicted the effects.
PROBLEMS
1.
A single-stage transistor amplifier

h fe = 50
h oe = 40
h je = 1500
10-6
mhos
R L = 5k ohms
If
a feedback
has the following parameters:
network having
re
ohms
= 7 5 x 10-4
= 50 Hz
= 18 kHz
D = 5%
R s = 5k ohms
a total effective
j3
of +0.05
is
used,
what would be
the values of:
2.
(a)
Av
(d)
Rj
(g)
f!,
(b)
A;
(e)
RQ
(h)
?2
(O
Rj
(f)
R'
(i)
D'
Assume that everything else in problem 1 remained the same when the transistor
was replaced with another having an h of 100. Which circuit parameters would
fe
change?
3.
Repeat problem
substituting h
fe
from problem
164
2.
ex per i men
23
SINGLE-STAGE FEEDBACK
)N. One of the most common

ways
of applying feedback to a
single-stage amplifier
is to leave the
emitter resistor unbypassed as
shown
in figure 23-1.
The output
If
we assume
o ~ ~'C R L
resistor
be
-i
ERE
Fig.
cRE
(23.2)
Since both the emitter voltage and

e
are directly proportional to i^,
we conclude
that e
is
(23.1)
and the voltage across the emitter

will
the emitter current
voltage in
this case will be
that
approximately equal to the collector current,

then we can say that
23- 1
is
proportional to e
e
Amplifier With Unbypassed Emitter
165
E=ô
In other words,
EXPERIMENT 23 SINGLE-STAGE FEEDBACK
Fig.
Substituting
equations 23.1
this expression for e
23-2
FET and Vacuum Tube
and 23.2 into
Q and e E
Circuits
and we may simplify the gain to
respectively,
we have
(23.4)
*C
R E "0'C R L
When
this
is
the case then the gain becomes
or
A'- --^
(23.5)
(23.3)
It
The
will
gain of the amplifier with
be
unbypassed
be
However,
1,
worth noting
much
RE
- Aj3
is
much
greater
istics
Aj3^-A]3
(if
RL
is
much
of feedback such as reduced distortion,
improved gain
-
if
All of these amplifiers exhibit other character-
then
one only
The amplifier discussed above used a

bipolar transistor as an active device.
The
same circuit can be constructed using an FET
or vacuum tube as indicated in figure 23-2.
the product Aj3
if
at this point that lA/Jl will
greater than
greater than
A' =
than
is
lAj3l
1)
etc.
166
stability,
broader bandwidths,
The idea of using the emitter

resistor to
provide degeneration can
be carried to the
extreme by eliminating R
L entirely and taking
the output across R
as shown in figure 23-3
E
Such a circuit is called an
emitter follower or
common collector amplifier.

In
such a circuit e
0
e
o=
is
given
Consequently, 0 becomes
and the gain of the stage
by
A' =
--=
(23.6)
o
is
(23.7)
R
'E E
and the amount of feedback

present
-0eo =
is
can
E RE
This special type of

feedback amplifier
also be constructed
with an FET or
tube as shown
ov
in figure 23-4.
Such amplifiers
1
-o
23-3
Fig.
A Common
DD
167
Collector Amplifier
are called
common
drain and
common
plate
impedance inputs and low impedance outputs.

They also have extremely wide bandwidths
amplifiers (also source followers and cathode

followers).
All three are frequently used for
(typically several megahertz).
electronic impedance matching, having high
MATERIALS
(15-10
100juF50WVDC capacitor
10 juF BOW VDC capacitors
2.2k resistor 1/2W
Variable
Audio generator
VOMorFEM
Oscilloscope
megohm 1/2W)
DC power
supply (0 - 40V)
2N1304
Transistor type
Transistor socket
Breadboard
or equivalent
1
1
1/2W
1/2W
100fi resistor 1/2W
47k resistor 1/2W
560 ohm resistor 1/2W
10k
resistor
100k
resistor
PROCEDURE
1.
Assemble the
circuit
shown
Fig.
in figure
23-5
The
23-5.
First
168
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Measure and record the values
of:
a)
The
circuit voltage gain, A.
b}
The
circuit input resistance, Rj.
c)
The
circuit
Remove
output
resistance,
R Q1
the 100 /zF emitter bypass

capacitor and repeat step
Using the circuit values compute

and record
2.
0.
.With the appropriate equation

from the discussion compute and record A'.
Rearrange the circuit as shown

series to
in figure 23-6.
produce the 2.76k emitter
Use the 2.2k and the 560fi
resistors in
resistor.
V CC =12V
10k
10/uF
10juF
INPUT
2.76k
47k,
Fig.
7.
Repeat steps
QTY
2, 4,
COMMON
23-6
and
OUTPUT
5.
Av
R0
Meas.
Circuit With
Emitter
Bypassed
Circuit With
Emitter
Unbypassed
Emitter
Follower
Fig.
23-7
The Data Table

169
A'
XX
Comp

ANALYSIS GUIDE.
had on the original amplifiers' parameters.

equations given
in
You
the discussion were effective
in
you should examine the
effect that feedback
should also consider the extent to which the

predicting circuit performance.
PROBLEMS
1.
Explain
why
the input resistance of a
be larger than that of a
common
2.
What would be the approximate

how you arrived at your answer.
3.
What
is
the value of
j3
in
common
collector amplifier
value of the overall gain
each stage of figure 23-8?
Fig.
23-8
would normally
emitter amplifier.
Circuit for
170
Problem 2
in figure
23-8?
Explain
24
experiment
T^
'
,Ie?raTs,?m
algebra.c
sum of several s.gnals.
summing operation
DISCUSSION.
is
SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
mPOrtant USeS f 80
perational am P |ifier is t0 take the

In this experiment we shall examine
the way in which the
performed.
Let us consider the operational
amplifier circuit
shown
in figure 24-1.
open loop gain of the amplifier

and the output voltage is only
If
the
is
very large
few
will
or
if
ij
is
very small compared to either
s,
volts,
then the value of the amplifier

input voltage
(e) must be very small.
The currents flowing
through R and R
f
Then
's-'f
or
be
" fo
R
fs
Rj
'f
e -e
e - e*
= 0
andi s =
-R7
-R:
which
may
be
Now
if
0 or es
to
e
very small compared to either

can simplify the current equations
rearranged
into
the form
Rf
is
we
And we
recognize e /e as the overall gain of

Q s
the amplifier. That
"Rf
and '
as
-fe
Fig.
24-1
An
Operational Amplifier
171
is
operational
practice,
In
SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
EXPERIMENT 24
amplifiers are
The
2.
circuit
may
be
also
used
to
designed specifically to satisfy the conditions.
multiply e s by a constant coefficient
Their open loop gains high (usually well over
equal to -Rf/Rj.
1000) and their input current
(ij)
is
held to as
small a value as possible (frequently
or
In actual practice, the value of Rj
100 juA
less).
Returning
to
equation
one,
we may
and
pre-
a very
good
23.1
suming the approximation to be
is
usually
between 1k and 10k ohms; and

the ratio of R f /Rj is normally held to between
These restrictions force Rf
0.01 and 100.
restricted to
to
between
lie
write
To
let's
illustrate
suppose
we
10 ohms and
we
megohm.
the use of such amplifiers,
have a signal which
to multiply by 3.5.
(24.3)
To
we wish
achieve this operation
write
e o = ^-5 e s
Examination of
may
this equation reveals that
we
figure 24-1
in
use the circuit given
either of
1.
in
and we
two ways:
If
Rf =
Rj,
it
up the
circuit
shown
in figure 24-2.
However, since the output of this

then the circuit serves
is
-3.5 e
s
That
in
figure
as an inverter or sign changer.

is,
set
simply changes the sign of e s
we must add an
24-3.
35k
24-3
Multiplying e
172
by 3.
circuit
shown
This circuit satisfactorily
performs the required multiplication.
A/W
Fig.
inverter as
EXPERIMENT 24
SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
o-
R2
e
O-
-AAAr
R3
R4
'4
yvv
O-
R|\|
'JS/VFig.
24-4
A Summing Amplifier
Performing computations
called electronic analog
is
in this manner
computation and
Then
forms the basis for so-called electronic analog

computers.
if
ij
0,
e.
we have
e
if
-i
or
4
'n
now
Let us
circuit
shown
turn our attention to the
figure 24-4. Using the same

type of analysis as applied previously, we
in
Finally,
see that
Rf
's
And
multiplying through by R
f
=i 1 +
since e
'2
0 (A
is
'3
'4
very
large),
'2-R"2
e3
2-R-3
Using this relationship
'R"3
-
voltages,
R,
e
3-^4
(24.4)
Rn
'
-fl
Rf
Rf
^-R^l ~T2
we have
multiply each
we may take
by
several
constant and
sum them.
e4
If
that,
Therefore,
R3
'
R4
if
is
perhaps worth noting at this point
we let Rj = R = R = R3 = R
1
2
4
= R n then equation 24.4 becomes
,
Rf
o--R7
<
+ e2 + e + e + ... + e
3
4
n
and
(24.5.
i
which, of course, shows the summation ability

of the amplifier more clearly.
173
EXPERIMENT 24 SUMMING AMPL IFIERS
VOLT
Fig.
Fig.
To illustrate
summing device,
24-6
24-5
Producing -3ej -6
Circuit for e
the use of an amplifier as a

let
us suppose that
circuit
we have
We may do
many
in
- 2e
+ 6
volts
to
by first combining the two

shown in figure 24-5, and then
24-6.
not the only circuit which would

results.
alternate possibilities.
solve
Indeed, there are
The
usual goal
the problem using the smallest
number of operational
amplifiers.
Using analog techniques, the constant
this
positive terms as
adding
3e-|
is
in figure
produce the desired
is
shown
This
two varying voltages (e<| and e 2 ar| d we

wish to combine them in such a way that
e
= 3ej -2e 2 + 6
quantities can be
the 2e 2 term giving the complete
of ways.
174
combined
in a
great variety
W
EXPERIMENT 24 SUMMING
AMPLIFIERS
MATERIALS
DC power supply
FEM
Variable
VOM
Audio generator
Oscilloscope
Integrated operational
amplifier type
SN724 or equivalent
or
90V)
1
Sheet of linear graph

paper
33k
resistor
1/2W
4.7k resistor 1/2W

1.8k resistor 1/2
socket
Breadboard
2 1k
(0 -
resistors
2W
8.2k resistor 1/2W
(15-10
megohm 1/2W)
PROCEDURE
1-
Apply power to the operation,

amplifier
NOTE:
From
in
this point
figure 24-7.
on
it
Tte
will
oZe f
following steps.
as
shown
atc^j
in figure
*u
P W6r '*
3Pp,ied as show "
PP V COnnectl will not be
indicated in the
'
+15V
-15V
Fig.
24-7
Power Supply Connection

