First Knowledge

I first learned of Tibet in the late 1950s from the book Seven Years in Tibet by the Austrian
explorer Heinrich Harrer (*1). Just three years after it was published in Vienna a translation of
this precious and honest book was printed in Novi Sad, Yugoslavia in 1956.
I do not remember that the high school curriculum at the time even mentioned Tibet except as a
geographic term. Tibetan, and even all Asian philosophy did not exist in the school curriculum of
the time which made use of some of the works of Plato and Aristotel, the stoics and materialists
only as an introduction to "comprehensive and perfected" Marxism.
Years later, I acquired the famous Third Eye and some other books by Lobsang Rampa, that
adept and very cordial author who used his fertile imagination and many other books to write
"authentic testimonies" of life in that faraway and to him entirely unknown land as if he had just
come from there.
Lobsang Rampa was the son of a plumber in Devonshire, England. During his stay in England,
Harrer saw the very popular Third Eye which sold a million copies worldwide and immediately
concluded that it was a work of fantasy. Rampa claimed he had spent years studying and
working as a doctor in Lhasa but in fact he survived a traffic accident in England after which he
discovered his sothsaying abilities.
The time he chose as his period of stay in Lhasa was the time Harrer and British envoy Hugh
Richardson spent there. In all of Tibet there were just five Europeans and they did not include
Rampa. Harrer tried on a number of occasions to meet Rampa in England but Rampa always
avoided those meetings, making excuses that he just has to meditate, or to go on a trip or
something like that. Several British "Tibetans" also became interested in him and one of them,
the prominent Tibetologist and Buddhist Marco Pallis, even hired a detective to establish the
Rampa's identity. The detective pretended he was a man seeking a guru and found out that,
among other things, English noblemen were seeing Rampa en masse for meditation classes.
Rampa with his huge beard would be seated on a big bed surround by Siamese cats while he
taught his faithful.
In fact, Rampa realized that people tend to believe anything on condition that it is presented to
them in the right way so he began writing books about Tibet, a faraway and mysterious land that
few European knew anything about.
Harrer, who had spent seven years in Tibet as an explorer trying to see everything possible,
wrote of Tibet: "It was a mystical land, a people that hardly anyone realy knew. Their
monasteries were huge, secretive and remote, hidden among the ice-capped peaks. A man can
seek his own dreams and longings in them. There was talk of monks who could fly and others
who could separate the spirit from the body. There were hardly any travellers who would bring
out authentic testimonies of Tibet, and the ones who did go there often could not resist telling
tales of adventures they had that were not always true."
I do not know why I was fascinated by Harrer's book, just as I do not know why, much later, the
Dalai Lama left such a deep impression on me as no one had before or has since.

Meeting the Dalai Lama

The first time I saw the Dalai Lama was in New Delhi. I was attracted by a notice in the
newspapers that the Dalai Lama would lecture on Buddhism. It was the hot Indidan summer of
1989 when no one likes to go out of a cool house.
The Tibetan leader held his lecture under a huge tent which is the custom in India for most
informal gatherings. There were maybe 100 or so curious Indians and a few Europeans. I
understood little of what the wise lama said. The Dalai Lama admits that his English is not very
good and regrets not having spent more effort learning it. In his autobiogaphy he wrote that at
first he was very careless pupil and that he "equally disliked all subjects" until the age of 10
when he says he realized all the things the future Dalai Lama must know and began studying
seriously.
Also, Buddhist philosophy has a terminology developed for more than thousand years and it is
not easy to translate into any other language including English in which it is hard to express all
the meanings and nuances that exist in Tibetan.
That is why the Dalai Lama often spoke Tibetan while his translator would try to express the
meaning in English but to me it was all far from clear. Another obstacle to my understanding at
that time was my lack of knowledge of Buddhist terminology in English.
The Dalai Lama sat with his legs crossed on a raised podium and looked at every person there
individually as if he were speaking to each. That woke an unclear memory of something that I
might have known once but now that knowledge, if it existed, cannot be called back from
dispersed forgotten shadows. I felt he was closer to me than I would allow anyone, that he was
having no difficulty in getting through my wall of a priori disbelief and suspicious cynicism built
up through decades of journalism. I realized that I was prepared to believe anything he said,
accept him as a wise teacher and certainly a being superior to me and people in general.
A year or so before that occasion I had met the Dalai Lama's representative in New Delhi. Tashi
Wangdi was a tall, kind man always ready to talk. We became close and visited each other
occasionally. On those occasions, his tall, quiet wife in traditional Tibetan clothes would prepare
Tibetan specialities with strange names and serve home made Tibetan beer called chang.
After the Dalai Lama's lecture, I asked Mr. Wangdi to arrange me an interview with his leader
the next time His Holiness comes to Delhi. He agreed gladly because he, like most Tibetans,
realized that in their fight for Tibet's future they have only words and the hope that they can
influence public opinion in the world which is the only power that can help them survive despite
the Chinese occupation and their systematic efforts to wipe Tibet of the map and if possible
from the memory of the world and the Tibetans themselves. Althought they do not mention it,
the Tibetans obviously see the reality of a world full of fierce protectors of human rights who, in
fact, care more for their lucrative relations with China and its potentially enormous market than
the fate the one small nation.
I was first received by the Dalai Lama in January 1990 during his short visit to Delhi. Later I
visited His Holiness several times at his residence in Dharamsala where many people spend
days waiting to see the Tibetan leader and receive his blessing. In our long conversations, the
Dalai Lama left the impression that we had all the time in the world at our disposal. Later he
would take me for walks in the garden which he tended himself whenever he could because he
loves flowers. We were always accompanied on those walks by fierce looking Indian soldiers
with automatic weapons who always guard the Dalai Lama. Tibetan guards are nowhere to be

seen except for the ones who politely search visitors before their leader sees them, but there is
no doubt that they keep a vigil.
Interviews with his Holliness are allocated a time of 40 minutes under accepted protocol, a
period his private secretariat approves. None of my talks with him were shorter than two hours,
sometimes much longer, and none of the Dalai Lama's aides even tried to warn their leader that
the allocated time had expired. That is understandable, because, to the Tibetans, the Dalai
Lama is God and King and everything he does was meant to be done in exactly that way. To
Tibetan Buddhists, the Dalai Lama is the incarnation of Chenrezi, the Tibetan name for Buddha
Avalokiteshvara, the Buddha of Compassion and divine guardian of Tibet.
The Fourteenth Dalai Lama is very well informed and educated, moderate and sensitive being
who, I feel, can certainly claim never to have done anything wrong or unnecesary. His boyish
spontaneity sometimes leads him to do things which would give court masters of ceremony a
fright if there were any around him. After our first talk in Delhi's Ashok hotel, I thanked His
Holliness, said goodbye and headed for the elevator when I heard someone calling from the
door of the Dalai Lama's suite. I turned and saw His Holinness smiling while he peeked out of
the door and waving for me to come back. He reminded me of a boy playing hide and seek. "I
wanted to give you some books," he said smiling and handing me some books on Buddhism.
With his medium height, clean shaven, with hair that always looks as if it has just started
growing after being shaved off, the Dalai Lama always greeted me, as well as every other
people, with a big smile, one of the things people he meets always remember about him. He
loves to laugh, loves to meet people, believes that all living beings are his friends and he wins
over even casual acquaintances with his cordiality and they remain his friends for ever.
Sometimes, seemingly for no reason at all, he breaks out in a loud, boyishly gay laughter, right
in the middle of a conversation. Whatever the topic of conversation, his laughter does not offend
the people he is talking to because they always feel that whatever the Dalai Lama does is done,
as he likes to say, with a good, positive motivation. That is why his laughter seems like both
encouragement and support and above all an expression of sympathy which irresistibly pours
out of his being and makes believable even his claim that he loves the Chinese although they
caused his people so much harm.
"The Chinese are one fifth of mankind," the Dalai Lama told me, "and no one is completely
insensitive to kindness, I don't think even Hitler and Stalin were like that. I pray for the Chinese
every day. We equally respect the rights of the Chinese. They are, after all, the biggest nation
on this planet and when we say 'all human beings' we have to bear in mind that one fifth of
those beings are Chinese."
Indian statesman A. Venkatesvaran also described the impression the Dalai Lama leaves on
visitors. Venkatesvaran was secretary of the foreing ministry of India for a number of years, a
post which is equal and sometimes even more important than that of foreign minister in
Commonwealth countries.
This is what he said of his impression of the Dalai Lama:
"As we entered the main hall, we were greeted personally by the Dalai Lama. He looked even
younger than his years and bore himself with great dignity. An indescribable spiritual radiance
emanated from him.

"After the ceremonial exchange of scarves, I was introduced by my colleague. The Dalai Lama
looked at me and said, in a serene and assured voice, that we had met before. On my replying
that I had not had that good fortune, he repeated that he was certain about it. I could not resist
answering, with a smile, that if there had indeed been such a meeting, it must have taken place
in my previous birth, adding that His Holiness possessed the power to remember, while I, as a
humble mortal, was unable to do so! The spontaneous laughter, with which the Dalai Lama had
greeted this rather imprudent statement of mine, will always remain etched in my memory."
The Dalai Lama lives in the town of Dharamsala in India's northern state of Himachal Pradesh
on the slopes of the Himalayas where the Tibetan government in exile is seated. Dharamsala
was once a summer retreat for the English who fled the heat of India's summers under the
shade of the mountains. When the Dalai Lama escaped from Tibet, Nehru offered him
residence in that town which had been almost deserted after the English left. In time,
Dharamsala became a true Tibetan settlement - a little Lhasa in India. Besides the Dalai Lama's
residence they built several Tibetan monasteries, a number of small houses for Tibetan
refugees and numerous small hotels and restaurants with nostalgic names such as Lhasa,
Tibet, Far Horizon, Shangri-la, Snow Lion.
Dharamsala is the destination of the many travellers from other continents who seek the
ultimate meaning of life and believe the Tibetans know it. That meaning, if it exists, is something
that cannot be expressed in words, something you either arrive at or do not after long years of
practice and thought. Do not expect that revelation from Tibetan lamas just as it cannot be
expected to come from a Japanese Zen master. They only point the way; whoever is willing to
travel that road will see where it leads and, although everything along it depends mainly on
ourselves, the discrete help of a teacher is needed because without him, the Dalai Lama says, it
is impossible to take more than a few steps along it.

PART ONE
Tibet and Shambhala
Of all the people in the world the Tibetans are closest to God. The name of their capital Lhasa
means "the place of the gods". Their snowy country behind the barrier of the Himalayas must
have always been the first step a god takes when he comes down to earth. One of the Tibetan
legends says they really are descended from the gods. That divine origin is proved by their
conversion after adopting Buddhism, a conversion so fundamental that there never was
anything similar before or after among the people of this world. Inspired by Buddha's vision,
they completely forgot the goals of their ancient king Song-tsen Gampo who began creating the
most powerful empire of Asia in the seventh century. Under the influence of the new teaching
they started the war against the evil in themselves. Eventually they won that war and soldiers
fled to monasteries, hunters gave up hunting and fishing having understood that it is a sin to kill
any living creature. Monasteries were built in every village and hermits took almost every one of
the countless mountain peaks in the country. The empire created by force was abandoned
because it cannot be preserved without violence and most of the once belligerent inhabitants of
the Land of Snow gave up violence and became meek, peaceful, hospitable.
The Tibetans gave humankind a divine example of noble change; an example no one else ever
followed.