175
24-7.
EXPERIMENT 24 SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
Fig.
2.
24-8
The
First Experimental Circuit
gain of the circuit
the f6edbaCk netW rk Sh Wn
'
shown
in fi9Ure
boTfor R f
24-8.
24-8 USin9 the resistance

substitution
4.
Measure and record the gain of the
5.
Repeat steps 2 and 4 for resistance substitution

box settings
n
"
(h
7.
in figure
(a)
470 ohms
(b)
1k
(f)
(c)
2.2k
(g)
(d)
4.7k
(h)
She
orL n ta^y)
Add
circuit.
^^
e)
10k
33k
68k
100k
9
*"
a second input resistor to the

amplifier as
of:
(j)
2 20k
(j)
470k
shown
Versus the ratio
in figure 24-9.
O-
Fig.
24-9
176
W*\
EXPERIMENT 24
8-
Compute and record

the Qutput
9-
Construct the source

voltage
,ra 9e divider shn
shown
'
COnneC,,heSOU
<"â m
SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
= " 723
<
in figure
vo '*
24-10
p,i, ier8ndmeasuree
ei =
+2.77V
COMMON
AUDIO
GENERATOR
(BALANCED
OUTPUT)
e2
= -7.23V
O
*9- 24-10
Circuit for Producing

e
First Circuit
ande<
Second Circuit
Comp
The Data Tables
177
~
I
Meas
EXPERIMENT 24
SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
lE
-
In
analyzing these data you should try to evaluate the validity of the
circuit analysis presented in the discussion.
In particular, consider the extent to
calculations for the first circuit agreed with the measured values.
which your gain
Also, consider the agreement
between the e values for the second circuit

Q
PROBLEMS
1.
Draw a diagram which will produce an output

when values of e<|, e 2 and e are applied.
What equation
= -e - 3e + 2e + 2 volts
1
2
3
2.
of e
describes the output of the circuit
Fig.
24- 12
Circuit for
178
in
figure 24-12?
Problem 2
'
25
INTEGRATIN G AMPLIF
sâ^sssssr
DISCUSSION. Let us consider
the operational
shown in figure 25-1
amplifier circuit
Perat ona a mplifiers

are normally
/
seed so that the gain (-A) is very
'
the
mput
mm
current
(i,, is
that the gain
is
high and
very very small If
we
so large that the
aPPr aCheS Z6r0 and

th
aol*
approaches zero, then
the feedback
ln P
becomes equal to the

source current-
'fis
Since e = 0, then
we
=
de-
i,-
cu'rrent
(25.1)
see that
^R
(25.2)
Fig.
and
Combi n ng
qc =
^because
and 25.2
will,
C^2C
dt
cec
&
= C e
0
Differentiating each side

renders
t3kin9
Then, since
-C
=
with
equation 25.1
in
the form
-R^ esdt
^
~
Circuit
R~
which we may rewrite

de
dt
result
gives us
of course, be
c and eQ are equal, we may
Integrating Amplifier
this
e = e
c
o
The charge on the

capacitor
An
25-1
inte9ra
'
" *
RC\/es dt
(25.3)
dT
dQc/dt/ we may
^^
or
other words, the

output of the amplin figure 25-1 is
directly proportional to
the mtegral of
the input signal.
For this
fy
in
,
ampler
179
C,>CUit
'~
EXPERIMENT 25
INTEGRA TING AMPL IFIERS
Fig.
The
25-1
is
integrating amplifier
sometimes used
as a
shown
a
The
circuit
to
in figure
25-2
will
produce
-R^/E m sin "tdt = + ^cosa;t + K
sin cot
where K
and we wish
shown
sinusoidal
e
= Em
sin cot
an output of
shifter.
voltage represented by
e<|
Em
Integrating
in figure
90 phase
we have
Let us suppose that
25-2
shift
its
phase by 90 to
will
create
is
the constant of integration and
equal zero
if
the capacitor.
there
is
no
initial
appropriate constant as shown
$2 ~ E m cos
we have
cot
change on
Then, by multiplying by the

in
figure 25-3,
the desired result.
cos cot
Fig.
25-3
Generating e
180
= E cos
m
cot
EXPERIMENT 25
90
135
VERTICAL
COMPONENT
E cos
u>t
= E
180
HORIZONTAL
COMPONENT
-E
sin
wt
sin o>t
270
Fig.
25-4
Resolving e Into
Q
By
using this phase shift

capability of an
integrating amplifier it is
possible to build
a phase shifter to
provide any desired amount
of phase shift from 0 to 360.
For example,
wave (ei = E
'
let
us consider
sin
wt)
may
how
a sine
be shifted by 135.
If
we draw
a vector
diagram of the original voltage

and
the desired output it would
appear as shown
figure 25-4,
and we see that e can be

0
resolved into horizontal and
vertical components of -E sin wt and E cos
cot, respectively.
If
Its
Components
we
generate these two components

and
add them, we will have the
desired output.
Figure 25-5 shows a circuit
for producing
the 135 phase-shifted
sinusoid.
Indeed, by
adjusting R
2 and R 3 in this circuit (also Rand C), we may adjust the
phase of the output from 90 to 180 with
respect to the input
voltage. Also by adjusting
R we may control
f
the' output level while

holding the phase shift
constant.
o;R
R2C
Fig.
25-5
Circuit for 90- 180 Phase

Shifting
181
cos tot
sin (u>t
6)
EXPERIMENT 25
AAAr
e1
N O-
AAAr
Fig.
25-6
A Summing Integrator
Integrating amplifiers are not limited to
and
They can, in fact, have any

number as indicated in figure 25-6.
analyzing this circuit we assume (as before)
a single input.
reasonable
In
deo =
"R7c
dt
e
1
-R^C
-2 dt
that
"
Then
And we
integrating both sides renders
observe that
i<|
Therefore (since e
\2
B
i
+
+
R
e
"s
-R^/e
From
if
is,
as before, equal to
this equation
-C^2
_c
hT
a result
we may
we
see that the circuit
Such
output which
sum of
a circuit
is
is
the integrals of
called a
summing
integrator.
Integrators
As
-R^/e 2 dt ---
figure 25-6 provides an
proportional to the
the inputs.
'f
dt
(25.4)
in
the other hand,
assumed to approach zero)
is
On
e dt
R^C N
write
other
than
may be
phase
used for several things
shifting.
For example,
suppose we wish to generate an output such

de
o_
dt
that
Ri
R2
E0 =
182
-3t + 2volts
(25.5)
Fig.
EXPERIMENT 25 INTEGRATING
AMPLIFIERS
25-7
Establishing the Constant
Term
To
achieve this result we pretend

that we have
the desired function at
the output of a system.
Then we draw a circuit which
will provide the
necessary constant term
At this point we must

multiply by (-1) to
allow for the inversion of
the integrator
We
now have 2t - 3 as the input of the
integrator.
We now add this portion of the circuit
(+2 in this case) and

determine the required variable
input to this
stage. See figure 25-7.
as seen
figure 25-8.
repeat
Next we
to determine
for
an
differentiate the variable

terms
to
dE<
produce the desired
signal
dE,
dT
E2 =
differentiating
And we connect
= - 2t + 3
input of -1
volt as
500k
25-8
Adding the
First Integrator Stage
183
we
outlined
(s)
dE,
another integrator having an
F/g.
process
2"'iir-'--Tr=-i
VW
1
installed
before using the remaining

variable term
what input would be required
integrator
the
With this stage
shown
in
figure
25-9.
EXPERIMENT 25
10k
y~vw
= -t 2 + 3t
Fig.
One
2
Complete Circuit for Generating EQ = 1 -3t + 2
25-9
additional feature
is
also included in
capacitors
but to explore them further

would be beyond the scope of this experiment.
on and off.
charge on the
in
of turning the function generator

also insure that the initial
zero.
There are many other uses of operational

amplifiers in general and integrating amplifiers
the diagram, the switches connected across

the integrating capacitors are for the purpose
They
is
particular,
MATERIALS
DC power
1k resistors
supply (0 - 40V)
2W
Variable
Audio generator
IC socket
VOMorFEM
1
1
Oscilloscope
Integrated operational amplifier
meg 1/2W)
10 mF 600W
type
SN724
or equivalent
Set of data sheets for the above IC
Breadboard
juF
box (15-10
VDC oil-filled capacitor

600W VDC oil-filled acpacitor
1.6 volt battery
Sheets of linear graph paper
184
EXPERIMENT 25
PROCEDURE
1.
Connect the power supply to the operational amplifier
in
the manner prescribed by the
manufacturer's data sheet.

2.
3.
Set up the operational amplifier as an integrator using

the resistance substitution box for R).
Connect the audio generator to the input of the
C = 10 juF, and R =
integrator.
megohm
(use
Set the frequency to 10
Hz
and view the output waveform with the oscilloscope.