Legends that have survived to modern times say that the first Tibetan was Nyatri Tsenpo but
that should be viewed with some reservations. Much later, that name was taken by one of the
Tibetan kings. The mother of the first Tibetan was Treha Changchub Sempa, a demon in the
form of a monkey who was alone when the world was young with no one on it but herself. She
was tormented by sadness and loneliness and she cried. The great God Chenrezi took pity,
came down to earth, consoled her with love and she became mother to the people of the Land
of Snow where all the dreams of the world begin and end because the Himalayas are the
sanctuary of all treasures (*2).
It is not unsuitable the story of Tibet started like this to continue with the legends, the more so
since only dim memories of the forgotten past survived in the genes of living beings as strange,
barely comprehensible letters of an unknown script which can be interpreted in many ways.
Tibet, like many other Asian countries, has myths of a legendary kingdom that was a source of
the culture and knowledge for present day Asian communities. According to those memories,
the kingdom was a place of peace and progress ruled by wise and compassionate rulers. The
inhabitants of that kingdom were also kind and learned and their kingdom was truly a model
society. That kingdom was called Shambhala.
The legend also says Buddhism played an important role in the development of Shambhala and
that the first king of that land, Dawa Sangpo, was taught the highest tantric secrets by Buddha
himself. That teaching, known today as Kalachakra Tantra, is considered to be one of the
fundamentals of Tibetan Buddhism. When king Sangpo mastered the teachings, says the
legend, the entire people of Shambhala also began meditating and following the Buddhist way
of love and caring for every living being. Both the rulers and population of the kingdom became
wise and spiritually perfect.
The Tibetans continue to believe that Shambhala can be found somewhere in the hidden
valleys of the Himalayas. There are a number of ancient Buddhist texts which provide seemingly
detailed but obscure instructions on the road to Shambhala. People who studied those writings
are not sure whether they should be taken literally or metaphorically. There are also a number
of descriptions of the kingdom.
According to the famous nineteenth century Buddhist teacher Mipham, Shambhala lies
somewhere in the wastelands of northern Tibet near the Sita river and the land is divided into
parts by eight mountain ranges. The palace of the Rigden, the rulers of Shambhala, was raised
on the top of the circular mountain Kailash in the center of the country. The palace is called
Kalapa and Mipham wrote that it covers a huge area of many square miles. South of the palace
there was a beautiful park known as Malaya. In the middle of the park a temple devoted to
Kalachakra was built by the king Dawa Sangpo.
According to the legends, the kingdom of Shambhala has disappeared from the earth a long
time ago. That has happend because every citizen of the kingdom has become enilghtened
thanks to permanent learning and spiritual practice. So, the whole kingdom has moved into
another more celestial realm. Legends told us that the Rigden kings of Shambhala continue to
watch the human society and their affairs, and will one day return to earth to save human race
from the destruction. Many Tibetans believe that the great Tibetan warrior king Gesar of Ling
has been taught the wisdom of Shambhala by the Rigden kings. That is also a reflection of
popular beliefs of the heavenly existance of Shambhala.

Gesar is said not to have gone to Shambhala, his ties to that land and its wise rulers were
spiritual. He is a historic figure; he was one of the rulers of the Ling kingdom in eastern Tibet
where the province of Kham is now. According to some sources, Gesar lived in the eleventh
century while other sources say he lived in the thirteenth century. Stories of his success as a
warrior and ruler are known all over Tibet and have become the greatest epic of Tibetan
literature with time. Some legends say Gesar and his army will come from Shambhala to the
earth to destroy the forces of evil in this world.
Some western scientists have indicated over the past few years that Shambhala could have
been one of the kingdoms mentioned in ancient documents such as the state of Zhang-Zhung
which existed long ago in central Asia. Most western experts believe, however, that the stories
of Shambhala are completely mythical.
Of course, the simplest thing to do is to say those stories are pure fictions but it seems
indisputable that the legend of Shambhala is keeping the natural, deeply rooted wish of humans
for a good, noble and fulfiling life. In fact, many Tibetan Buddhist teachers do not see
Shambhala as a historic, objective fact but as the spiritual foundation for sound reasoning which
exists as a potential in every human being. One of the best known teachers of Tibetan
Buddhism, Chogyam Trungpa concluded that it does not matter whether Shambhala is real or
imaginary and adds that it should be seen as the ideal of an enlightened and happy society that
Shambhala represents.
Asked whether Shambhala exists or not, the Dalai Lama answered with confidence: "Yes,
Shambhala certainly does exist but not in any conventional sense."
To understand his answer you have to know what Buddhists mean by conventional and
unconventional, i.e. ultimate truth, but that will be explained on the coming pages by the Dalai
Lama himself.
My intention was to provide a short history of Tibet for the curious and interested people and
convey the authentic interpretations of some aspects of the wisdom of life, Buddhist philosophy,
the Tibetan view of the world and humankind's road to the future as formulated in several long
conversations by the spiritual and secular leader of that ancient people and all Buddhists, the
Dalai Lama. The current Dalai Lama, whose shortened name is Tenzin Gyatso, is the fourteenth
in the uninterrupted line of Tibetan God-Kings. Tibetan beliefs are that all fourteen Dalai Lamas
are one person who dies and is born again. His full name which is a kind of title at the same
time is: Jetsun Ngawang Lobsang Yeshi Tenzin Gyatso Sisum Wangyur Tsungpa Mepai Dhe
Palsangpo. The meaning of that name and title is: The much respected One who rules his
speech, Full of kind and open wisdom, Ocean of the keepers of the faith, Ruler of three worlds,
Incomparable.
To Buddhists, the Dalai Lama is the same as the Pope to Catholics although he does not have a
rich and powerful organization like the Catholic Church, no aureole of infallibility and has been a
refugee for thirty five years at the time of writing this book.
Since Tibet is a far away, mysterious land which first saw Europeans only in the 17th century,
here are some facts about territory, history, language, population, society and religion.

Territory

A poem from the ninth, or possibly some earlier century, describes Tibet as "a center of tall
snow capped mountains; a source of great rivers; a proud and pure land".
The Dalai Lama says of his land: "My country, Tibet, is far away even though it is close to the
famous and perhaps mysterious Himalayas. I love that good country very much. Some of the
lower parts of it are, I think, similar to Switzerland but the higher parts of Tibet, such as the
northern heights, are bare and wild. The country is rich in minerals. The number of inhabitants is
similar to Switzerland - about six million. The Tibetan race has a long history and rich and
ancient culture. In ancient times, the religion called Bonpo was created and was accepted
everywhere. Scientists tried to discover the origins of that religion but did not succeed. They
could only conclude that it was ancient. Later Buddhism expanded in Tibet and only in that
country was the development of all schools of Buddhism and systems of philosophy continued
after the virtual dying out of Buddhism in the country of its origin - India. Other sciences and
crafts also developed in Tibet."
There is no general agreement among experts about the territorial borders of Tibet since only a
small part of the country has been explored and a census was never organized. Figures on
population and territory are just estimations which sometimes vary greatly.
Sir Charles Bell, one of the greatest British authorities on "the roof of the world", who at the
begining of this century first served in the British colonial administration in India and then spent
20 years as the British representative in Tibet and a close friend of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama,
sees a difference between the political and ethnographic Tibet, something accepted by other
experts on that part of the world. Political Tibet covers an area of about 1.3 million square
kilometers between 28 and 36 degrees north and 79 and 99 degrees south. That is more than
the territory covered by France, Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Denmark and the
Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, Luxembourg and Albania combined. That part of
Tibet was ruled by the government in Lhasa from ancient times to the Chinese invasion of 1950.
Ethnographic Tibet is a territory where various Tibetan tribes have lived since ancient times and
where they once made up the majority of the population. That territory, along with political Tibet,
covers an area of 2.5 million squares kilometers or two thirds the area of India.
Tibetan governments had influence or authority in only some parts of ethnographic Tibet in
unequal intervals. Usually, local leaders or the heads of big monasteries ruled there and from
the seventeenth century onwards that region was subject to Chinese incursions. In the period
from the sixth to the tenth century, the territory under Tibetan rule stretched far past the borders
of ethnographic Tibet because that country was the greatest military power in Asia at the time
with armies that conquered much of China among others.
When Buddhism was accepted over 1,000 years ago, Tibetans changed completely. After that
they never attacked anyone and even came to a situation where they were not capable of
defending themselves. A deep psychological change came over this warrior nation and it made
them despise soldiering. Buddhism in Tibet did what Christianity, despite an equally noble moral
code, failed to do in Europe and Europeans were no more belligerent than the ancient Tibetans.
When Buddhism became the major religion in Tibet, especially after the institution of Dalai Lama
was set up, whoever ruled in individual provinces bowed to the religious influence of Lhasa.
Every year, the Lhasa government and later the Dalai Lama received great wealth in goods and
money from the provinces. Religion and loyalty to the Dalai Lama united those far flung regions

with central Tibet and stimulated a feeling of unity in the Tibetan nation wherever its members
were.
The natural borders of political Tibet are the Kuen Lun and Tang La mountain ranges in the
north, the Karakorum massive and Ladakh mountains in the west and the 2,000 kilometer
Himalayan barrier in the south. Those mountains are crossed through passes at an altitude of
5,300 to 6,100 meters above sea level. The country borders India, Nepal, Bhutan and Burma on
the west and south and China on the north and east.
Geographically, Tibet is the highest plateau of Asia with an average altitude above sea level of
between 3,000 and 5,500 meters. Just a few areas of the country are under the 3,300 meter
altitude level. Contrary to the widely perceived image of Tibet as a virtual wasteland, it has
many fertile valleys at altitudes of 4,000 to 5,500 meters which is higher than any mountain
range in Europe or the US. It had thick forests which the Chinese have almost destroyed in the
past few decades and it has many pure mountain lakes. The mineral wealth of the country was
never researched before the Chinese invasion so the spirits of the land would not be disturbed
but the belief was that the mineral wealth was vast. Several of Asia's biggest rivers - the Ind,
Brahmaputra, Yangtse, Mekong, Salvin - and several smaller rivers - Sutlej, Karnali, Kali
Gandak, Trishuli, Manas and others - begin their flow there.
There is gold at virtually every step in Tibet. All the rivers that flow from its heights are full of
golden sand washed from the crystal rock of the mountain ranges. Respect for the spirits of the
land did not prevent the practical Tibetan from opening their first gold mine Yalung in western
Tibet in 1875.

Origins
There are few reliable facts known about the origins of the Tibetan race. One version of the
legend of the mother monkey says she admitted to the God Chenrezi that she was born again
as a demon because of sins in her past lives but the God did not mind since he also appeared
on the earth in the form of a monkey. They had six children. The legend says the children who
took after their father were filled with faith, dignity, love and compassion, talkative and friendly;
the others were sinful, prone to rivalry and jealousy, greedy and evil. However, all the children
had strong bodies and were brave. Buddha fed them holy corn which would sprout the day after
it was sown. That was barley. When they ate that barley, the legend says, their tails and fur
slowly receded and finally disappeared.
Besides that legend, there is one perhaps even older which says the Void that existed first
produced a beautiful egg. It opened after five months releasing space, warmth, fire, the oceans
and mountains and man came out of the center of the egg.
The Tibetan race today is considered part of the yellow or mongolian race. Great similarities
between the Tibetans on one side and the North American and South American Indians on the
other show that they most probably all belong to the oldest race on Earth.
There was never any systematic research performed in Tibet primarily because of the
inaccessibility of the land and because of a lack of willingness among most of the Tibetans who
visited India to undergo anthropological examinations. Also, since there was no archeological

research ever done in the country, artefacts and grave sites of the ancient Tibetans were never
found.
Over the past few centuries, it has become the custom to dismember mortal remains on one of
the mountains and leave them to the birds and animals. That is called a heavenly funeral which
is practiced because it is extremely hard to dig graves in the rocky and frozen earth and there is
not enough wood to burn bodies.
Chogyam Trungpa wrote that he saw primitive but very interesting rock paintings near the
Lhakhang monastery in eastern Tibet which he believed were the work of ancient inhabitants of
the area. The paintings, protected by something similar to talcum, show riders on small horses.
Also, just under the peak of the nearby Kulha-Nang-Ya mountain lies a spacious cave with a
floor of transparent ice. That ice covers some huge bones some of which look like human bones
but are so big that they could not have belonged to any of the known races of men.
Tibetan legends say that in ancient times, the Tibetan people were divided into six tribes or
clans. There are no indications when that was. In general, time settings in Tibet, as in almost all
of Asia, were usually disregarded which led French philosopher and historian Amaury
d'Riencourt to conclude that "these are people who have no sense of history".
It is possible, however, that, at least in Tibet which has a dry climate, ancient documents exists
but they have not been discovered so far or at least are unknown in the West. On the other
hand, the Tibetan legend of the first king Dawa Sangpo indicates the time he could have lived
since it says Buddha taught him tantra and Buddha lived over 2,500 years ago. Other Tibetan
documents mention even more ancient rulers and reformers and that just contributes to the
confusion. The legend of Shambhala and the first king seems older than Buddha whose time
from a historic point of view was not so long ago.