4.
Make sketches of the input and output
signal
5.
Change C to
4.
R (ohms)
E0
(volts)
/xF
and repeat steps 3 and
showing the
relative
phase and amplitude.
meg
680 K
470 K
330 K
220 K
100 K
(Sec)
(Sec)
(Sec)
(Sec)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
Fig.
25- 10
The Data Table

185
(Sec)
(Sec)
EXPERIMENT 25
6.
Change R to 100k and repeat steps 3 and
7.
Return the amplifier to the conditions set
8.
Connect the 1.6 volt battery to the
9.
Short circuit the capacitor.
When
centimeter.
4.
in
step 2.
input.
Set the oscilloscope for:
the trace
is
on the
left
volt per
CM
and
of the screen and on a vertical
second per
line,
remove the
short on the capacitor and observe the trace of the oscilloscope.

10.
Make
a sketch of the trace
observed on the oscilloscope, recording the amplitude.
(Let
the trace run for approximately five to eight seconds.)

1 1
Change the value of R to
12.
Similarly repeat step
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
9-10
00k and repeat step
0.
for resistance values of 10k, 1k, and 0.1k.
In the analysis of
your
results
from
this
experiment you should be chiefly
concerned with evaluating the effectiveness of the amplifier as an integrator.
To
this
end you
could plot the integrals of the two functions used and compare them to your plots of the
results.
PROBLEMS
1.
Draw
a block
diagram of an electronic phase shifter which
input sinusoid
2.
Draw
volts.
degrees.
a function generator
Show
all
3.
What equation
4.
Draw
in
300
operational
all
operational
component
component
values.
values.
fewer operational amplifiers which
3.
Fig.
the phase of an
diagram which would produce an output of eQ = 6t 2 + 4
describes the output voltage of the system
a circuit using
problem
Show
will shift
25- 1
Circuit for
186
Problem 3
shown
will
in
figure 25-11?
generate the function
experiment
26
CHOPPER MODULATORS
electronic systems
DC signa
up a
so that
it
can be amplified by
some examples of modulator
DISCUSSION. Modulators
to
convert
signals.
DC
electrical
circuitry
The output amplitude of the
into
AC
AC
must
vary with the amplitude

of the input DC and
the phase must shift
by 180 degrees if the
polarity of the DC
reverses.
Modulators are
used where DC control
signals in a
system
must be converted and

amplified by an AC
amplifier for use with
AC-operated devices
such as
AC
vert an
of the
AC.
output
is
voltage
also necessary to con-
necessity of reversing
the
exists,
an
examine
cannot
demodulators.
One type of modulator

figure 26-1.
is
shown
in
an electromechanical
switching dev.ce called a
chopper. Notice that
the
chopper reed is balanced
between the poles
of a magnet.
If we apply an
to
alternately
it
the
the
rectifier
ordinary
power
It is
When
the
coil,
magnetized
the reed tip
the
reed tip will be

by the coil field
is an induced
north pole
the right, making the
righthand
contacts and breaking
the lefthand ones
During the next half of
the coil current cycle
the reed will be an
induced south pole. Now
.t
w.ll turn to
MAGNET
INSULATORS
TERMINAL
Electromechanical Contact
Modulator
187
be used.
Circuits
that can accomplish
this function are
called
current
AC signal to DC with polarity reversals

DC for 180 degree phase shifts of
When
supply
will
alternating
servomotors.
Sometimes
experiment we
and operation
are devices used

signals
2X
amp'f
where
them t0
USe
CHOPPER MODULATORS
EXPERIMENT 26
TRANSFORMER
OUTPUT AC
DC INPUT SIGNAL
(A)
VOLTS
C
I
TIME
TIME
(B)
(C)
INPUT
Fig.
it
swing to the
will
contacts
left,
26-2
making the
A
left
at a fixed voltage
other words, the chopper operates

synchrolike a motor-driven switch which is
current
coil
nized with the alternating
In
used
cuit.
chopper can be
an electromechanical modulating
The vibrating reed chops up the
in
input signal into a rectangular wave
The input
signal of figure
AC
26-2
is
change
DC control
discussing a
signal
time axis here

even days.
may
in
DC
DC value,
but the
level
can
the source changes.
when the input
value,
signal
is
a particular
the vibrating reed connects this
X and Y when
it is
up.
is
down, this same
The frequency
applied between Z and Y.
voltage
When
shown
would vary with the excitation frequency of
the reed
is
reed and the output voltage amplitude
the
would vary with the input
signal level.
The same voltage is applied to points

X-Y and Z-Y by the switching action of the
However, you will observe
vibrating reed.
first up
that the direction of the current is
it
mind that the
signal will
if
a steady
voltage between points
be calibrated in hours or
The DC control
other words,
signal.
and then speak of
changing with time, keep
is
26-2(a),
signal
DC
In
Again directing your attention to figure
which can change in amplitude and polarity depending upon changes

is taken.
in the system from which the signal
While it may seem odd to you that we are
as a
the system being mon-
any given condition of the source, input
voltage
cir-
DC
if
does not change.
itored
for
how
OUTPUT
Modulator Circuit
and breaking the righthand ones.
Figure 26-2 shows
(D)
SIGNAL AT X-Y
then
remain
188
down through
the primary of the trans-
former resulting
in
EXPERIMENT 26
the output signal
shown
figure 26-2(d).
Observe the amplitude

changes of the output as time varies along
in
the time axis from
to B and from B to C.
Also, note the phase change that takes place

at
B when the polarity of the input
input signal
CHOPPER MODULA TORS
applied from the center tap of
is
the excitation transformer through
D-j
and
the bottom half of the output transformer.
The current
direction
DC
polarity of the
will
depend on the
input.
reverses.
As you probably have already figured
The
ring
modulator
the mechanical vibrator
a circuit in
is
which
replaced by semi-
is
out,
the other half cycle of the excitation
voltage
turn
will
conductor diodes.
applying the input
switches and are
D3
The diodes are used as

controlled by the excitation
voltage.
on diodes D 3 and
DC
signal current
D4
through
,
to the top half of the output transformer.
Note that the
DC
input was alternately applied
to the top and then bottom of the output
The
circuit of a ring
in
figure 26-3.
is
such as to
When
modulator
is
shown
the excitation voltage
make point
positive with
and D 2 are
by current from the excita-
transformer
respect to point B, diodes D-j
with a reverse
signal.
In this
condition the
6.3V
DC
in
EXCITATION
fwmwx
RING
MODULATOR
Ring Modulator Circuitry
189
is
as with
As
DC
input
normally compared to
the line signal used for excitation.
AC
26-3
the polarity of the
This phase
TRANSFORMER
Fig.
way
before, the phase of the output will reverse
forward-biased
tion transformer.
exactly the same
in
the electromechanical modulator circuit.
CHOPPER MODULA TORS
EXPERIMENT 26
MATERIALS
1
Output transformer
4 Diodes type
N270
0Ofi ct - 4/8/1 62)
or equivalent
Input transformer (500ft ct - 200ft
560 ohm
ct)
2W resistor
10 ohm 2W resistors
DC power
Oscilloscope
Variable transformer (0 -
VOMorFEM
supply (0- 40V)
130V AC)
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
Connect the
circuit of figure 26-4.
Starting at zero, carefully adjust the variable transformer for
6V AC
across the input
transformer secondary.
3.
Connect the
DC power supply to
the input with the polarity indicated.
117V AC
INPUT TRANSFORMER
AC OUTPUT
SIGNAL
Fig.
26-4

190
EXPERIMENT 26 CHOPPER MODULATORS
Z^ZTS
"line" synchronization
line sync.
Reverse the leads of the
Input
DC
DC power supply and
mstructor
,f
repeat step
"T^''
you don't know how to use
4 above.
Output Signal
(Show Amplitude and Phase)
Voltage
+
0
+
10
15
20
+
0
+
0
Fig.
The Data Table
+
-5
-10
-15
+
0
-20
26-5
191
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
phase of the output
and
its
CHOPPER MODULATORS
EXPERIMENT 26
is
the
circuit operation including how
Give a detailed explanation of the
observed
signal. Explain any distortion
reversed by reversing the DC input
probable cause.
PROBLEMS
DC
Sometimes
1.
signals are converted to
of direct-coupled amplifiers.
2.
AC
in
order to use
AC
amplifiers instead
Why?
fed to one phase winding

from the ring modulator is ultimately to be
Hz l.ne
other phase winding is excited by the 60
of a two-phase motor while the
DC
to the motor as the polar.ty of the
Draw the system and explain what happens
input to the ring modulator is reversed?
The
AC
signal
3 Suppose the output of the

'
then fed to a
DC
motor.
ring
What
modulator
is
to be amplified by an
AC
amplifier,
amplifier
device would be necessary between the
and motor?
4.
What
are
some advantages of the
circuit investigated
compared to the mechanical
device explained in this discussion?