Population
Ethnologists more or less agree on two division of the Tibetan population: one group are the tall
people with long extremities, elongated skulls and often beak-like noses; the other are smaller
with pronounced dimples, flat noses and round skulls. Western scientists believe both groups
represent branches of the ancient race named "Yellow Man" whose descendants live in
Turkmenistan, China, Mongolia, Burma and Thailand. The first group are mainly nomads from
eastern and northern Tibet while the other group are predominantly in the fertile valleys of
central Tibet and the west of the country.
They mixed with other peoples because they accepted newcomers, refugees and prisoners of
wars and there were mixed marriages also. In any case, the Tibetans cannot be considered
Chinese and the Chinese themselves viewed them as a separate race for over 2,000 years. On
the other hand, their customs, character, language and food are quite different to the Chinese.
Estimates on the number of Tibetans are so different that they prevent you from getting an idea
of how many Tibetans there were in certain periods. A census done by the Mongols in the
thirteenth century showed there were 300,000 Tibetans. The Catholic monk Orazio Della Penna
estimated the number at 33 million in the eighteenth century.

About ten years ago, the Chinese government said there are 1,274,969 Tibetans which is quite
different from its earlier assessment in 1951 that placed the number at 3,750,000.
The Dalai Lama's government in exile says Tibet had about six million inhabitants prior to the
Chinese invasion and western authors estimate the number at between three and five million.
Chinese population figures reflect its policy towards its harmless neighbor. The Chinese divided
Tibet into three parts leaving only the central part the name of Tibet or rather the euphemistic
syntagm Tibet Autonomous Region. The Chinese population figure covers only that area. The
two other big parts of Tibet and some smaller parts are no longer part of the Tibetan state
having been annexed to China's border provinces which were once parts of the Tibetan empire.
Of that division the Dalai Lama says: "They want to have the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR)
considered as the entire Tibet and its population the entire Tibetan population. They did not
even include the province in which I was born - Amdo - in that Tibet. Nor the Kham province.
They tore many parts of Tibet away from the TAR simply because the local dialects differ from
the dialect of Lhasa. For example they separated the Monpas from the Tibetan race and labeled
them a separate national minority. The only goal of that act is the weakening of Tibetan culture
and Tibetan identity. They took many parts of Tibet into their border provinces Yunan, Sechuan
and Gansu. Also they created a new Chinese province Qinghai and included Amdo province
where I was born in it."
"That is one of the Chinese ways of undermining the Tibetan nation and Tibetan identity. With
that division of Tibet the Chinese government wants to create the impression that the many
communities living in Tibet are not Tibetans. They are trying to classify them as national
minorities which have nothing to do with the Tibetans. At the time of the Chinese occupation
there were six million. Now the Chinese claim there are 1.9 million."
There are many reasons to believe the number of Tibetans has been dropping for centuries.
Those reasons are the custom of several brothers having just one wife and a large number of
monks because the custom was for each family to send one child to a monastery to spend his
life in celibacy. Bell says that venereal diseases as a consequence of their freedom of sexual
contacts, pneumonia and measles took large tolls. There is no malaria in Tibet, nor cholera or
typhoid but harsh conditions - despite arctic conditions many homes are not heated - cause
many children to die young.

Monasteries
Western authors estimated that every fourth Tibetan man and one in every 15 women became
monks and the clergy accounted for one quarter of the population. Monasteries were very
democratic institutions which accepted everyone regardless of social status. However, monks
from higher classes of society had a much better chance of rising in the church hierarchy
because of family ties and the ability to pay for education. Some of them devoted their lives to
academic careers, others perfected religious rituals or managed monastery property and the
most prominent among them were the ones considered to be incarnations of famous lamas,
gods or saints.
The organization of life in those monasteries cannot be compared to anything we are familiar
with. Time seems to have stopped a thousand years ago behind the monastery walls. My

impression, gained in several Buddhist monasteries, is the same as that of the few Europeans
who were given the opportunity to visit some of them: there is nothing in them that could remind
you of the 20th century. Thick, gray walls seem to have been there for thousands of years and
the smell of rancid fat and the unwashed monks has penetrated deeply into everything.
The biggest monastery in Tibet and the world was Drepung, near Lhasa, with over 10,000
monks living in numerous stone houses. Every house had some 50-60 tenants quartered in
small rooms. Every floor had a kitchen. Hearty meals were the only enjoyment for the monks
and the more intelligent among them made life bearable by believing that they could achieve a
high position in the clergy or state only through study.
Their life was Spartan. There was no private property except, at best, oil lamps, religious
pictures or talismans. A simple bed was all the comfort a monk was entitled to. Absolute
submission was required. An apprentice monk entered a monastery as a boy and dressed in the
dark red cowl he wears until the end of his or her life. In the first few years he has to perform the
most menial jobs and serve his teacher. If he proves to be clever, he learns to read and write
and then studies for exams. But, only a select few prove capable of advancing from one level to
the next; most remain servants all their lives. The chosen are very few and they spend 30-40
years learning the teaching of Buddha so that they will be allowed to take a final exam. They are
then given an opportunity to advance to the highest post in the church.
Tibetan Buddhism is often called Lamaism in the West which is wrong because there are few
lamas among the monks and all lamas do not have to be monks. Lama is a Tibetan word
meaning teacher while the word for monk is trapa. There are several categories of lamas
according to their qualifications, and it is not unusual for a learned layman to be called to lecture
on some religious subject and become a lama.
Monks, as Heinrich Harrer wrote, "are not always calm and learned brothers. They are mainly
rough, with no feelings and the whip for them is not punishment severe enough. The worst of
them are in the monk-military organization Dob-Dob which is not allowed but is tolerated. They
wear red bands on their naked arms and cover their faces in soot to look fierce. They carry a
huge key hanging on their waist which they use to hit or throw at an opponent. Sometimes they
have sharp knives hidden in their pockets. Many of them are known assassins; their arrogant
walk seems like a challenge and their nature of killers is known and everyone steers clear of
them. A volunteer battalion was formed from their ranks to fight the Chinese after the occupation
and its members won fame for their bravery. They also had opportunities to show their power in
peace because the Dob-Dob was always arguing with the big monasteries."

Occupations, Cities
Most of the Tibetan population are farmers or herders and Western authors claim that every
Tibetan is also a trader at heart. The number of professional traders is small but almost
everyone, including monks and nobles, had some small business dealings. Most monasteries
had small special administrative sections for trade. Those deals involved the Chinese, Indians
and Nepalese. A vast majority of Tibetans also gladly went on pilgrimages to Buddhist holy
shrines in Tibet and India. Besides meeting religious obligations, that served to satisfy their
nomadic instincts which make most of them feel happy only when they are moving.

There was also a fairly large group of people who did less dignified jobs. They were professional
brigands who robbed caravans in the wilds of northern Tibet. Those areas were always outside
the reach of the authorities which forced merchants to band together and hire armed escorts in
an effort to avoid the accepted business risk of attacks.
There were also professional beggars, especially in Lhasa where they usually gathered along
the sacred roads around Potala.
The trade of beggar was mainly inherited and had strict rules under which alms could not be
asked from the same person twice in one season. On the other hand, alms had to be given to
avoid curses since everyone in Tibet fears the curse of a beggar. Tibetans believe that beggars
perform a useful social function because they remind people to give alms, one of the most
important religious obligations for every Buddhist.
The beggars include a special group called Ragyapa whose duty was the removal of dead
bodies. To Tibetans, the body is only important in life and they believe no trace of it should
remain after death. The Ragyapa take bodies to the nearest mountain peak, tear them apart,
crush the bones and leave everything to vultures and wild animals. Only the mortal remains of
great religious teachers are burned and the ashes are then built into chortens (*3) because of
the belief that they will then be able to remind future generations of their teaching.
Prior to the Chinese occupation, Tibet had some 150 noble families who won their status in one
of three ways: titles were given to people who did special services for the country, to families in
which the incarnation of the Dalai Lama or Panchen Lama was discovered; and there were a
few families descended from ancient kings before the 10th century.
Society was feudal but people lived much better than the inhabitants of medieval Europe
because the Tibetan nobles, being Buddhists themselves, believed they could get a better
reincarnation through their good deeds. Also, there was never a large enough workforce in Tibet
and an unhappy laborer could always change employers. There was never a popular uprising or
rebellion in Tibetan history.
There are only a few big cities in Tibet. The capital Lhasa is the biggest with a population of 2530,000 before the Chinese occupation and another 15-20,000 monks in nearby monasteries.
Shigatse and Gyantse are the next largest with populations of 12,000 and 8,000 respectively.
Lhasa is the highest capital in the world standing at an altitude of 3,660 meters. Lhasa is
situated farther south than Cairo. There was a lake there once which was filled in with earth and
rock brought in on goats, animals often used as beasts of burden in Tibet. King Song-tsen
Gampo gave the city the name Rasa (place of goats) when he had the lake filled in to build a
fort and a temple. Later the name was changed to Lhasa (place of the gods) and it has
remained the holiest place in all of Tibet ever since (*4).
Tibetan nobles usually lived in the cities; their houses were built solidly with rectangular internal
courtyards surrounded by buildings while the main building was at least two floors higher and
located exactly opposite the gate. Some of those buildings had five floors.
Walls were built of stone blocks cemented with mud and the roofs were flat and covered with
packed earth. There were many windows on the buildings but few had glass. Instead they used
wax paper or cloth and every window had massive wooden covers.

Peasant houses were also solidly built of stone or brick baked on the sun while nomad cattle
herders lived in rectangular tents of varying size made of yak hair.
Prior to the Chinese invasion, carts with wheels were not used in Tibet. Everything was carried
on beasts of burden and people either rode or walked. There were no roads just narrow paths.
Rivers had no bridges across them and only small parts of their flows were navigable. Rivers
were crossed on big rafts whose frames were wooden and covered with yak skins. The Chinese
built many roads after 1952 because they needed them to transport troops and timber and
mineral wealth to China.
Although Tibetan peasants and cattle herders do not give the impression of material wealth in
their rough cut clothes which is made by their women and their lack of care for outer
appearances, shortages and hunger were extremely rare. The people were hard working, tough
and unbelievably resistant. Tibetan farmers lived a hard life with little comfort but up to the
Chinese invasion it was a better life than in other parts of Asia.
Tibetans mainly ate yak meat and mutton, barley flour, cheese and drank tea. Rich people and
the inhabitants of fertile valleys also had a diet of rice, fruit and vegetables. The most frequent
food is tsampa - flour made of fried barley which is kneaded with tea on you fingertips into balls
small enough to swallow. Tsampa are eaten with cheese, vegetables or on their own. Tsampa
could be preserved for an eternity in the dry and cold Tibetan climate where even meat does not
spoil for two or three years.
Buddhists cannot even imagine killing any living being and the Tibetans developed and
interesting way of getting the meat they need for their meager diet. Butchers are considered to
be sinners and whenever possible non-Buddhists are given that job. Members of small colony of
Kashmiri Moslems who lived in Lhasa for centuries were the butchers in the city. In the eastern
province of Amdo Chinese Moslems served as butchers. Resistance towards killing animals is
so great that it is not rare to see an Tibetan buy an animal from the butchers and let it go free or
keep it in his house until it dies. That is considered to be an extremely good deed which
contributes to a good reincarnation.
Tea made with salt and yak's butter was always the most important drink in Tibet. Tibetans drink
unbelievable amounts of it; 30 to 50 cups a day and there are many who drink up to 80 cups.
The second most preferred drink is chang - a weak barley beer.
The main piece of clothing in Tibet is a kind of long coat called chuba with a high collar and
sleeves much longer than needed which shows that whoever wears on does not have to work
with his or her hands. It is made of home spun cloth of yak hair or wool. Chubas are tied tightly
around the waist with a cloth belt and the front part thrown over the belt to form a big pocket on
the stomach where tea vessels and food or various items (sometimes even little Tibetan
poodles called Apso) are carried. Cloth or silk shirts are worn under the coat along with wide
pants and boots which can have a thick lining but not heel.
Men often wear plate-like hats on their heads or tall caps with earflaps which stick out to the
side when it is not cold.

Women cover their heads with a trapezoid shaped piece of cloth on a wooden frame, decorated
with turquoise, pearls and coral. Women cattle herders braid their hair into many small braids
which they then link into a single braid on their backs.
Men wear necklaces only in some parts of Tibet but all Tibetan men wear earrings.
Tibetans produced their own food and clothing and imported tea, porcelain and silk from China.
Iron, copper, textiles, rice, sugar and some household items were imported from India. Tibet's
exports of wool, leather, borax and other raw goods secured more than enough money to pay
for their imports and Tibet always recorded a positive trade balance with its neighbors.
Tibetan silver money was minted in Nepal. In the late 18th century there was a dispute when the
Nepalese began mixing cooper into the silver which drew a protest from the Dalai Lama to the
Nepalese king.