5.
Price out the experimental circuit
and the one
192
in figure
26-2 and compare them.
27
experiment
INTRODUCTION. Choppers
amplifiers. In this
ducers
DC
provide
amplifier
will
examine
a simple
low
produce a few
millivolts
now
recorder will
level
of
example of a chopper-modulated
AC
amplifier.
output voltage to decrease by ten percent. The
input trans-
slowly varying
By looking
Thermocouples, for example,
output.
typically
AMPLIFIERS
or synchronous switches are sometimes used as modulators for
experiment we
DISCUSSION. Many
CHOPPER-MODULATED
DC
see a voltage of 0.9 volts.
at the recorder record
we would
think that the thermocouple signal had changed
when,
output that changes relatively slowly.
in
fact,
was
it
DC
level
inside the
amplifier changing.
One way of amplifying such a signal

employ direct-coupled amplifier stages.
When this is done we must immediately
become concerned with amplifier drift.
is
We call
DC level
to
in
the error caused by the change
measurement
drift
instrumentation
Drift
any change
which causes the
istics
To
is
illustrate
DC
in figure
27-1.
consider the
1mV DC
of
1000.
level
very
change
large
Under these
the amplifier
use an
AC
signal to
signal.
change
in
the surrounding temperature one of the amplifier stages shifts its
the amplifier
in
an early stage can cause
change
the
in
output
level.
Q-point, causing the
Fig.
27-
DC
is
Another way
one way.
an
AC
DC
quantity.
signal
can
is
to
This process of
to an
AC
one for
chopping or modulating
amplification
is
the signal.
Figure 27-2 shows a complete
called
system of this type.
An Amplifier System
193
drift
amplifier and convert the input
converting a
suppose that due to
If
in
Using negative feedback around
be reduced.
conditions the recorder should see a one-volt
Now
systems.
troublesome
There are several ways that
and that the direct-coupled amplifier
has a voltage gain
very
Suppose that
input transducer produces a
signal
DC
output to change.
let's
is
has a relatively high gain, then a very small
amplifier character-
the problem,
system shown
the
in
This kind of
signal.
drift
EXPERIMENT 27
LOW
MODULATED
LEVEL
DC
SIGNAL
(AC)
AMPLIFIED
AC SIGNAL
AMPLIFIED
DC SIGNAL
SIGNAL
INPUT
TRANSDUCER
RECORDER
(THERMOCOUPLE)
Fig.
In this
is
system the low
converted to an
Then the
the
AC
AC
signal
signal
signal
is
level
DC
Modulated Amplifier System
The modulator or chopper used between
signal
by the modulator.
amplified.
the input transducer and the amplifier
be either of two types:
Finally
DC
converted back to a
is
(demodulated)
AC
27-2
signal
electronic.
by the demodulator section
per
and fed to the recorder.
The important thing to notice

amplifier
handles only
quently any
DC
AC
is
signals.
that the
An
shown
somewhat
An AC
excitation voltage
as
This excitation
is
is
in
figure 27-3.
applied to the
usually 6.3
VAC
at
However, some units are designed to
operate at 50 Hz, 100 Hz and 400 Hz with a
can be prevented from reaching the recorder.
27-3
The electromechanical type chop-
vibrator
60 Hz.
Conse-
electromechanical or
usually a balanced armature synchronous
coil.
changes inside the amplifier
Fig.
is
may
variety of voltages.
Electromechanical Chopper
194
E LECTRO N ,CS/AMPL,
EXPmT27 CHOÔOUÔ AMms
F1ER s
INPUT
AMPLIFIED
TRANSFORMER
CHOPPED SIGNAL
DC
SIGNAL
OUTPUT
CHOPPER
EXCITATION
6.3V 60 Hz
Fig.
The
netizes
27-4
Chopper-Modulated Amplifier
excitation voltage temporarily

magpole pieces in
the
synchronization
with the excitation frequency.
Consequently
the pole pieces alternate
between being north
and south magnetic poles.
The permanently magnetized

armature
(some units use permanent

magnet pole pieces
and induced armature poles
but the operation
is
substantially the same) is
magnetically
moved first to one side, then
to the other.
The
to-side
contact
The chopper
signal to the
transformer.
side
with
the
arm contacts move from

the
fixed
action
side-
armature and alternately

contacts.
This
is
top and bottom of the

input
Consequently, the transformer
what is substantially a
rectangular
wave whose frequency is
the same as the
chopper excitation
signal
(60
Hz,
in
this
instance).
The amplifier stage amplifies

this square
AC signal and it is subsequently
de-
modulated (converted back to
DC
level)
after amplification.
action
synchro-
This switch-
used to modulate (or

chop)
the amplifier input signal.
Figure 27-4 shows
is
a typical circuit
alternately connects this

input
sees"
wave
produces a switching action

that
nized with the excitation
signal.
ing
Let's suppose that the

DC input signal
a slowly varying voltage
of about one volt
We
later.
will
look
Right now,
closer
let's
at
demodulation
observe that mod-
ulation in this sense
is a process of
alternate
switching. There are several
electronic circuits
diagram of a chopper-mod-
which are also used to perform

this function.
Figure 27-5 shows several of
them.
ulated amplifier.
195
EXPERIMENT 27
DC
INPUT
CHOPPER
OUTPUT
(A)
CHOPPER
EXCITATION
DIODE CHOPPER
DC
INPUT
CHOPPED
OUTPUT
CHOPPED
OUTPUT
DC
INPUT
CHOPPER
EXCITATION
CHOPPER
EXCITATION
-bf=h
W
-R
-bFtSERIES TRANSISTOR CHOPPER
Fig.
27-5
(C)
Electronic Choppers
196
TWO TRANSISTOR CHOPPER
The
first
of these
EXPERMENT27 CHOPPER-MODULA TED

AMPLIFIERS
(figure
27-5a)
is
diode chopper or ring modulator.

The chopper
excitation turns on diodes D-,
and D 2 on one
half of its cycle, connecting
input 2 to terminal
1 of the input transformer.
During the alternate half cycle, diodes D
3 and D 4 are on,
connecting input 1 to terminal
2 of the
transformer.
mechanical
wave
is
As
in
the case of the electro-
chopper, a substantially square
DC output when
small
troublesome.
figure 27-5c
errors
VCE
In
maybe
by
created
of
QV
used.
l
CQ
not only offsets

and the saturation
It
but also insures an input
sistance that
ohms).
it is turned off
that is
such cases, the circuit in
is
This
re-
very low (usually below

50
makes
it
particularly
useful
with low resistance transducers.
produced.
After the chopped signal has been
suitably
it must be demodulated
(converted
back to a DC value). As was the
case with the
amplified
Figures 27-5b and 27-5c are

transistor
choppers requiring a square wave
excitation.
In
figure
turns
27-5b
the
square
wave simply
Q, on and
off producing a chopping

sinewave excitation can be used
when the shape of the chopped output
need
not be square.
In some very precise cases
action.
modulation process, demodulation may

be by
either electronic or
electromechanical means.
the leakage current,
CQ
through
causes a
ÔPPED
27-6
of
some
type.
Figure 27-6 shows the general-
ized case.
AMPLIFIED
INPUT
Fig.
Electronic demodulation is usually

accomplished by employing a rectifier
and filter
CHOPPED OUTPUT
A Chopped DC-to-DC System

197

EXPERIMENT 27
CHOPPER-MODULA TED AMPLIFIERS
-o
T"N
INPUT
OUTPUT
ol
HALFWAVE DEMODULATOR
(A)
(B)
FULLWA VE DEMODULA TOR
I
(C)
BRIDGE DEMODULATOR
(D)
VOLTAGE DOUBLER DEMODULATOR
VW
O(E)
Fig.
The demodulator
CLAMPER TYPE DEMODULATOR
27-7
rectifier
filter
in fact,
compared
is
to
any other type of electronic
the
period
and
short
of
polarity
is
compared to the
in
the
systems work,
DC
output
Moreover, since the output
follow reversals
practical applications.
let's
in
that this
assume that the amplifier
exactly out of phase with
is
(much engineering
always the same, only one polarity
many
most commonly
To understand how the electromechanical
Electromechanical demodulators are also

in
the
Their principal advantage
input polarity.
of input signal can be accommodated.
used
of
that the output can
chopper
the
period of any anticipated changes

signal.
is
two
circuits.
normally selected to be long
excitation signal
input
shows
employed
in figure
The time constant of the
circuit.
circuit
27-8
section in this system
could be any one of those shown

27-7, or,
Electronic Demodulators
is
its
input
effort goes into assuring
a reasonable assumption).
Moreassume that we are dealing with
over,
let's
truly
rectangular
waveforms.
Figure 27-9
shows representation of the input and output

under these conditions.
Figure
198
E L E CTRON,CS/AMPL,HERS
EXPERIMENT!? CHOPPER-MODULA
TED AMPLIFIERS
CHOPPER
EXCITATION
(B)
Fig.
Now,
let's
27-8
keep
in
TWO CHOPPER SYSTEM
(A)
SINGLE CHOPPER SYSTEM
Electromechanical Modulating-Demodulating
Systems
mind that
connect choppers
X}
and
X2
UTJ
a typical
electromechanical chopper is a
synchronous
devjce, that is, it vibrates
in a fixed relationship to its excitation
signal.
So we can
in figure
INPUT
27-8a
so that they both connect

the armature to
transformer (input and output,
respectively)
terminal
similar
terminal
at the
DC
that the
is
member
nized).
circuit
time.
input voltage
transformer
be negative.
positive,
same
As an
when
output terminal
and
input
1
is
negative
OUTPUT
will
when input terminal 2
output terminal 2
that the
positive
polarities,
positive,
Also,
So, assuming
is
is
(re-
two choppers are synchro-
overall result
waveforms shown
we can
in figure
sketch the
27-10.
199
Fig.
27-9
Input and Output in an

Electromechanical System
EXPERIMENT 27
n
f
J
(A)
INPUT DC
(B)
AMPL,
Fig.
n other words,
we have
-DC output The system
effectively
modulating,
modulating the input
INPUT
27-10
(C)
27-8a
(D)
DEMODE OUTPUT
System Signals
+ DC input and
in figure
AMPL. OUTPUT
is
amplifying and de-
signal.
Electromechanical choppers are also used

in
a variety
of feedback systems employing
additional windings on the input and output
transformers.
Moreover, they are used
in
systems which stabilize the characteristics of

Figure 27-8(b)
is
very
much
the same
type of system except that the input and output are grounded on alternate half cycles. As a
result,
put
is
the polarity of the demodulated outreversed as
shown
in
figure 27-1
DC
amplifiers.
We
shall
not deal with these
more complicated types of chopper applications here. However, you may wish to look
up "chopper stabilization" in a text book
on amplifier circuits for your own information.
1.
+E
(A)
INPUT DC
(B)
Fig.
27-
1 1
AMPL. INPUT
Signals in a Single
200
(C)
AMPL. OUTPUT
Chopper System
D) DEMODE OUTPUT
EXPERT V
ELECTRONS/AMPLIFIERS
CHOPPER-MODULA TED AMPLIFIERS
MATERIALS
1 Circuit board
2 Transistors (type
2N1304
2 Resistors 6.8k 1/2W

or equivalent)
2 Resistors 47k 1/2W

3 Capacitors 10 juF 50W
DC power supply (0 - 40V)

5 Diodes (type 1N270 or
equivalent)
2 Resistors 10ft 2W
1
1
1
Power transformer
Resistor 220ft
(1:1 ct)
2W

(15
Transistor input transformer

(200ft -
10
megohm 1/2W)
100ft ct 1/2W)
1
VDC
25W VDC
2 Capacitors 100/xF
VOM
Resistor 470ft
1/2W
2 Resistors 560ft 1/2W
2 Resistors 3.3k 1/2W
1
Resistor 4.7k 1/2W
or
FEM
Oscilloscope
Variable transformer (0 130V
Sheets of linear graph paper
AC)
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
Construct the amplifier system

shown
in figure
27-12
Construct the power supply

divider network shown
box for
maximum
(see
in
page 202).
fiaure
9
resistance.
27
n- wt
Set
'
tho substlt
u
the
ution
RESISTANCE
SUBSTITUTION
BOX
TO
15 VDC
POWER
SUPPLY
TO AMPLIFIER
DC SIGNAL
INPUT
Fig.
27-13
Power Supply Divider Network

201
EXPERIMENT 27
O
>
o
o
CM
DC
*z ~
<
DC
DC
Q.
DC
c:
q>
O
H
w
z
.
q>
cc
H
Q>
II
CM
WSr
CM
II-
202
EXPERIMENT 27
3.
Connect the power supply divider network to the amplifier
4.
Connect
6.3
transformer.
5.
Do
VAC 60 Hz
input.
chopper excitation to the amplifier using the variable

AC until you are very sure it is 6.3 VAC.
not connect the
Connect the oscilloscope between ground and point A. Point
is
the amplifier output
before demodulation.
6.
Decrease the resistance substitution box setting step-by-step

until you see a signal at the
oscilloscope. Continue decreasing the resistance substitution
box setting while carefully
watching the output waveshape. When you notice the output
just beginning to distort,
increase the substitution box setting one step.
7.
Externally
sync the oscilloscope on the undemodulated output signal.

Have your
your circuit to insure that the scope is properly synchronized.
instructor check
8.
9.
Measure and record the DC
On
point
(E
graph paper sketch the waveform showing
period, and
10.
level at
Move
DC
).
its
starting point, relative phase,
the vertical input of the scope to point B on the

other side of
externally synchronized on point A.
1 1.
2.
13.
amplitude
level.
Repeat steps 8 and
D5
Keep the scope
9.
Move the
vertical input of the scope to the output terminal of

the system. Repeat steps
8 and 9 (external sync on point A).
Make
these same measurements and sketches
at:
Point C located at the secondary of

Point E located at the primary of
Point F located at the primary of T-|.

Point G located at the secondary of T-
Point H located at the secondary of T-
The DC
signal input (E|).
E0
EG
Fig.
27-14
The Data Table
203
eh
EXPERIMENT 27
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
Using your waveform sketches, discuss the operation of the system.
particular attention to the
DC
levels
and time relationships of the various
signals.
Also discuss
the overall DC-to-DC amplifier effectiveness.
PROBLEMS
1.
How would
you define the DC-to-DC gain of the amplifier
2.
What was the
value of the DC-to-DC gain for your amplifier?
3.
What was the AC
gain
from point C to point
in
your amplifier?
4.
What was the
AC
gain
from point C to point B
in
your amplifier?
5.
Why
are the three values of gain
from problems
204
2, 3,
in
the experiment?
and 4 different?
Give
experimen
28
discussion. Electron icpovM?ra/77p//i7ws

are
built in a number of
different circuit configurations.
In
this
experiment
we
shall
consider only one type of circuit,

the singleended transformer-coupled amplifier.
Such
amplifiers are typically found
in
the output
stage of audio frequency

equipment.
The
basic
deliver the
power amplifier problem
SINGLE-END
PO WER AMPLIFIERS
In analyzing a
type the procedure

as for other
the Q-point
power amplifier of
is
common
substantially the
emitter circuits.
noted
that the
DC
resistance of the transformer
Therefore,
is
to
maximum
undistorted power to a
The circuit shown in figure 28-1 is
one
of the most frequently
encountered arrange-
ments.
the
DC
load line
is
drawn from V
cc on the
collector-emitter voltage axis of the

transistor
output characteristic to
V CC
,.
Rc + Ro
X
28- 1
DC
primary often constitutes an important

part
of the collector circuit resistance.
load.
Fig.
First,
located by laying out the

load line and the bias line. It
should be
is
this
same
Typical Single-Ended Power

Amplifier
205
EXPERIMENT 28 SINGLE-END AMPLIFIERS

On
the collector current axis, R
DC
the
of course,
is,
resistance of the transformer primary
winding.
voltage
5 volts (P = 5 X
is
the current
may
the voltage
is
way we can
The bias line is plotted
employing the equation
v ce
(R
in
L + R E )(R B + R E
'b
the usual
way
(R
-V BE
10
15
20
volts
volts
volts
volts
1.0
0.5
0.33
amp
amps amps
'c
Ro
2
V BE is approximated at 0.2 volts for germanium transistors or 0.6 volts for silicon devices.
Since one of the objectives of a
power
is to deliver maximum
power to the
load, it followsthat the input power
should be
amplifier
as the active device
this case) can
(transistor,
average power that can be applied to a

transistor (or other device) is limited
by the
heat-dissipation
ability
of the device.
If
we
The
rating of a particular device
is
normally specified by the manufacturer
in
watts.
plot these points
device
power
dissipation of a
on the output characteristic curves
and
loadline
bias
figure 28-2 (as
is
are
line
the
AC
utput char-
also
if
the
maximum
will get
Q-point
lies
dissipation line,
too hot.
Q-point
is
sipation
line,
far
On
shown
in
loadline).
A few moments of reflection

that
will
can plot the
curve will appear as shown

by the dotted color line in figure 28-2. The DC
confirm
above the 5 watt
then the transistor
will
the other hand,
below the
if
5W maximum
the
dis-
then the output signal power
be unnecessarily limited.
common
We
on the
0.25
amps
the
acteristic,
in
accommodate. The maximum
heat-dissipating
^ watts
(28.1)
V CE
large
results will be
Rd=
B
R7T^' V BB- v CCR^TRând,
as
in this
tabulate pairs of current, voltage
where
amps when
Proceeding
volts.
Ri
R-i
= 5W). Similarly
values which satisfy the relationship
and the
L + R E )(V BB
10
^CE'c
R.
V CC
not exceed 0.5
As
a result
it is
practice to locate the Q-point near,
but well beneath, the
maximum
dissipation
line.
using the equation
P=
For example,
transistor
free air.
is
V CE'C
let
us suppose that a
rated at 5 watts
(28.2)
With the Q-point established, the AC

loadline may be drawn. The AC load
on the
transistor (R ) is the resistance reflected
into
p
the transformer primary by the secondary
power
load (R|_).
when operated
in
For this device the collector current
cannot exceed
amp when
the collector
206
If
are
we assume
negligible,
that the transformer losses
then
the
AC
primary and
EXPERIMENT 28 SINGLE-END
AMPLIFIERS
1.0
0.9
0.8
n 7
<
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
UJ
cc
QC
r-
UJ
-J
J
o
0.2
-
1
0.1
mA
LK
l
12
14
R = 0
16
COLLECTOR-EMITTER POTENTIAL
(VOLTS)
Fig.
28-2
Graphical Analysis of a
secondary powers are

equal:
The output
Power Amplifier
and secondary
circuit
and observe that
C = PC
AC power
is
given
by
Po = E
0 0
I
while the primary
AC power is
S Ub8* itUtlng these curre

nt relationships
above equation, we have
intn the
th
into
c = v CE c
i
^CE
Consequently we have
vce'c =
We
e0 0
2
_ E0
RL
or
can apply Ohm's law

to the primary
207
R p- R
V CE x2
Ll~E

And we
equal to the turns ratio
former.
V CE /E Q
recognize the ratio
N /N s
We may therefore
as being
of the trans-
ELECTRONICS/ AMPLIFIERS
is located midway between E

max
and E m n as well as midway between
max
and
then
the
peak
collector
voltage
and
n
the Q-point
write
current swing will be
V CE(peak)
(28.3)
as the value of the
stage
the
and
AC
this
is
AC
load resistance of the
the value that
we
Since
the
signals
handled
by power
normally determined graphically.
signal analysis
stages.
is
=
'C(peak)
amplifiers are typically very large, the gain

is
and
use to draw
loadline.
Small
= E Q- E
min
'q " 'min
For most practical transistors,

be so small compared to Iq that
neglected and
we may
write
not used for power amplifier
Let us consider the amplifier repre-
sented by the curves given
in
figure 28-3.
If
208
C(peak)
'q
it
n will
may be
AMPLIFIERS
Therefore, the rms collector

current will be
We
should remember that this is

the maximum
power output that we can
expect if the
transistor
(28.4)
portion
equation
And
since
the
rms voltage across
V CE(rms)
and the output power
'c(rms)
is
given
is
biased in the center of the

usable
is
of
the
loadline.
above
Moreover the
presumes a perfect
(28.6)
transformer.
Actually, it is much
more
reasonable to assume a transformer
efficiency
of about 75%. If this is
done, equation 28.6
becomes
by
2
Po
we may
V CE(rms)
write
po~3/8(i
'c(rms)
the following equation

for
'C (rms)
P
o
And finally
we have
in
R
"p
(28.5)
And
in
2
in
(rms) R in
the power gain (K
terms of the turns ratio and

R,
L
K -
becomes
(28.7)
N.
o^
/2(l
P)
Qiq
RL
(28.6)
and
is
usually expressed in decibels.
MATERIALS
1
Power
Output
transistor (type
T13027
characteristic for the
or equivalent)
above transistor
Output transformer
4 ohm load resistor 1W
1
1
100juF50WV DC
10 mF
capacitor
50WVDC capacitor
DC power
VOMor FEM
Audio generator
Oscilloscope
ohm 2 watt resistor

10k ohm resistors 1/2W
1
Variable
supply (0-40V)
PROCEDURE
2
-
ShZ
t^"*'
0 ' plot ,he
209
stage
be
will
R|
The input power to the amplifier
output power:
Q ^)
DC
lMd,ine
* ~
10/uF
INPUT
Fig.
28-4
3.
Locate and record the Q-point values of
4.
Plot the
maximum power
Eq and
Iq from the curve.
dissipation curve for a free-air dissipation of 2 watts.
whether or not the transistor
is
shown
operating
in
5.
Assemble the
6.
Connect the audio generator to supply an input
circuit
4-ohm load
across the
in
resistor.
Determine
the proper region.
figure 28-4
and measure the values of
Adjust the audio
at
and
Iq.
Connect the oscilloscope
kHz.
level for
Eq
the largest input signal that
produces a relatively undistorted output waveform.