Language
Tibetan is one of the Tibetan-Burmese group of languages and is quite different to the ThaiChinese group although both have some things in common which indicates a common ancient
root. Under modern classification, all those languages make up the group of Sino-Tibetan
languages.
The Tibetan language is basically single syllable and the structure of the sentence is objectsubject-verb. Experts describe it as a tonal language but although it includes differences in the
height and depth of tone and accent there is nothing in Tibetan that could be compared to the
Chinese system of fixed tones. The meaning of words depends on the height of tone and accent
so that, for example, the word la in a low tone means mountain ridge, and salary if the tone is
high. The language is very rich in philosophical terms; there are, for example, four different
expressions with nuances in their meanings (which are impossible to translate) for the term we
know as mind.
There are several dialects which linguists classify into three groups: the dialect of Lhasa and the
central provinces U and Tsang which is understood by all Tibetans, then the dialect of Ladakh,
Lahul, Baltisan and Purig and finally the eastern dialect of the Kham province. All those dialects
have subtypes.
The ancient Tibetan script was modernized in the seventh century A.D. in harmony with the
script used in the northern parts of the Indian kingdom of Gupta. In 640 A.D. Tibetan king Songtsen Gumpo sent his minister Thonmi Sambhot to India where he learned the language and
changed the complicated Tibetan script and grammar according to Sanskrit.
There were no ideograms (similar to Chinese) in that script. It has 30 consonants and five
vowels and the shape of the letters and orthography have remained practically unchanged to
this day. Manuscripts from the eighth century can be read (except for a few archaic words) by all
literate Tibetans today.
To write Tibetans used and are still using notched sticks and rope with knots and the Tibetan far
east has a specific picture script.

According to the oldest known manuscripts, the most ancient original Tibetan script existed in
the Zang-Zung empire and was known as Mar-Yig. The Tibetan name of that script Lha-bab Yige means script from the heavens. The oldest Tibetan monasteries had manuscripts written in a
script very similar to that one with the characteristic big consonants and small vowels.

Climate, Flora, Fauna

A country as large as this which lies between the dry deserts of Turkestan and the Himalayas
and where the deepest gorges of Duhang are at 700 meters above sea level and Mount Everest
rises to almost nine kilometers above sea level, has a very varied climate, precipitation and
vegetation. In many parts of the land there is no snow or rain for eight months of the year. In
Lhasa, in the Kyi Chu valley which stands at an average 4,000 meters above sea level, summer
temperatures go up to 27 degrees Celsius (80 Fahrenheit) and rarely drop below -15 Celsius (5
Fahrenheit).
Climatic changes in the Kyi Chu valley are always right on schedule: the last winter frost is in
the first week of July and the first frost of winter is in the last week of September. The frost is not
strong but powerful winds which blow all winter and the lack of heating in houses make the cold
almost unbearable.
Average precipitation in most of Tibet, except the south east and parts of the trans-Himalayas
where there is more snow and rain, is 20 mm a year since the Himalayas stop the summer
monsoon clouds and the few clouds that do get through only go to the trans-Himalayas. The
Indian side of the Himalayas has 600 mm or more of rain. Behind that vast mountain range lies
a huge expanse with a very dry climate where daily temperatures can vary up to 30 degrees
from morning to evening. The central plateau, with its average height of 5,500 meters, has a
recorded maximum temperature of 18 C (65 F) and a minimum of -33 C (-27 F).
That area has frequent winds strong enough to blow rocks away. The Siachen gorge in the
western Himalayas with the biggest glacier in the world at 5,500 meters, has winds reaching the
unbelievable speed of 300 kilometers an hour which can blow away metal plates weighing
several tons from heliports which now roll heavy rocks onto those plates.
The Tibetan plateau has only sparse grass growing on it but the Himalayan and transHimalayan river valleys are rich in barley, wheat, beans, and fruits. The most frequent trees are
evergreens, oaks, willows, walnuts and peaches. Annual harvests prior to the Chinese
occupation were quite sufficient for the Tibetan population and there were stocks of food to last
two or three years.
Tibet also had huge flocks of wild and tame sheep, goats and yaks. The yak is especially
precious and the Dalai Lama says they are nature's gift to man. These very tough and strong
animals carry heavy burdens easily through the Himalayas, they have long hair which is used to
weave clothes, the female yak gives a thick and rich milk, their meat is tasty and their hides are
easily made into useful items. The yak is a mountain beast which adapts to any height easily but
if they are taken to below 1,000 meters above sea level they die quickly.
There were also a large number of wild donkeys and Tibetan antelopes, bears (the famous
Panda which became the symbol of endangered species is one of several breeds of Tibetan

bear), powerful leopards, wolves, squirrels, monkeys, cats, dogs and birds - several kinds of
eagle, wild geese and in some places in the eastern province rare breeds of beautiful pheasant.

Character and Customs

Tibetans are mainly polite, compassionate, honest, open and joyful people. They have a sense
of humor, they know how to enjoy their spare time, they are intelligent and self-confident. They
show great respect for women on all occasions except in regard to marriage. That is the
exclusive provenance of the parents.
Monogamy, polygamy and polyandry were usual in Tibet earlier. The men who could support
them had more than one wife and polyandry was practiced mainly by farmers and cattle
herders. Several brothers would marry one girl to avoid splitting up the family property. Nobles
married only in their own caste as a rule. Marriages among cousins up to seven times removed
were forbidden and divorces were rare and were approved by the government in Lhasa.
Tibetans are born with good manners; even peasants and servants behave nobly and are
considerate but they do not hesitate to voice their opinions. The nobles and middle-class have a
nobility of decorum which does not include the flattery customary in other Asian countries. Many
travelers were impressed by the caring and considerate behavior of Tibetans towards animals.
That comes from the belief in reincarnation - the migration of the soul - i.e. the possibility of the
soul of any man finding itself in the body of an animal. Hindus also believe in reincarnation but
the Tibetans take the doctrine much more seriously as if they knew reliably that they were
animals in one of their previous lives and that they will be born as animals again.
All western visitors agreed to that description of the Tibetan character including Jesuits
Francisco D'Azvedo and Ippolito Desideri who went to Tibet in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, British emissaries George Bogle, Samuel Turner (also in the eighteenth century) to
Sir Charles Bell, Austrian explorer Heinrich Harrer and the long-time head of the British mission
in Lhasa Hugh Richardson in this century.
Those Tibetan virtues do not exclude the occasional ruthlessness which is especially evident in
punishing offenders. The Tibetan criminal code is drastic. Besides fines and prison terms it
included whipping not only the sentenced but also the suspected offenders and sometimes
witnesses (*5). There were pillars of shame to which offenders were tied with a heavy piece of
wood hung around their necks and murders and thieves were chained.
The worst crimes - murder, robbery and repeated thefts - could draw a penalty ranging from
amputation of hands, cutting noses and even removal of eyes. In ancient times murderers were
tied into leather sacks and thrown into rivers. One punishment the Tibetans learned from the
Manchus was sticking sharp bamboo sticks under the fingernails of criminals and 100 or more
lashes with a stick across naked back and bottom. That punishment is proscribed for especially
vicious crimes instead of the death penalty because execution runs counter to Buddhist
teaching.
Although murders in Tibet were not rare, the Thirteenth Dalai Lama abolished the death penalty
for all but the most serious offenses against the ruler and the religion. Murders draw a penalty of
life in prison which is not too long considering conditions in the prisons. Closed up in dark cells
with virtually no air in them, prisoners are let out only to go to lavatories and usually die within a

few years. Their countrymen do not consider it a sin to keep people in harsh conditions which
will surely cut their life short.
Europeans who spent long periods living among the Tibetans noted that that kind of punishment
is not the result of an inborn roughness or pleasure in causing pain but is more a reflection of
the simplicity of their way of life and the harshness of the environment. There is a latent
nervousness in them which very rarely takes the form of an outburst of emotion or even
violence.
That description holds true mainly of the inhabitants of central Tibet, mostly farmers, who
western travelers and explorers encountered most often. The nomad cattle herders are quite
different. They appear stoic and strong but they are also shy, cautious and slow thinking.
The inhabitants of the eastern provinces of Amdo and Kham are also different. They are much
more temperamental and flare up easily. The inhabitants of Kham, called Khampa, have a
reputation as the most fearless heroes, completely indifferent to danger but that trait leads to
barbarism at times. The Khampas have always been warriors and are divided into a number of
clans which fought among themselves constantly. It is logical that they were the first to rebel
against the Chinese and have remained the leaders and the fiercest fighters against the
Chinese occupation.

History, Religion, Kings

About five hundred years before the birth of Buddha, i.e. at around the year 1060 B.C., master
Shenrab Miwo reformed the ancient animism of the Shen people and founded the Tibetan
religion Bon or Bonpo. Bon is an ancient Tibetan word meaning to recite a mantra or pray. The
term comes from the custom of ancient Tibetans to recite mantras or prayers to remove the
causes of trouble or ailments. Everyone who performed various rituals and practiced magic
before Buddhism came to Tibet were called Bonpo and their various beliefs were called Bon.
Bonpo leanings towards magic brought a custom that probably have no equal anywhere in the
world; tongue wagging as a greeting. Tibetans practice that custom sometimes today and they
stick out their tongues to show respect. That custom was created during the invasion by the
Dzungar Mongols in 1727. The Mongols killed many members of the Nyingmapa (the oldest
Buddhist sect) and Bon, accusing them of black magic. Their tongues were allegedly black or
brown because they said so many magic mantras. When they met the Mongols, the Tibetans
had to stick out their tongues to show that they do not belong to either sect.
When Shenrab Miwo, the man who gave Bon its final form, was born there were many Bonpo
sects. Their members believed in devils, spirits, deities and sacrificed animals and performed
magic rituals. Miwo first opposed sacrifice and installed the practice of using statues instead of
real animals in sacrificial rituals.
Shenrab Miwo was born in the land of Zhang-Zhung and the religion he formed spread to
Tagzig (today's Iran and Tadzhikistan), India and China. Ancient documents mention a number
of Bon sects while later preachers of Bon claimed that Shenrab Miwo was reincarnated as the
prince Gautama Buddha of the Sakya tribe to spread the teaching of Dharma (*6) in India and
China.

Bon annals say that eighteen kings ruled Zhang-Zhung Go-Phug-Bar-sum, as Tibet was called,
after Shenrab Miwo. That state covered the regions of Kham and Amdo which made up the
province of Go or Door, the central areas of modern Tibet U and Tsang (Bar or Middle), and
Guge and Stod-Ngari Korsum as the third part of the empire called Phug or Interior. The first of
the 18 known emperors was Tiwor Sergyi Jharguchen who ruled that land during Shenrab
Miwo's lifetime.
About nine centuries after Yarguchen, Nyatri Tsenpo took the throne and the age of so-called
religious kings began. This king of the Yarlung dynasty, which ruled for over 1,000 years, was
crowned in 127. A.D. Many learned men from Zhang-Zhung came to Tibet during his rule and
translated many Bon works into Tibetan.
Some ancient documents say that Nyatri Tsenpo came from the dynasty of rulers in the Indian
tribe of Sakya which Buddha came from or the dynasty of kings of the land of Ogyen which
modern scientists believe was located northwest of India in the area occupied by today's
Pakistan. Tibetan authors say the creating of ties between a Tibetan king and foreign dynasties
is the consequence of the belief that a king from foreign lands has to be different and better than
a local one. That belief was not altered even by Buddha's words that "neither caste nor origin
matter", or the fact that Buddha himself, although a prince by birth, left his father's court to
become a homeless monk and show that caste and origin truly do not mean anything.
As Buddhism came from India, the Tibetans have held onto their belief that India is a holy land
and consequently they diminish their own and glorify Indian values. That is expressed in the old
biography of Milarepa (1041-1123) which describes his competing with Indian sage Pha Dampa
Sangay in performing miraculous changes. During one competition Milarepa and Sangay sat in
the lotus position on one blade of grass each with the grass Sangay was sitting on remaining
unbent and Milarepa's blade bending slightly. The explanation given in the biography says the
two men were equal in their abilities but the difference in the sanctity of their places of birth
caused Milarepa's grass to bend slightly because he was born in Tibet which is less holy land
than India. Milarepa was also an famous Tibetan religious teacher, poet and saint, one of
Marpa's pupils and the founder of the Kargyupa sect.
At the time of king Tsenpo, the state was decreased to just the Yarlung and Chongyas valleys
and was called Bod. That state advanced quickly and all of Tibet as we know it today was
reunited several centuries later under king Song-tsen Gampo, the thirty-third in the line of
religious kings.
Centuries before it was united, Tibet was divided among several tribes or clans. Early in the
sixth century, several clan leaders supported one leader in his fight against the others.
Gradually all the Tibetan tribes united, creating a huge potential which was first aimed against
the nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes of Tibetan and Turkestani origin in the area between Tibet
and China. Many Tibetan clan leaders were originally from that area and to them it was the
natural direction to expand.
Once they established control over those tribes, the Tibetans began pressuring China and in
635 king Son-tsen Gampo (629-649) asked for and was given the hand of a Chinese princess.
During his rule, Tibet became a strong military power whose troops conquered all of central and
a good part of eastern Asia. The king supported Buddhism and send one of his ministers and
several young Tibetans to study it in India.