7.
Record the
levels of
both the output and input signals [E

0 rms and E jn
)
8.
Determine the input resistance of the amplifier (Rj ).

n
9.
Using P
levels.
rms
nL
j
and P jn =
in
(
rms
rrns )]
determine both the input and output power
"in
Record these values as measured quantities.
10.
With the appropriate equation from the discussion, compute the approximate value of P
0
using circuit component and output characteristic quantities.
11.
Using the measured values of P and P

compute the power gain of the stage
Q
jn
,
270
in decibels.
Qty
Rc
AMPLIFIERS
N /N s
(rms)
Kp
(rms)
'in
in
(db)
Measured
Values
Computed
Values
xj.xl
xjxl
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE. The
28-5
The Data Table
objective of this exoerimpnt h
PROBLEMS
3.
If
the c,>,/f
of a power amp.if ier
% eff = "tput signal
is
defined as
powpr
dc power input
wha,
w the peroen, efficiency of the
circu in , he
211
x 100
experiment
INTRODUCTION.
Single-ended
PUSH-PULL PO WER
AMPLIFIERS
29
power
amplifiers require relatively large values of quiescent
when no
current with the result that considerable heat must be dissipated even
One way
to avoid this large no-signal
amplifier.
In this
DISCUSSION.
shown
circuit
experiment we
power
dissipation
Let us consider the amplifier
The
29-1.
figure
in
(Np<|)
Both
PNP
base signals.
input signal
is
see
primary.
that during the half

1,
supplied with power by transistor
T2 remains
applied,
is
we
of the input cycle marked No.
types, respond only to negative
When no
of the output transformer
Consequently,
transistors have zero base bias current, and,
being
power
a circuit.
coupled to the load through the lower half
circuit
operation can be explained as follows:
present.
is
to use a class B push-pull
is
examine the operation of such
shall
signal
the load
T<|
while
cut off.
both transistors are operating at cutoff and,

therefore, have very small collector currents.
During the alternate half cycle (No.
Figure 29-2 shows the output characteristic of

T<|
a transistor operating in this
manner.
cut off while

If
we apply
a sinusoidal
stantaneous polarities marked
then
transistor
input current and
in figure
T2 experiences
is
which
input to the
primary of the input transformer and the
negative
input
is
amplified and delivered to the load
We may
transistor
and
amplified
flected
plot the
output
i*
'
Basic Push-Pull Amplifier Circuit
212
AC
loadline for each

is
re-
into the output transformer primary
<
29- 1
2> of the
by observing that the load
Fig.
positive
driven further into cutoff.
which
experiences a negative input
transformer primary.
29-1,
Transistor T-j, on the other hand, experiences

a
is
T2
through the upper half (N
in-
2),
experiences a positive input and remains
EXPERIMENT 29 POWER AMPLIFIERS
AC LOADLIIME
Q.
h-
Z
ai
oc
oc
D
O
DC
O
LU
COLLECTOR-EMITTER POTENTIAL
(VOLTS)
Fig.
29-2
Loadline Plots for Zero Bias
according to
And
the
power
delivered
to
the
output
transformer primary becomes
Rp-R L
(29.1)
Each transistor can accommodate

collector current swing
along the
AC
peak
loadline
of
Finally,
And
since
'max
"
the output
is
'q
normally very small compared

'max' we may approximate the peak
collector current swing by
l
*'rms)
transformer has a typical

efficiency of around 75
percent, the output
power
'C(peak)
if
(29.2)
is
t0
'n
the
input
serves to couple the
'C(peak)
When
this
is
valid,
the rms
two bases with
collector current will be
the transformer
power amplifier to any

an impedance matching
preceding stage, as
device and as a phase
'max
approximation
circuit,
splitter,
to supply the
signals that are
180 apart.
While the circuit shown in

figure 29-1 is
in the sense that it
will work, one
major problem grows out of the
fact that the
input characteristics of
the transistors are
practical
max
'rms*
V2213
EXPERIMENT 29
POWER AMPLIFIERS
quite nonlinear.
silicon transistor input curve.
input curve
is
Notice that the
relatively linear for base cur-
mA, but is
and 0.25 mA.
rents above about 0.25
between zero
linear
quite nonIf
we
bias
the two push-pull transistors at zero base cur-
<
E
rent,
then some distortion of the output

This
result.
LU
DC
DC
type
of
distortion
crossover distortion and
biasing
LU
both
transistors
may
is
be avoided by
slightly
above the
nonlinear portion of the input curve.
CQ
will
called
Figure
29-4 shows a push-pull amplifier circuit
which bias has been provided for
In this circuit
base
0
0.4
0.2
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
29-3
resistors.
and also to contribute
Typical Silicon Transistor
Input Characteristic
Fig.
29-4
this purpose.
and R2 are the usual
The emitter
R^, are included to improve the bias
BASE-EMITTER POTENTIAL (VOLTS)
Fig.
bias
R<|
Biasing Against Crossover Distortion
214
in
resistors,
stability
slightly to gain stability.
EXPERIMENT 29 POWER
AMPLIFIERS
MATERIALS
Output
1
characteristic for the
Output transformer
(10O2 CT - 16/8/4fi 5W)
Input transformer
(500ft CT - 200tt CT 1/2W)
4-ohm
resistor
2 0.47-ohm
1
470-ohm
15k
2W
2W
resistor
Oscilloscope
VOMorFEM
1
1
resistor
resistor
above device
Variable DC power supply

(0
Sheet of linear graph
paper
40V)
box (15-10
megohm 1/2W)
1/2W
1/2W
Audio generator
0.01 fiF capacitor
600W VDC
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
Measure and record the

DC resistance
primary and the center
tap.
Determine the turns
ratio
3.
Assemble the
4.
Measure and record ft.
5.
U S1 9 , he Mlues from
a.
us
circuit
ng the value of
ft
h
ot
betW6en
ne end of the output transformer
between one ha
half
th
f nf
*
f the out P ut transformer primary
and the
'
4-ohm secondary.
^
I
shown
in figure 29-5.
DC cCectcr curren, and the
step 4i p|ot , he
Rl and the tums
point
^^
determ|ne
co
lector. emi
effective
er v0 age
^
OUTPUT
TRANSFORMER
INPUT
TRANSFORMER
-O
500ft
Fig.
29-5
The Experimental
Amplifier
215
16^
8ft
EXPERIMENT 29 POWER AMPLIFIERS
7.
Plot the
of
AC
loadline
on the output
From your
characteristic.
plot determine the value
'maxrecord the output power using equation 29.2.
8.
Compute and
9.
Connect the audio generator to the input and adjust it for the maximum undistorted
Record the value of e Q
1 kHz signal across the 4-ohm load.
.
2
the output power, P Q = E L /R|_.
10.
Compute
1 1
With the oscilloscope view the waveform:
(a)
at the input terminals.
(b)
across each half of the input transformer secondary.
(c)
across each half of the output transformer primary.
(d)
across the load resistor.
Make an accurate sketch of each waveform on

Insert the resistance substitution
12.
box
linear
graph paper.
with the audio generator and connect a
in series
meter across the box.

13.
Adjust both the resistance box setting and the audio generator such that you have the
same value of e Q
as before
14.
With
15.
Compute the power
and
a readable voltage
the meter reading and

gain,
resistance
box
on the meter.
value,
compute the input power
K p = P Q /Pj.
P
Qty
'c
(Pj).
V CE
'max
o
comp.
P
e
Pi
meas.
meas.
Value
Fig.
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
29-6
The Data Table

you should consider the effectiveness of the experihow each of the waveforms viewed contributes
mental circuit as a power amplifier. Also consider

to the overall performance of the amplifier.
PROBLEMS
1.
Assuming that the same transformer is used, what would have been the output
power if the load in the experiment was connected between the common tap and
the 8-ohm tap of the output transformer?
2.
Explain
how
the input resistance of the amplifier
in figure
29-5
is
related to the
input resistance of one of the transistors.

3.
Explain crossover distortion
viewed
in
in
your own words, and
tell
how each
of the waveforms
the experiment would have been affected by this type of distortion.
216
nt
TwJZ
peZrl
AMPLIFIER TROUBLES
^^^^f ^ ^ ^r
0
types of amplifier trouble.
fail
DISCUSSION. Amplifier
failures may be dia number of
major categories.
The following
In
nal
amplifier with a normal

input
may have no output at all.
basic
The
,s
we assume
An
oscillate at
Each of these
some
may
contain
errors in cir-
and
(b) errors in circuit

design
of these can usually
be corrected
quickly by carefully
checking the circuit
against the original
diagram
first
and examining
each connection.
The second type of

difficult to correct.
The
No Output
amplifier
signal,
is
much more
usual process
all
is
to
the operating
(normally done graphically)

and
small signal performance.
are sure
that neither of the

two
types of errors mentioned
above are occurring,
only one
the circuit
(This
possibility Qf
|f
the input signal to an
normal and there
is
no output
we
can conclude that at

some
point in the signal path
there is a component
which has failed in such
a
way as to completely block signal

flow. Our problem
then
is to locate
this single defective
component
To better understand the
troubleshooting
process, let us use the

circuit
30-1 as an example.
shown
in figure
first
step in any troubleshooting

to check the DC
operating potentials
In the example
circuit, we would measure the values of V
and V
of
process
is
each trancc
CE
the case of an FET,
we measure
v DS , while for a tube we
measure E PK , E ro
and observe filament
operation).
Normally'
sistor
(.n
a class
or E
217
is
Signal.
then
The
error
perform a detailed analysis

of
we
in
or design
is
now proceed with

each of the five types of
troubles.
five types
(a)
If
that there
failures, but does let

us deal with
one problem at a time.)
With these basic assumptions in mind, let us
amounts of noise or hum.
Before discussing individual

trouble categories, ,t is worthwhile
to recognize that, in a
laboratory situation, two
additional types of
trouble can arise. They
are;
potentials
in circuitry
problem to be located
does not exclude fhe
of trouble is discussed
individually in the following
paragraphs.
cult wiring,
no error
Afferent
amplifier's output
objectional
The
that the circuit was

functional be(This is the same as assuming
Secondly,
may
frequency.
5.
f.rst is
that there
may
common
make two
An
amplifier
ex .
assumptions upon which to

proceed
fore the failure.
An
4.
, this
troubleshooting an amplifier
(or other
system), we normally
normal input may

have seriously reduced
output.
amplifier with a normal
input
produce a distorted output.
3.
electronic
sig-
An amplifier with a
2.
p r0 p er y
we may proceed in dealing

with the five
troubles outlined originally.
major divisions will include

the
vast majority of
troubles:
An
locating the causes of
then
vided into
1.
t0
appro P nate
PK
amplifier,
we expect V
CE (V DS
V cc (V DD
to be approximately 1/2
EXPERIMENT 30 AMPLIFIER TROUBLESHOOTING
Fig.
or Egg).
class
Typical Amplifier Circuit
B amplifier, on the other
hand, usually has a
aboutQhO V cc
30-1
Vq^ (VqS
value, then
we would suspect
that stage of
being defective.
or ^PK^ *
(V DD or Egg).
After checking the operating potentials
As
about
a result,
6V
we would expect Vq^
for the first
two
transistors
about 10V for the two output

the
of the circuit,
and
transistors.
we should apply
to the input of the amplifier.
check the
If
signal level
normal
signal
We may
then
(using an oscilloscope
value measured for one of the tran-
or other instrument) at various points within
was greatly different from the expected
the circuit. By starting at the input and work-
Vqe
sistors
to be
218
EXPERIMENT 30 AMPLIFIER
TROUBLESHOOTING
toward the output, we

can locate the
point at which the signal
becomes lost. In
the example circuit, the
signal should be
ng
checked
Reduced
either a
at:
A serious-
usually caused
(transistor with
the base of
nal level at the input
(c)
the collector of
Ti
the base of
the collector of
(f )
the base of
(g)
the collector of
(h)
the base of
T2
T3
T3
T4
T4
found at
network
can check
m the emitter circuit of T-,. We

each of these components
one at a time to
find the fault. Moreover,
the operating potenmeasured at T, may help
in
locating the
V cc then T2 must
Or if V
CE is zero, then
equal to
circuit.
shorted or another device (X,

or
the emitter resistor) is
open. Measuring the
DC voltage across the emitter resistor
will
is
in-
dicate whether or not current

if
current
is
in
je
will
DC opera-
Transformers can fail causing a

severe
reduction (or even total loss) of
signal. If one
or more turns of any
shorted,
into all
is flowing in the
flowing, then there can
winding becomes
then the short circuit is reflected
of the windings. This trouble
is dif-
ficult to identify
and
is
usually the last possi-
bility
way
to be investigated.
to test a transformer
another
known good
T2
in
ting potentials.
which no signal is present, then

we
can usually isolate the
defective component
by a careful examination of the
circuit. For
instance, suppose that the
signal is present at
the base of T and not at the
collector of T
2
2
This being the case, we
conclude that the defect must be caused by
transistor T , transformer Xj, or the resistor-capacitor 2
be an open
Tj
the output terminals
is
the signal
(h ) for T
However, a change
je
2
normally cause a serious change
in
(j)
VCE
if
is normal at the
colthe example circuit, and severely reduced at the base
of T , then the coup2
ling capacitor may have
abnormally high reactance (low capacitance). This
symptom could
also be caused by a reduced
input resistance
lector of
the collector of
If
Perhaps the best

is to replace it with
one.
Distorted Output.
Distortion in the output

most frequently caused by a
Q-point of one of the devices. Such a
of an amplifier
shift in
is
Q-point shift will normally be

accompanied
by a change in operating
potentials.
The
two most common causes of
distortion are:
defective devices (transistors,
tubes, FETs)
and (b) leaky coupling capacitors.
(a)
The second
of these
(leaky capacitors)
by allowing
shift
DC
causes Q-point
current to leak from the
output (collector) of one device

to the input
(base) of another.
be no open-circuited component.
It
In this
which
is
way we can
locate
any component
causing the signal to be
sig-
and output of each device
usually reveal the cause of

the trouble.
For instance,
T2
(e)
bya
the
will
by
low h f
(b)
(i)
circuit,
Signal.
Notice that what we are doing

here is
checking the signal at the input
and output of
each device, proceeding from
the input to the
output of the amplifier. When
the point is
either
weak device
is
or low g
in case of tubes and
FETs) or
defective coupling network.
Checking
(d)
defect.
Weak) Output
the input terminals
(a)
tials
(or
reduced output signal
ly
pull
lost.
torted
219
should be noted that output of a push-
B amplifier becomes severely

one of the devices fails.
class
if
dis-

Noise and
Perhaps the most troublesome
Oscillation.
amplifier problem
when
cillation occurs
Hum. Noise
is
randomly-distributed energy usually produced
portion of the output
within electronic components (resistors, tran-
of one stage gets into a previous input circuit
sistors, capacitors, etc.).
and supports the input
transistors
Oscillation
signal.
is
watch the output noise
regenerative feedback can occur
resistors
briskly with a pencil
When
wiring
circuit
done.
carelessly
is
a noisy
placed with a
level
is
to
with an oscillo-
or other light object.
component is located, it is reknown good one. Noise is the
one trouble which
is
frequently caused by
more than one defective component

or
circuit
(b)
and
scope while suspected components are tapped
when:
(a)
Carbon
perhaps the worst offenders
are
and the usual troubleshooting process
therefore the result of regenerative feedback.
Accidental
thermally-generated,
Os-
spurious oscillation.
is
component
shielding
at a time.
is
inadequate.
Hum
low frequency noise and
is
most always
some component has
(0
signals
several stages applied to
the circuit gain
(d)
AC
60-Hz
from
fier in
it.
has sharp peaks.
Hum may
line.
(a)
The
DC
undesirable oscillation occurs, the
the
moving
is
an
moved
when
pass
allowing a
through
hum
the
into
amplifier.
while
oscilloscope
in oscillation
filtered
inad-
to observe
components, wires, and
circuit
Any change
part
with
oscillation
is
get into an ampli-
power source may be
to
signal
usual troubleshooting technique
al-
one of four basic ways:
equately
When
is
related, frequency-wise, to the
(b)
shields.
a particular
indicates that the part
Ground loops (ground points which

are at different
duce
hum
Any
high
have
hum
AC
can
levels)
in-
into amplifier circuits.
one
is
of the affected ones.

(c)
magnetic
fairly
an amplifier
tering.
common
is
cause of oscillation
inadequate power supply
Such inadequate
current from
in
power
filtering allows signal
of the stages to flow through
In
connections
may
also
common
Vacuum
tubes with
given.
220
one
filament
into amplifier circuits.
the four possibilities
amined
to several stages.
hum
AC
particularly prone to
troubleshooting excessive
fier,
cause oscillation by providing a resistance that

is
it by stray
from transformers,
lines, etc.
inducing
providing a feedback path.
ground
can
induced into
fields
voltages are
the power supply internal impedance, thereby
Faulty
circuit
fil-
(d)
all
impedance
hum
in
an ampli-
named above
are ex-
at a time, usually in the order
'
TROUBLESHOOTING
MATERIALS
NPN transistor type 2N1304
PNP transistor type 2N1305
Power
transistors type
or equivalent
1
TI3027 or equivalent
Transistor sockets
Breadboards
Output transformer
(10012 CT
16/8/4ft 5W)
1
nterstage transformer
(500ft
200ft
4-ohm
470-ohm
47k
resistor
CT
1/2W
1/2W
1/2W
1/2W
VDC
capacitors
100-//F50W VDC capacitor

Audio generator
2W
2W
resistor
resistor
resistor
4 10-//F50W
2 0.47-ohm resistor
1
1
10k
2 15k
CT 1/2W)
resistor
6.2k resistor 1/2W

6.8k resistor 1/2W
or equivalent
Oscilloscope
VOMor FEM
01
fxF,
600W VDC
capacitor
2 1k resistors 1/2W
1.8k resistor
1/2W
PROCEDURE
1.
Assemble the circuit shown

in fiaurp in o
board and the power
amplifier on nother'
ther
as possible.
r~
KeZ y ur
Keep
'
T 7 = 2N1304
Cl
tW0
'
't
Sta9eS n ne bread "

wiring as neat and
orderly
T 3 = TI3027
T 2 = 2N1305
T4 = TI3027
See figure 30-2 for

additional values
4
"
dûXh^
amPimer
*~
instructor
ss^^
(a)
The nature of the problem:
(b)
Circuit
(c)
symptoms:
i.e.,
some
no output, hum,
i.e.,
high or low
V ri=E
\d n +u
Using the information

recorded above
of the defect in the
data table.
C rCU,t
'
locate thp
Recheck the
7.
Repeat steps 3 through