Son-tsen Gampo married his sister Sadmarkar to king Ligmikya of Zhang-Zhung and then he
married Tibetan princess Lithigmen of Zhang-Zhung. Later, he also married Tri-zun of Nepal
and after the invasion of China he took princess Gonjo for his wife. His Nepalese and Chinese
wives played important roles in the development of Tibet because they wholeheartedly
supported the spread of Buddhism and contributed to improving cultural and other ties with their
native lands. Despite the efforts of the king and his wives, the new religion was accepted by just
a small part of the population and Bon remained the dominant religion for another century and a
half.
Ligmikya, the king of Zhang-Zhung, was killed in an ambush by Song-tsen Gampo's soldiers on
the road to the eastern province of Sum-bar (today's Amdo). Zhang-Zhung was annexed to the
kingdom of Bod and the new state was named Bod Gyal-khab. Several of Song-tsen Gampo's
predecessors tried but failed to conquer Zhang-Zhung. Song-tsen Gampo managed but only
after establishing ties with India and China and waiting for favorable political conditions.
Son-tsen Gampo is one of the most famous Tibetan leaders. He is credited not only with
creating a powerful military force but also with reforming literacy and introducing Buddhism.
China of that time was ruled by emperor T'ai Tsing, the founder of the T'ang dynasty, a ruler
known for his energy and abilities. Tibetan achievements of that time should be viewed in the
light of the power and greatness of the Chinese empire.
At that time the Tibetans already had walled cities and castles to guard the countryside. They
were also deft craftsmen who produced very good armor, weapons and refined golden
decorations and household items.
One of Song-tsen Gampo's famous descendants, king Trisong Detsen (755-797), faced
resistance by Bon followers when he invited Kashmiri Buddhist Padmasambhava, teacher of
Yoga and Tantra and professor at the most famous university of old India in Nalanda to Tibet.
He taught Tibetans Mahayana Buddhism which was soon declared the state religion and, in
time, was merged with the ancient Bon religion. Padsambhava's followers founded the
Nyingmapa sect, the oldest in Tibetan Buddhism. Between the years 762 and 766 Samye, the
first Tibetan Buddhist monastery, was built (*7). In the next 1,000 years, Tibetan Buddhism won
such a reputation that the ruling of the country was turned over to the religious leader - the Dalai
Lama.
Buddhism expanded in Tibet mainly because it is pragmatic. Mahayana Buddhism did not
accept suffering as an inevitable fact of life and offered the possibility of release from the eternal
cycle of birth, suffering and death even in a single life. Unlike the Indian Yoga, Buddhism did not
demand that life be devoted exclusively to its practice and the exclusion of all other activities.
Instead of giving things up, Buddhism stresses the Middle Path but its moral code is strict. It
was formulated in the Buddha's Noble Eightfold Path Towards Enlightenment and includes:
correct understanding (release from illusions and superstition), correct intentions (being worthy
of human intelligence), correct speech (truthful and polite), correct behavior (peaceful and
honest), correct living (not endangering or hurting any living being), correct thought (an active,
cautious mind) and correct concentration (in meditating the ultimate reality).
Indian sages, who were the first to preach Buddhism in Tibet, said that every life is precious,
that every man has, inside himself, all he needs to experience freedom and happiness and that
the universe is full of sensitive beings who travel powerless through numerous reincarnations
seeking happiness and freedom but find only suffering because they ignore the true nature of

reality and that suffering only increases their greed and the fear that there is no way out of the
vicious circle of birth and death. That teaching says salvation lies in the cultivation of reason, the
mind and soul since a controlled mind (capable of feeling compassion and friendship for every
living being) is a condition to achieve peace of the soul and peace in society. To achieve that
you have to reject the illusion which ego builds in an empty, soulless universe to create a feeling
of security which does not exist outside cosmic law. There is no God, only Karma exists, a
cosmic order under which good follows good, evil follows evil in this or the next lives.

Wars
After the first invasion of China, the Tibetans continued their conquests in all directions. In the
year 648, they entered northern India; in 670 they destroyed the Tu-yu-hun nation in the Koko
Nor region and a while later they captured the four main strongholds of Chinese Turkestan
cutting China off from the west and creating conditions to establish a Tibetan empire in central
Asia.
The Tibetans advanced to the west and occupied Hunzu and Swat (the one time states of
Hunzu and Swat were located in what is Pakistan today). They also came into contact with the
Arab conquerors of Transoxiana and there are documents about their military operations around
Farghana and Samarkand. Relations between the Tibetans and Arabs were mainly friendly but
the Khalif of Baghdad Haroun al-Rashid formed a temporary alliance with the Chinese against
the Tibetans who had become too powerful for his taste.
In the north and northeast, the Tibetans advanced in alliance with the Uygurs and Turkestans
(Tou-Kiue), frequently attacking the Chinese together. In the south, they dominated the kingdom
of Nepal and they conquered the mountain tribes on the Indian side of the Himalayas. They also
entered Upper Burma.
In the three centuries following king Song-tsen Gumpo's rule, Tibet was one of the most
powerful states of Asia. It was a constant source of trouble for China. King Trisong Detsen
brought the Tibetan empire reached to the height of its power. Its armies attacked China again
and penetrated further into the territory of the T'ang empire. Tibetan ministers and generals
ruled virtually the entire Kansu province and most of Szechuan and northern Yunnan.
Because they were under constant pressure and to gain time, the Chinese agreed to pay a
tribute of 50,000 bales of silk a year to Tibet in 763. Memory of this is inscribed on a stone
obelisk in Lhasa: "King Trisong Detsen, as a true hero and generous man, was successful in
whatever he did for the kingdom. He conquered and kept many Chinese fortresses and regions.
Chinese emperor Hehu Ki Wang and his ministers were terrified. They offered an annual tribute
of 50,000 bales of silk and China obliged itself to pay that tribute regularly."
But, a while later when the new Chinese emperor drew the wrath of the Tibetans by refusing to
pay the tribute, their army captured the Chinese capital of Chang'an and crowned (albeit for a
short time) the brother of the Chinese princess who was married to the king of Tibet.
The text of the 763 agreement is inscribed in a six meter tall stone obelisk which stood in front
of Potala, the Dalai Lama's palace in Lhasa, for centuries. The Chinese occupiers used the
pretext of building a road to move it far behind the palace and erect a high wall with a constantly
locked gate around it. Heinrich Harrer visited Tibet in 1982 and said the Chinese guards told

him the key to that gate "cannot be found". Old photographs of Lhasa show the obelisk and the
inscription has not been forgotten by Harrer and the other Europeans who lived there before
1950.
In any case, Tibet and China were too almost equal powers in that ancient time and they waged
war frequently. The Tibetans were almost always the aggressors and their attacks were almost
always successful. Even the most radical Chinese advocates of the theory that Tibet "was
always a part of China" admit this. In recent times, the Chinese communists rewrote history to
suit themselves and claimed that Tibet paid China tribute under the T'ang dynasty.
Besides the 763 agreement, annals dating back to the T'ang dynasty mention a friendship
agreement between Tibet and China concluded during the rule of king Ralpachen (815-838)
after the Tibetan army defeated the Chinese several times. That agreement says that "Tibetans
should be happy in Tibet, and Chinese in China" and adds that "Tibet and China will respect the
border which now exists between them. Everything east of that border is the territory of the
Great China and everything to the west the territory of the Great Tibet. Neither side will start a
war or conquer territory... this is known to the gods and to men and they are witness to this
agreement which can never be changed".
The 821 agreement was inscribed in three places: in front of the Chinese emperor's palace in
his capitol Chang'an, in front of the entrance to the Jokhang temple in Lhasa and on the
Tibetan-Chinese border on the Gugu Meru mountain.
Since great powers are not born overnight, it is clear that the powerful Tibetan empire had to be
the product of centuries of development and reinforcement. Tibetan and Chinese history
includes information which leads to the fairly reliable conclusion that Tibetan national history
begins some time around the fifth century B.C.
If archeological research is ever permitted perhaps evidence will be uncovered that the nation
was born earlier.
It is interesting that Tibet waged wars so successfully for such a long period. Perhaps the
population was much larger than it is today and certainly the Tibetans recruited troops from the
people they conquered. Regardless of that, the maintaining of such a vast empire which did not
have all the necessary internal links, is a very significant achievement.

Persecution of the Buddhists

The Tibetan empire weakened and finally broke up into a number of small principalities because
of arguments among the nobility whose unity once enabled the empire to reach its peak. There
was constant friction among the elders of noble families whose daughters married kings giving
the elders influence in court. Religion also played a part in deepening the rift by lending support
to some noble families.
The recently accepted Buddhism, which some kings supported fiercely and some persecuted as
did Lang Darma, brother and heir to king Ralpachen, met with fierce opposition from followers of
the ancient religion of Bon. That old religion had split into two sects: White and Black Bon.
Followers of White Bon had practically accepted Buddhism, they behaved as Buddhists but

called Buddha by different names. Followers of Black Bon stuck to their ancient animal sacrifice
rituals and magic.
King Ralpachen was a firm Buddhist who had given up military campaigns and gradually
replaced the nobles in his court with Buddhist monks. He persecuted Bon followers which
contributed to strengthening a mood of dissatisfaction among his people and resulted in the
assassination of the king by two noblemen. The conspirators brought Ralpachen's brother Lang
Darma to the throne and he closed or destroyed many Buddhist monasteries. The monks were
forced to flee or break their vows and Buddhism was virtually uprooted in the central parts of the
country. The king wanted to declare Bon the state religion but in 842 he was killed by a Buddhist
monk.
In all those centuries there was no central authority powerful enough to rally the nobility for long
unless the king led a long life and was of strong character (most Tibetan kings died young,
usually violently). It was also easy for the generals ruling armies in provinces thousands of
kilometers from the court to disobey the king.
Gradually, the rivalry among the powerful noble families and equally powerful religious sects
caused a rift in the royal family. After the death of Langa Darma, two of his children aspired to
the throne, each of them supported by a group of nobles. The Tibetan kingdom broke up into a
large number of principalities with almost no Buddhists in most of them. One branch of the royal
family moved west and created new, progressive states, others moved to eastern and central
Tibet. A powerful general ruled the border region with China and waged war against the
Chinese on his own.
The dark period of Tibetan history began and lasted to the mid-thirteenth century. The ancient
religion of Bon was restored and its preachers freely used Buddhist teachings, claiming they
were recently discovered teachings of ancient Bon masters. The most important differences
between the religions were removed and Bon practically lost its traits and was absorbed into
Buddhism. On the other hand, Buddhism borrowed many rituals the people were used to from
Bon because the new religion would not catch root easily without them.
The Chinese T'ang dynasty, which had grown strong alongside the Tibetan kingdom, started
growing weaker at almost the same time but outlived the Tibetan empire by a generation. Its
rulers managed to recapture almost all the territory the Tibetans had occupied. The T'ang
dynasty died out in 905 and China was left without a central authority strong enough to control
the border provinces. A large tract of no one's land was left between Tibet and China. The
Tibetans withdrew from their central Asian and southern Himalayan empire into their mountain
retreat bordered by the Karakorum, Kuen Lun and Himalayan mountain ranges and never left
those borders.

The Mongols and Manchus

At the start of the thirteenth century, when Genghis Khan spread his Mongol empire to Europe,
Tibet remained a country divided among many tribal and religious leaders. Fearing a Mongol
attack, the most prominent nobles and lamas sent a delegation to Khan offering political loyalty
and religious support and teachings in exchange for his protection. That formal recognition of
his power satisfied the Khan and there were no Mongol attacks on Tibet in his lifetime.

But, when the Tibetans stopped sending tribute after the death of Genghis Khan, his grandson
Godan, governor of the Kansu region, organized the first foreign invasion of Tibet in 1239. The
Mongols robbed and killed their way to Lhasa. However, they didn't want to impose an
administrative authority and in 1249 Godan proclaimed the most prominent Buddhist lama
Sakya Pandit (1182-1251), the abbot of the Sakya monastery, as the vice-regent of Tibet.
Sakya Pandit converted Godan to Buddhism.
Two years later both Godan and Sakya Pandit died and Tibet came under the influence of
Genghis' other grandson Kublai Khan (1216-1294) who was governor of the border region
between Tibet and China. In 1253, Sakya Pandit's cousin Phagpa Lodro Gyaltsen (1235-1280)
came to Kublai Khan's court.
Although he was just eighteen, the young man, who was deemed to be a genius, left such an
impression on the Khan that he was asked to convert him to Buddhism and was appointed the
Khan's spiritual teacher and vice-regent of Tibet with the title of Tisri. At that time Phagpa also
won a brilliant victory in a philosophical debate with Nestorian, Moslem and Taoist theoligians.
In 1260, the Kublai Khan united all the Mongol tribes and led them against China which he
finally conquered in 1279. He set up the Yuan dynasty and chose today's Beijing for his capital.
The Khan proclaimed Tibetan Buddhism as the state religion and appointed a Tibetan lama for
the imperial teacher. That lama had such influence on the Khan that he even managed to get
him to give up his unique practice of controlling population growth. Whenever he thought there
were too many of the Chinese he would order a number onto ships and later thrown into the
sea. He obeyed his spiritual teacher and stopped that practice.
When Phagpa died he was replaced by a lama from the same sect as Tisri - the Sakya.
Although the Kublai Khan recognized Tibet's sovereignty, the country was under Mongol
auspices but the religious aspects of the relationship were pronounced.
The influence of the Sakya sect lamas began to weaken after the death of the Kublai Khan in
1294 although his descendants from the Yuan dynasty continued their cordial relations with
Tibet through those lamas who held onto the title of Tisri and spent most of their time on the
Chinese imperial court.
The vice-regent of Tibet, despite Mongol support, were not accept as the undisputed rulers in
Tibet but Mongol power prevented rivalry among the Sakya sect on the one hand and the
nobility and other great monasteries on the other. In the mid-fourteenth century, the institution of
Tisri was extinguished and the nobility took power. At the same time, the Kargyupa sect grew
stronger and its lamas ruled the country from 1358 to 1444.
In China itself, the descendants of the Kublai Khan soon degenerated in the luxury of the court
they came to from their steppes. They were hated in China as foreign conquerors and
contributed to strengthening that feeling among the people by favoring the Buddhist priests,
including many Tibetans. In less than a century the inborn strength of the fearless warriors of
the steppes disappeared completely and the rulers were overthrown by the Chinese who
brought the Ming dynasty (1363-1644) to the throne. The new dynasty had sporadic, mainly
religious contacts with Tibet and no power over that country. There are no documents to show
any act by the Tibetan rulers of that period which could be construed as showing fealty to the
Chinese emperors. But the Tungus nomads who conquered China in the seventeenth century
and set up the Ch'ing dynasty accepted Tibetan Buddhism as the Mongols did before them and

they established close ties with the Tibetans. Those nomads were named Manchu by their
leader and the name Manchuria was derived from their name two centuries later.
The Dalai Lama's relationship with the Manchu emperors was based on the emperor's wish to
have the Tibetan leader as a spiritual leader of his empire and his church which the Dalai Lama
accepted in 1639. The Dalai Lama became the spiritual teacher of the Manchu emperors who
were part of the Dalai Lama's flock in turn, a follower and a protector. That relationship was the
basis of the relationship between Tibet and the Manchu dynasty for the next two and half
centuries.
The nature of that relationship is shown in examples dating from the 1720-1792 period when
Tibet was attacked by Mongol tribes and the Ghorkhas. Manchu emperors Kangchi, Yong Zen
and Chianlong sent their troops to Tibet to help the Dalai Lama and to secure their influence in
the country. After the Ghorkhas were defeated by the combined Chinese and Tibetan armies in
1792, the emperor issued an edict saying he would take over all of Tibet's future foreign affairs.
That was the culmination of Manchu influence in Tibet.
For several decades the Manchu representative in Lhasa had great influence on the Tibetan
government but the Manchu emperors did not try to annex Tibet to their empire. In the mid1800s, the dynasty's influence in Tibet weakened significantly and became only nominal. The
formal basis of that influence was always a relationship of Patron and Priest which the emperor
Kangchi described: "There was always a relationship of religious patronage between the
Manchu emperor and the Dalai Lama". Conneseurs of the Asian way of thinking know that
those formulations mean that the religious figure, in this case the Dalai Lama, is the spiritual
teacher and the Manchu emperor his worldly follower. In Asia that also means that the worldly
follower has a duty to help the monk in any way possible and the acceptance of that help does
not mean that the monk is subjugated to the follower.
Manchu emperors most frequently intervened in Tibet at the request of or with approval of the
Tibetan government to protect the Tibetans from outside enemies or to calm inner tension such
as the short civil war in 1728. Tibet was in a decline as a military power since the tenth century
and at the time of the Manchu empire it could be described as the empire's satellite although it
had all the attributes of a state which is confirmed in the Tibetan-Chinese agreement of 1794.
That document on friendly relations between Tibet and China was signed on behalf of the
Manchu dynasty of Ch'ing by their representative in Lhasa Ho Lin.

The Dalai Lama

The institution of Dalai Lama, as the supreme spiritual and later worldly authority in Tibet is the
most interesting characteristic of the organization of Tibetan society and a unique thing in the
history of the world. The establishment of the institution of God-King is the culmination of the
long process of adaptation by the Buddhist hierarchy and nobility. In the last three centuries the
Dalai Lamas have been religious rulers of the country and worldly rulers when they wanted to.
Power was not transferred from father to son. The carriers of power were found in a very
unusual way which will later be described by the current, 14th Dalai Lama. The nature of that
power is unprecedented in the world.
When it first appeared in Tibet in the seventh century, Buddhism was a foreign religion which
was accepted initially by just a few noble families including the royal family. The new religion

was ignored or resisted by followers of the ancient Bon religion. At first, Buddhism was
preached by priests from India and China and in the late eighth century when Samye, the first
Buddhist monastery, was built the first Tibetan priests and preachers were ordained.
Soon, dark times came for Buddhists and it lasted till the year 1042 when the religion got a
stimulance with the arrival of Indian missionary Pandit Atisha (982-1054). He arrived at the
invitation of the ruler of western Tibet, a descendant of ancient Tibetan kings. Persistent and
wise, Atisha soon expanded his activities in reviving Buddhism to central Tibet and won over the
ruling nobles in virtually the entire country. Some time before Atisha's arrival, the king of western
Tibet sent a group of young men to India to study Buddhism and clear up some doubts over the
teachings in some Tibetan schools of occultism. Those students later translated many Indian
Buddhist texts into the Tibetan.
Atisha also encouraged the translating of Buddhist books, something done up to then mainly by
members of the old Nyingmapa sect which recognized Padmasambhava as the greatest
teacher. Now, new sects appeared including the Karmapa and Kagyud whose members
claimed to be led by the wisdom of the sages Atisha, Tilopa, Naropa, Marpa and Milarepa. The
second half of the eleventh century saw the founding of the Sakya sect whose lamas gradually
won respect and influence. From 1254 to 1350 Tibet was ruled by twenty one of those lamas.
That period saw the blossoming of Tibetan Buddhism and a rise in the political influence of its
leaders. New, big monasteries were built supported by powerful noble and merchant families
and defended by their own armies who were usually under the command of a trusted member of
the family which founded the monastery. That was the least favorable development because it
caused fierce rivalry and battles between the monasteries in the Tibetan medieval ages. Despite
all that, literacy developed, many works of literature, devoted to religion, were written and
translated and there was a large number of learned and holy men whose fame became
legendary.
Mongol ruler Godan appointed Sakya Pandit as vice-regent of Tibet, the first Tibetan religious
leader to be ruler. Since there was nothing that resembled a united Tibetan church at the time,
Godan actually transferred power to a sect and many nobles and lamas from other sect became
envious of the Sakya.
That rule lasted for about a century. Power was then taken by a monk from the Kargyupa sect
who was also the governor of the Nedong province Chang-chub Gyaltsen, with the help of
Sakya sect opponents. Lamas from that sect ruled the country for the next eighty-six years.
There are no indications that that period was marked by rifts between the clergy and common
people but the glorifying of Tibetan kings who ruled from the sixth to the nineth century as
religious rulers, which Gyaltsen did, shows that his policy of stimulating nationalist spirit gave a
special place to the role of the church in supporting the ruler who would be its protector.
In the next few centuries there were more changes in the balance of forces and the Dalai Lama
appeared on the scene relatively late in the period - in the sixteenth century. In fact, the First
Dalai Lama was born in 1391 but he and his heir got the title posthumously because it was
bestowed on the third incarnation. Credit for that should go to the great religious teacher Tsong
Khapa (1357-1419), the founder of a new sect named Gelugpa (those who travel the road of
virtue). The sect was popularly called the Yellow Hats because Tsong Kapa ordered its
members to wear yellow hats to set them apart from other sects whose monks wore red hats.
Tsong Khapa was a monk with exceptional intellectual and missionary abilities and he was

completely devoted to the faith. He insisted on strict discipline in monasteries, strike observance
of celibacy, a very humble life for monks and the development of spiritual qualities. He probably
had a reconciliation between the many rival sects on his mind.
One of Tsong Khapa's most trusted followers was the monk Gedun Truppa whose knowledge
and wholehearted propagation of Tsong Khapa's teaching attracted many members of other
sects. No one knew in his lifetime, but Truppa was destined to posthumously become the First
Tibetan Dalai Lama. He was born in 1391 on the steppes of western Tibet, in an extremely cold
climate. Truppa was the third son of the Vajra family of cattle herders. The night that he was
born in a barn, the family home was attacked by bandits and his mother hid the baby in some
rocks before escaping with the others. She was very surprised to find her baby alive and well
the next morning and with a crow standing guard over him. That was seen as a reliable sign that
the boy would do great deeds. He was sent to a monastery where he excelled with his
intellectual abilities and attracted the attention of Tsong Khapa who took over his lessons.
Truppa founded two of the biggest monasteries for his sect - Tashilhunpo near Shigatse and
Drepung near Lhasa.
The Gelugpa were still a relatively new sect with a small number of members and Gedun
Truppa was not sure how best to keep his sect safe from the fierce opposition of the older sects
who didn't like the fact that his influence was spreading. Because they practices celibacy, the
Gelugpa could not introduce hereditary titles, as existed in the time of the Sakya sect kings and
lamas who were the only ones not to inherit titles on the basis of reincarnation but on the basis
of blood. The Gelugpa could preserve and gradually strengthen it position by adopting a system
of inheritance based on reincarnation which was not an unusual practice at the time. Just before
his death Gedun Truppa told his followers not to mourn the loss of his physical body because he
would return to earth soon in human form to continue what he had started. He died in 1474 and
his remains were buried in the Tashilhunpo monastery.
The seed of great change was introduced into Tibetan religion.
Up to that time, the people readily accepted the teaching that the life of the individual depends
on his good or bad deeds in this or previous lives. There were rare cases of holy men reaching
the level of Buddha and leaving the endless cycle of birth and death. Now a holy man appeared
who willingly accepted to return to earth to help other living beings. That logical conclusion could
not have been rejected.
Two years after Gedun Truppa died his consciousness was discovered in a child born in the
western province of Tsang. That child, Gedun Gyatso (1475-1542), became a learned lama who
traveled a lot preaching Tsong Khapa's teachings. Gyatso became a very respected missionary
and prominent theologian.
Gedun Gyatso's reincarnation was Sonam Gyatso (1543-1588) who became a brilliant
intellectual with a gift of winning over the faithful. He visited Mongolia in 1578 at the invitation of
prince Altan Khan who accepted Buddhism soon afterwards.
The death of Kublai Khan three centuries earlier ended the Patron-Priest relationship that
existed between the Mongol court and the Sakya sect. Altan Khan ruled Mongolia, northern
China and the Tibetan region of Koko-nor. He believed religion was needed to strengthen his
authority and establish control over all the Mongol tribes. Since the Mongol throne was won and
held only by force of arms, the Khan wanted to legalize his position in some way and the best