6 for as many defects as
possible.
221
in
96S
"''"^
Hnw
^
Ct 3nd
COrrect
6.
normal operation as
'
'
which could cause the

symptoms.
step 2.
the
(install a
distortion, etc
one of thp
in
point, etc.
Possible causes of the

trouhlp
circuit for
"bug"
Ent,
point, distortion at
5-
'
ist
the
'
9nal at
some
com P-
Enter the cause
'
e
CO
00
>
id
CN
'
\jj
IS
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CN
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II
o
CN
xr
ii
LO LO LO LO y_ LL
LL LL LL LL a =*
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o
ooo9
T- V- 1- X- T- o
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
i- CN CO
ii
LO CO
o o o o*t o o
AAAHh
II
^
*
OO
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LO
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'
II
II
II
II
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00
DC O. QC DC DC CC
DC
-vw-Hi'
^
II
g^
in ro
(DT-tOr-r-rII
II
II
II
II
II
v- CN CO
LO CO r**
CC DC CC DC QC DC CC
-VNAr
CO
DC
-AAAr
222
TROUBLESHOOTING
Possible Causes
Fig.
30-3
The Data Table
223
Actual Cause

ANALYSIS GUIDE.
culties
why
you experienced
each of the defects
PROBLEMS. The
experiment, you should discuss any diffiwork properly in the first place. Also explain
encountered caused the symptoms that you observed.
in
getting the circuit to
following
symptoms
refer to the circuit
shown
30-1.
In
each
the components which could be defective and give the nature of the defect.
example: "second stage emitter resistor open-circuited."
For
case,
in figure
list
1.
Input signal normal, output dead,
2.
Output severely
3.
Severe
hum
in
distorted,
V CE
output (even
if
V CE
of
T3
input
of
is
is
first stage is
10
volts,
V CE
12
volts.
of
T4
is
zero volts.
V CE
of
all
stages
no output
at
T2
collector.
short-circuited),
is
slightly
low.
4.
Input signal to second stage normal at base of

of
T2
is
zero.
224
Vq E
APPENDIX
225
APPENDIX
226
APPENDIX
(V) iNaauno asva - a
227
APPENDIX
228
APPENDIX
229
APPENDIX
P-N-P
ALLOY-JUNCTION
GERMANIUM POWER TRANSISTOR

TYPES TI3027, TI3028
600
15
10
COLLECTOR POTENTIAL
230
(-
VOLTS)
APPENDIX
TRANSFORMER DATA
TRANSISTOR
OUTPUT TRANSFORMER
PRIMARY:
100
Ohms
500
mA DC Max.
C.T.
SECONDARY:
3.2
Ohms
8 Ohms
16
Ohms
POWER LEVEL:
10 Watts
TRANSISTOR
DRIVER TRANSFORMER
PRIMARY:
500
OHMS C.T.
SECONDARY:
200
OHMS C.T.
POWER LEVEL:
500
mW
231
EXPERIMENT
Date:
Name
Class
Instructor
Silicon Diode
Reverse
Silicon
Biased
Fig.
1-10
The Data Tables
Diode
ER
Zener Diode
Zener Diode
Reverse Biased
Forward Biased
ED
I'D
Fig. 1-10
ER
ED
EXPERIMENT
Name
Date:
Class
Instructor
Vacuum Diode
Vacuum Diode
Forward Biased
Reverse Biased
Fig.
1-10
Silicon
In (mA)
Diode Resistance
Rr\
D
u
20
40
60
80
100
Zener Diode Resistance
D (mA)
20
40
60
80
100
Vacuum Diode
lp
(mA)
Resistance
20
40
Fig.
1-10
EXPERIMENT
Name
Date:
Class
Circuit Values With
-m
DC
Meas
Fig.
No
Instructor
Filter
'DC
Comp
2-10
Comp
The Data Table
10juF
20 nF
7T
Filter
Filter
Filter
DC
Meas
DC
Meas
"dc
Meas
EXPERIMENT
Name
Date:
Class
Instructor
'
t
Ckt.
r>
DC
(Comp)<
'DC
(Comp)
t DC
'dc
(Meas)
(Meas)
First
Second
Fig. 3- 13
The Data Table
E DC
'dc
(Filter)
(Filter)
EXPERIMENT
Date:
Name
Class
Instructor
TRANSISTOR DATA
i
B (ma)
20
40
60
80
'c
w
'c
uu
on
160
V CE
(volts)
'C
'c
w
'C
0
-1
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-20
1
Fig.
4-9
The First Data Table
~^
1
A r\
140
1
180
200
'c
TRANSISTOR DATA
n
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
'c
'c
'c
V CE
(volts)
0
_1
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-14
-16
-18
-2
Fig.
4-10
The Second Data Table
EXPERIMENT
Name
Date:
Class
Instructor
FET DATA
Fig.
5-6
The Data Table
Fig.
6-5
The Data Table
EXPERIMENT
Name
Date:
Class
Circuit
Conditions
Circuit
Conditions
Fig.
7-6
Instructor
v cc =iov
R L = 3.3k
V BB
R B = 47k
= 1.5V
V CC =12V
R|_
V BB
Rg = 68k
" 2.0V
= 4.7k
The Data Tables
Circuit
V CC = 9V
R L = 2.2k
Conditions
v BB = iv
R B = 33k
Quantity
'B
Ii
CE
'BE
Comp. Data
Meas. Data
Diff.
Fig.
7-6
XB
EXPERIMENT
Name
Date:
Class
Instructor
'B
(ohms)
(mA)
aF
C
(mA)
Al
(mA)
470
1000
1500
2200
3300
4700
Data from First Experimental
Circuit
Fig.
Bias Circuit
R-|,
8-9
The Data Tables
'b
'c
V BB
(AA)
(mA)
(volts)
RB
(ohms)
ai
(mA)
R2 Network
Vgg, R Network
B
I
Data from Second Experimental

Circuit
Fig.
8-9
EXPERIMENT 9
Date:
Qty.
'CE
Z:
BE
'B
Loadline
Values
Measured
Values
Fig.
9-9
The Data Table
A;
GK
(volts)
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
'P
'P
>P
'P
'P
PK
(volts)
50
100
150
200
250
I
300
350
400
Fig.
10-9
The Data Tables
EXPERIMENT
11
Name
Date:
Class
Instructor
Quantity
EP
'P
Loadline
Data
Measured
Data
Triode Cathode Bias Data
Triode Grid Leak Bias

Data
Quantity
G2
EP
g2
Loadline
Data
Measured
Data
I,
Pentode Data
Fig.
11-11
The Data Tables
'P
G1
Mi

EXPERIMENT
12
Name
Date:
Class
Qty,
Graphical
PK
Id
RL
(P-P)
Power
Sens.
Values
Measured
Values
-A
I
1.
Fig. 12-7(a)
Triode Amplifier Data
Qty.
PK
'P
RL
(P-P)
Graphical
Values
>
Measured
Values
Fig. 12-7(b)
Pentode Amplifier Data
Power
Sens.
EXPERIMENT
13
Name
Date:
Class
Instructor
r~
V DS
(Volts)
l
D (mA)
(B)
Fig.
13-6
V GS
MEASURED DATA
The Data Table
Xr @
(Volts)
kH?
(ohms)
EXPERIMENT
14
Date:
Instructor
fe
Values from
Characteristic curves
Transistor
FET
Data
Data
9V DS
e
AC
r
9V GS
"fe
AC
9m
Fig.
14-15
The Data Table
9m
EXPERIMENT
15
Name
Date:
Class
Qty
CE
"B
'ie
Instructor
're
'oe
Computed
Values
Measured
Values
Fig.
15-12
The Data Table
EXPERIMENT
16
Name
Date:
Class
Fig.
16-8
The Data Table
Instructor
EXPERIMENT
18
Name
Date:
Class
Instructor
'
QTY
FET
V DS
Circuit
V GS
V CE
Computed
Value
Measured
Value
_
First Test Circuit
Capacitor
Second
Tes5tC rcu t
Capacitor
Fig.
18-7
Transistor Circuit
The Data Tables
j4
EXPERIMENT
19
Name
Date:
Class
Instructor
Output Stage Data

e
Kv3
Input Stage Data
A v3
Coupling Circuit Data

e
&2
K v2
K v1
Overall Gain Values
A v2
Fig.
19-6
K,
vT
The Data Tables
K'
vT
EXPERIMENT 20
Date:
Instructor
Li
Fig.
21-7
The Data Table
EXPERIMENT 23
"
QTY
Name
Class
'
Instructor
R0
Meas.
Circuit With
Emitter
Bypassed
Circuit With
Emitter
Unbypassed
Emitter
Follower
Fig.
23-7
The Data Table
A'
Comp
EXPERIMENT
24
Name
Date:
Class
First Circuit
Second Circuit
Ohms
A'
A'
Comp
Meas
470
1k
2.2k
4.7k
10k
33k
68k
100k
220k
470k
I
J.
Fig.
24-11
The Data Tables
Comp
Meas
EXPERIMENT
25
Name
Date:
Class
R (ohms)
EQ
(volts)
mea
(Sec)
Instructor
680 K
470 K
(Sec)
ooU
(Sec)
nr
1
2 0
9 R
o.u
35
40
J.
C A
O.U
R R
fi
AR
O.O
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
Fig.
2& 10
The Data Table
[\
220 K
i
\oec)
100 K
(Sec)
EXPERIMENT
26
,
Name
Date:
Class
Input
DC
Instructor
Output Signal
(Show Amplitude and Phase)
Voltage
+
0
+
5
+
10
+
15
20
+
0
U
Fig.
The Data Table
-5
-10
+
0
-20
26-5
EXPERIMENT
27
Date:
Instructor
EA
EB
E0
EC
Fig.
EE
27- 14
EF
The Data Table
Ei
EXPERIMENT
28
Name
Date:
Class
Fig.
28-5
The Data Table
Instructor
EXPERIMENT
29
Name
Date:
Class
Instructor
'
Qty
max comp.
'CE
Value
|
I.
Fig.
29-6
The Data Table
o
meas.
meas.
EXPERIMENT 30
Name
Date;
Class
Nature of Problem
Circuit
Fig.
Symptoms
30-3
Instructor
Possible Causes
The Data Table
Actual Cause
470

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