way was to invoke divine right. The ancient Mongol religion, similar to Bon in Tibet, did not offer
the ruler an organization that could help but Buddhism did. The Mongol ruler's need came at
about the same time when the Yellow Hats sect, whose influence had spread to western
Mongolia and north western China, was in danger of armed attack by the older sects and
needed protection.
That was the situation in June 1578 when Sonam Gyatso met the Altan Khan.
The Khan dressed in white to meet the Tibetan lama. The white clothing was a symbol of the
arrival of the light of Buddhism in Mongolia. Altan Khan proclaimed Buddhism as the state
religion and declared himself the incarnation of the Kublai Khan and his respected guest the
incarnation of the Kublai Khan's spiritual teacher - Tibetan lama Phagpa. Altan Khan wanted to
mark the restoration of the Patron-Priest relationship in an adequate way and he bestowed the
title of Dalai Lama on Sonam Gyatso. Dalai is the Mongol translation of the Tibetan word gyatso
which means ocean and is the mark of a lama whose wisdom is as deep as the ocean. Since he
was the third incarnation of Gedun Truppa and the third abbot of the Drepung monastery,
Sonam Gyatso became the Third Dalai Lama.
Altan Khan died in 1581 and Sonam Gyatso has passed away seven years later. The
relationship between the Gelugpa sect and the Khan's court became even more cordial when
the great-great-grandson of the late Mongol ruler was proclaimed the incarnation of the Third
Dalai Lama. Sonam Gyatso's prediction to the Mongols that he would return as one of them was
fulfilled.
Since he was born in Mongolia to Mongol parents, Yonten Gyatso (1589-1617) differed from the
previous three incarnations and the next ten because he was the only Dalai Lama who was not
a Tibetan. Although it is probable that political reasons played a part in his choice for Dalai
Lama, bear in mind that there is a Buddhist teaching that says that the Bodhisattva (*8) can
choose when and where he will be born again. The Third Dalai Lama's promise to the Mongols
follows that teaching.
The Fourth Dalai Lama was also the only one to be born in a rich and influential family, a fact
that only stresses the significance of the reincarnation system of inheritance. By making it
impossible to predict when and in which body the next Dalai Lama will appear, the high priests
of the Gelugpa sect made sure there would be no political abuse as is possible in a system of
inheritance based on blood relation. The weakness of this system is that there is a waiting
period of eighteen years between the death of one Dalai Lama and the time the next incarnation
comes of age. That practically left the country without a ruler or spiritual leader.
The Gelugpa sect soon expanded its political influence to almost all rival Mongol tribes. That
created the foundation for the future prestige of the Dalai Lama as the spiritual leader of all
Buddhists and at the same time it was the basis for the gradual uniting of all Mongol tribes
around the religion and the creation of a new Mongol empire.
In Sonam Gyatso's time, the Gelugpa did not have worldly rule of Tibet but the very humble life,
discipline and spiritual qualities of its lamas attracted an increasing number of followers
including powerful noblemen. The new sect gradually entered political life and quickly became
the main rival of the dominant Karmapas sect.

The Karmapas enjoyed the support of the Tsang dynasty kings but in 1642 Mongol prince
Gushri Khan got the support of the Gelugpa's Mongol followers, came into Tibet, defeated and
killed the king, took power away from the Karmapas and appointed the fifth Dalai Lama as ruler.
That Dalai Lama's name was Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (1616-1682). Gushri Khan's conquest
came at the right time for the Gelugpa which has lost its powerful protector with the death of
Altan Khan. On the other hand, the attacks against the sect had become increasingly fierce in
Tibet itself. King of Tsang organized attacks against the Sera and Drepung monasteries, killing
hundreds of monks. He captured other Gelugpa monasteries and gave them to his proteges the Karmapas monks. At the same time, followers of the ancient religion of Bon in the north east used the opportunity to try to eradicate the Buddhism.
The Dalai Lama was now in a unique position; his spiritual status was above everyone else's
and, thanks to Mongol force of arms, he was the worldly ruler and he used his power to crush
his opposition among other things. Austrian Jesuit Johan Grueber, the first European to reach
Lhasa, came to Tibet during the rule of Lobsang Gyatso. The Jesuit described him as a "devilish
God Father who kills the people who do not adore him". The Fifth Dalai Lama made himself an
absolute ruler who was monk, deity and king all in one with the undisputed right to reward or
punish his subjects in this and all future lives.
Besides the Mongols, the Dalai Lama relied mainly on his Gelugpa sect which had three
powerful monasteries around Lhasa - Drepung, Sera and Ganden - two spiritual academies and
the state prophet Nechung with a monastery of the same name. Together with the Dalai Lama
those were the Seven Glorious Symbols of Tibet.
The Dalai Lama's rule was first protected by Gushri Khan who gave himself the title of king of
Tibet. Their relationship was one of Patron and Priest. That is a flexible Asian idea which cannot
be interpreted to mean trading favors as in western politics. There was no precise definition of
hierarchy and supremacy. Gushri Khan had an attitude of friendship and respect towards the
Dalai Lama but he could still control his actions.
Gushri Khan died in 1655 and his heirs showed little interest in Tibet. They appointed regent to
protect their interests in Lhasa but the fifth Dalai Lama, who was very energetic and of firm
character, gradually took power into his own hands even before the death of the Khan, including
the right to appoint regents.
Gushri's heirs formally kept the title of Tibetan King up to 1717 but they were mainly
disinterested in Tibet and did not try to influence the Dalai Lama's rule.
The Fifth Dalai Lama paid a visit to China where the last of the Ming dynasty emperors received
him as an equal sovereign. The emperor considered the Dalai Lama deity on earth and he
ventured outside the city to welcome him, walking about a mile which is an honor no Chinese
emperor bestowed on anyone. He ordered a bridge built over the city walls so the Dalai Lama
could enter Beijing not walking through the gates.
In return, the Dalai Lama used his influence with the Mongols to stop them attacking China.
That established a relationship which seems strange to the European observer between
Mongolia, Tibet and China, based primarily on respect and spiritual influence and with no
subordinates and superiors. The rulers of those and other Buddhist countries had the same kind
of respect for the Dalai Lama that European kings had for the Pope.

When the Tungus tribes conquered China and founded the Manchu dynasty of Ch'ing (16441911), their leader asked the Dalai Lama to be his spiritual teacher. The Dalai Lama had similar
relationships with some Mongol princes and leaders of far away Tibetan clans.
His exceptional abilities as a diplomat and organizer along with the qualities of a born leader
earned him the title of Great Fifth which is still used in reference to him. He used a mix of
pressure and diplomacy to bring peace and unity to Tibet and, for the first time, he united
spiritual and worldly authority in one person. The Dalai Lama also had strict control over the
monasteries, insisting on discipline, and he found the time to work on literature and encourage
others to write. He was a passionate builder who started Potala, the beautiful palace of the Dalai
Lamas in Lhasa which is still one of the most impressive buildings in the world.
The Fifth Dalai Lama introduced the position of Panchen Lama into Tibetan Buddhist hierarchy.
The first Panchen Lama was the teacher of the Great Fifth who declared the Panchen Lama the
reincarnation of Buddha Amithaba and gave him the right to manage the rich and influential
monastery Tashilhunpo near the town of Shigatse in southern Tibet which was built by the First
Dalai Lama. The Panchen Lama had a similar but smaller entourage in his monastery than the
Dalai Lama did in Lhasa.

Potala
After the death of the Fifth Dalai Lama, Tibet went through a period of instability. The powerful
Prime Minister Desi Sangye Gyatso held his sovereign's death in secret for a full fifteen years,
enabled the completion of Potala and avoided an intervention by the Manchu who had become
increasingly powerful in China. Gyatso claimed that Dalai Lama had retreated to be alone,
which is not unusual in Tibetan Buddhism and the claim was not questioned.
Everything was organized as if the Dalai Lama was alive: trusted monks from the Namgyal
monastery took food to his chambers every day and sounded the gong and drum the Great Fifth
used in his daily religious rituals. When prominent visitors asked to be received by the Dalai
Lama, a monk who resembled him very much would appear in the formal clothing of the Great
Fifth in a semi-dark hall so that no one could notice the difference. Sangye Gyatso announced
the death of his sovereign once Potala was completed in 1695.
Potala, the Vatican of Buddhism, was built on the top of a hill less than a kilometer from Lhasa.
That hill, standing just over two hundred meters high, rises suddenly from the flatlands and has
been called Marpori (Red Hill) since ancient times. The Tibetans call it Tse Potala (Potala Peak)
or simply The Peak. Beside it stands another similar peak called Iron Hill where the Temple of
medicine was built. In the seventh century, Tibetan king Song-tsen Gumpo built a fortress with a
shrine and palace on those hills for his queens. Those buildings were destroyed later by the
Chinese.
Potala got its name from a sacred hill on the southernmost tip of India dedicated to the Buddha
Avalokiteshvara who the Tibetans call Chenrezi and whose chief incarnation on earth is the
Dalai Lama.
The palace is almost 450 meters long covering the entire hill and is built to look like a natural
extension of the hill, an extension that seems to have materialized under the influence of some
heavenly power. It is truly hard to say where the hill ends and the palace begins. That is

classical example of Tibetan architecture which fits in perfectly with the environment in a way
rarely found in other cultures. If the Tibetans had not banned westerners from Potala so
persistently, it would have been declared one of the wonders of the world long ago. American
author Michael Harris Goodman says the only picture in Frank Lloyd Wright's study of
architecture which is not something he constructed is a photograph of Potala.
The palace took over fourty years to complete because work was done in the most primitive
way; since there were no wheels in Tibet, huge rocks were pulled up on ropes of yak hair and
placed together with no material to bind them, no metal nails or mortar and the massive building
is actually made of blocks piled one on top of the other somewhat like the pyramids in Egypt.
The huge and difficult job was done by the faithful for free because there is nothing they would
not do for their God. The regent had that reason in mind among others when he decided to keep
the Dalai Lama's death a secret.
The palace walls are gently inclined to the inside according to ancient Tibetan custom and its
front is decorated with countless rows of windows, with the lower parts slightly wider then upper,
to accent the unique symmetry of the building. Potala has three parts; the central one has
thirteen floors and is colored dark red as a sign of its holiness since the tombs of all the Dalai
Lamas since the Great Fifth are there, with the exception of the Sixth whose death was as
unusual as his life. Built as stupas, the tombs pass through the roof and their gold-plated
cupolas shine in the sun for many miles around.
The richest decorations are on the tombs of the Fifth and Thirteenth Dalai Lamas. Their walls
are embedded with numerous precious stones while their interiors are decorated with the
golden statues of deities and expensive pieces of Chinese porcelain.
There are two nine floor high wings on both sides of the central part and both are colored white.
The west wing houses Namgyal, the personal monastery of the Dalai Lama whose 175 hand
picked monks, mainly from prominent families, help the ruler with his religious duties. There are
also libraries containing all works of Tibetan culture and religion: 7,000 massive volumes each
of which weights some fourty kilograms. Some of those books are written on parchment, others
on palm leaves brought from India over thousand years ago. Two thousand of those volumes
are written in ink made with gold, silver, iron, copper, turquoise, coral and shell dust so that
every line of every letter is a different color.
The government offices, a school for monk clerks and the national assembly hall are in the east
wing. The upper floors house numerous chapels, audience and meeting chambers, the Dalai
Lama's apartments and those of his closes advisors and aides. It was there that five year old
Lhamo Dhondup was brought in 1940 to be renamed Tenzin Gyatso and become the
Fourteenth Dalai Lama. Besides the old monks, the boy had the company of his six year old
brother Lobsang Samten the first year in the huge palace.
The palace also housed food reserves for time of war or natural disaster and the expansive gifts
the emperors of Mongolia and China sent over the centuries, as well as the ancient jewelry and
weapons of the Tibetan kings since the time of Son-tsen Gampo. The inside of Potala is dirty
from the countless feet that have brought dust in from the city for centuries, from drops of
melted butter which has dripped from the lamps on countless altars for centuries. The dirt and
unpleasant smell of acrid butter are the reasons why the Thirteenth Dalai Lama did not like
living in Potala.

The Strange Dalai Lama

When Tsangyang Gyatso became the Sixth Dalai Lama in 1679 his enthronement proved to be
a great embarrassment for the prime minister and the Dalai Lama's teachers. The young Dalai
Lama was not in the least interested in state affairs. That was not strange because the years of
secrecy over the death of the Great Fifth led to his heir being declared the incarnation when he
was a young man. He lived with his parents up to that moment and knew all the worldly
pleasures, some even in excess. He was narcisoid, wrote poetry and liked wine and women.
At the time Prime Minister Sangye Gyatso came into conflict with the Lhabzang Khan, Gushri's
grandson and head of the Qoosot Mongol tribe in central Tibet, who had suddenly remembered
his inherited kingdom. Accordingly the regent resigned. Lhabzang Khan took power and later
allied with the Manchus and tried to send the young Dalai Lama into exile to China with the
explanation that he was not the true incarnation of the god Chenrezi.
The Mongol chieftain believed that he could oust the poet and womanizer Dalai Lama easily but
he obviously did not understand the connection between the Dalai Lama and the Tibetans
whose loyalty to their ruler was never affected by the seemingly strange behavior of their leader.
The attitude towards the Dalai Lama is best illustrated by a Tibetan proverb: If he tells you to hit
your head against a rock - hit it! If he tells you to go to hell - go!
They were especially fond of the Sixth Dalai Lama because they believed he was behaving as
he was only to test their faith. And he truly did test their faith.
The arrest of the Dalai Lama almost caused a rebellion which the Dalai Lama himself stopped
when he demanded that the Tibetans remain peaceful. They obeyed and said good-bye to him
forever because the Dalai Lama never reached China. He is believed to have been killed on the
way.

The Regent's Rule

Lhabzang Khan died in a clash with Dzungar Mongols soon after he took over his forgotten
kingdom. The Dzungars came to Lhasa at the call of lamas in the three big Gelugpa sect
monasteries. The Dzungar Mogols were very devoted to the sect and to prove their loyalty they
began fiercely persecuting followers of the rival sect Nyingmapa and followers of the ancient
religion of Bon. They also robbed shrines.
The Dalai Lamas between the Fifth and the Thirteenth left almost no trace in Tibetan history.
They mostly died young or had no affinity for state affairs so that the country was ruled by
regents. Just one of them, the Sixth, was remembered as a great poet who put his lyrical poetry
and the company of women over his religious duties and duties as a ruler, something the good
natured Tibetans did not hold against him. He was the only lyrical poet to come out of Tibet.
When the reincarnation of the Sixth Dalai Lama, Kalsang Gyatso, was discovered in eastern
Tibet several years later, the Mongols and Manchus clashed over him knowing that control over
the Dalai Lama brings vast influence in all Tibet. The Manchu emperor Kang Hsi even tried to
make his own candidate the Dalai Lama but the Tibetans refused to accept him. They got the
support of almost all the Mongol tribes and Kang Hsi, fearing a Tibetan-Mongol alliance, sent his
army to force the Tibetans to accept his man. That army was defeated by combined Tibetan and

Mongol forces and the Manchu emperor sent in more troops to accompany the child Dalai Lama
the Tibetans found to Lhasa. Those troops reached Lhasa in 1720 with the intention of avenging
their ally Lhabzang Khan but the Tibetans had exiled all the Dzungar by then.
The Manchu emperor had other plans and when his troops left the Tibetan capital three years
later they left Amban, the Manchu representative, there to serve the Dalai Lama but in fact to
control him and safeguard the emperor's interests. Next, the Manchus imposed their candidate
for Tibetan regent while the Dalai Lama was still under age regardless of what the Tibetans
wanted.
Several years later, the regent was killed and the Manchu emperor of China at the time Yung
Cheng sent troops to invade Tibet in 1727. He also tried to win over the Tibetan nobles and
lamas by giving them titles and "state seals" which they took as a sign of respect but not as an
obligation to become Chinese vassals. Amban used every opportunity to meddle in Tibetan
affairs and the Tibetans finaly grew tired of him when one of the Amban killed the Tibetan
regent. Their revenge was terrible - the Tibetans massacred the Manchus in Lhasa. The
Manchu army repeated its invasion of Tibet in 1749 but efforts to restore the power and
influence of the Amban failed.
After that Tibet was attacked by the Ghurka's in revenge for an agreement on Tibetan aid to the
Sikim who were considered to be under Ghurka influence. The excuse for the attack was an
argument between two of the late Panchen Lama's brothers over his inheritance. One of them
called the Ghurkas in to help him.
The Eighth Dalai Lama, who was twenty-six at the time, asked the Manchu emperor Ch'ien
Lung for help but the army he sent to Tibet in 1792 did more damage than good when it tried to
use the opportunity to increase the Amban's power and influence.
Besides all that, the emperor sent a golden urn from Beijing with a message saying that the
future incarnations of the Dalai Lama and other prominent lamas should be decided by placing
their names in the urn and drawing the "winners". That was supposed to be done in the
presence of Manchu envoys. That imperial order was not to the liking of the Tibetans and they
did not obey it. It was formally abolished by the Thirteenth Dalai Lama of whose election the
Manchu emperor was not even informed.
Despite the Manchu invasions and plotting by their envoys, Tibet never lost its sovereignty and
the Tibetan people only recognized the government headed by the Dalai Lama. The Chinese
always treated the Tibetans as members of an inferior race which could not have woken any
sympathy for them with those proud and brave people. On the other hand, usually reliable
Chinese historians mainly avoided the truth when writing about Tibet. They especially failed to
recognize that Tibet had been an independent country for centuries and described the Tibetans
as savages although the Europeans who had the opportunity of getting to know both people well
felt that educated Tibetans were much more civilized than educated Chinese.
The institution of regent which the Mongol king introduced was formally abolished in 1720 but it
was clear that someone had to rule the country from the time the Dalai Lama died and his
incarnation came of age. When the Seventh Dalai Lama died, the Tibetans introduced the
custom of making a prominent lama the young Dalai Lama's guardian and practically ruler of the
country. The wish for power influenced the regents so much that Tibet was ruled by regent

lamas over the next 120 years, except for a period of seven years, up to the enthronement of
the Thirteenth Dalai Lama.
In that period, the Eighth Dalai Lama was the only one to live to come of age. He was a mild
mannered man with a tendency for contemplation and with no interest in worldly affairs who left
the ruling of the country to the regent although he lived to the age of 45. The Ninth and Tenth
Dalai Lamas died before they came of age and there are indications that both were killed. The
Eleventh and Twelfth Dalai Lamas lived to take their place as god-kings but both died soon
afterwards.
The Thirteenth Dalai Lama was the one who had a vital influence on the history of Tibet just like
his heir the Fourteenth Dalai Lama whose fate was probably the harshest in Tibetan history and
who says he is "the saddest Dalai Lama who ever lived". That is understandable because it is
during his rule that Tibet ceased to exist as a state after two millennia of independence.
Thubten Gyatso, the Thirteenth Dalai Lama, was enthroned in 1876 when he was nineteen. He
was an extraordinary person, similar in character and energy to the Great Fifth. During his rule,
Tibet confirmed its sovereignty in international relations. When he took over the country, the
young Dalai Lama began energetically insisting on the education of monks and lamas and
dismissed even the abbots of big monasteries if they were uneducated and lazy or if they
reached their positions through bribery. The Dalai Lama introduced examinations for all of them
and dismissed anyone who did not pass them.

British Intervention
At that time the British, as colonial rulers of India on the borders of Tibet, had close and
profitable relations with China which they ruthlessly exploited through concessions and imposed
agreements. The Chinese asked them to at least recognize their suzerainty (*9) over Tibet.
On September 13, 1876 the British and Chinese signed a convention which gave Great Britain
the right to send an exploratory mission to Tibet. The Tibetans refused to allow the British into
their country saying they do not recognize China's right to sign any agreement on their behalf.
Two other similar Sino-British agreements (the Beijing convention of 1886 and Calcutta
convention of 1890) were rejected by the Tibetans in the same way.
The Tibetan government actually refused to have any relations with the British through the
Chinese. At the same time, the Thirteenth Dalai Lama established relations with Russia, fanning
British fears of strong Russian influence in Tibet. The power of Russia was growing in Asia at
the time and the British feared that their vast interests on the continent could be in danger.
The Manchu rulers of China claimed they were the rulers of Tibet in negotiations with the British
and the British accepted that to preserve their profitable business with the Chinese empire.
Also, the British government wanted to prevent Russian influence in Tibet and was prepared to
accept any Chinese demand in regard to Tibet. That British policy has not changed in more
recent times proving once again that relations between states are governed exclusively by
interests and that those interests will be defended regardless of historic or other facts.
The British government was very concerned when the Thirteenth Dalai Lama began exchanging
letters and gifts with the Russian emperor in about 1900. It tried to establish direct contacts with

the government in Lhasa but its letters were returned unopened with the explanation that the
Tibetans want nothing to do with foreigners. The Thirteenth Dalai Lama was twenty-six at the
time and had been in power for seven years but he did not realize the necessity of links with
other countries or that his acts could offend.
The British Vice-Roy of India was Lord Curson at the time and he was a man who would never
accept that manner of rejection. Since the establishing of normal communications with Lhasa
failed and to prevent a possible strengthening of Russian influence, Britain sent an Indian Army
expeditionary corps to Tibet in 1904. The corps of several thousand soldiers was commanded
by Colonel Francis Younghusband. The corps had occasional clashes with untrained and ill
equipped Tibetans and, according to official British records, killed several hundred of them. It
reached Lhasa in August and that same year a document known as the Lhasa convention was
signed under pressure. Younghusband was the first European to reach Lhasa after over half a
century.
Other sources and records and the Tibetans themselves say that expedition was much bloodier
than the British officialy cared to admit. Sir Charles Bell says the Tibetans amazed the British
with their courage but stood no chance in their fight against the well armed British and Indian
troops. Bell says 202 of Younghusband's men were killed in that expedition and eight to ten
times than many Tibetans.
The British-Tibetan convention defined that border between Tibet and the Sikim which was
under Tibetan rule but had recently become a British protectorate which the Tibetan government
agreed to unwillingly. The convention also provided for the opening of British trade offices in
Gyantse, Gartok and Yatung. The convention included provisos for new trade negotiations but
its most important goal was to prevent any other foreign influence in Tibet. The convention
included an article saying that the Tibetan government would not allow any other foreign power
to occupy its territory, interfere in internal affairs, or even allow foreign representatives to cross
its borders without consulting the British government first. That completely prevented Russian
influence in Tibet and the document even treats China as a foreign power.
Colonel Younghusband also got compensation for the expenses of his expedition of 7,5 million
Indian rupees (562,500 British pounds) which was to be paid in annual installments of 100,000
rupees. The British took the right to keep the Chumbi valley under occupation until the debt was
paid or until trade routes were opened.
Although it claimed the right to Tibet, the Beijing government did not protest the British
expedition.
The Dalai Lama's hope of Russian help was finally lost when the Russian and British signed a
1907 convention on their interests in Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet. Russia gave up any
influence on Tibet and recognized Britain's special interest in preserving the status quo in
Tibet's foreign policy. That document was the first to use the word suzerainty to describe
relations between Tibet and China.
The British government did not inform the Tibetans about the agreement just as it did not inform
them a year earlier when it signed an agreement with China recognizing China's sovereignty
over Tibet.

The Dalai Lama in Exile

When the British entered Tibet the Thirteenth Dalai Lama went to Mongolia. In the meantime,
the Manchu emperor of China tried to restore his influence over Tibet and sent General Chao
Erh-feng, a man known well for his cruelty, to invade Tibet.
While the Dalai Lama was in Kumbun monastery in the eastern province of Amdo he got two
messages; one was from Lhasa with a request for him to return as soon as possible because
the Tibetan army could not stand up to Erh-feng and the other from Beijing inviting him to the
Chinese capital. The Tibetan army did not really deserve that name because it had some 6,000
badly armed and trained men who were burdened by the knowledge that what they were doing
was not in line with the Buddhist principle of absolute respect for human life. The Dalai Lama
decided to go to Beijing hoping that the emperor could be induced to stop the invasion and
withdraw his troops.
The Dalai Lama was given promises in that regard but when he returned to Lhasa in 1909 he
saw that, despite promises by the Chinese emperor, Chao Erh-feng's troops were close behind
him. During the new year's festival of Monlam in 1910, some 2,000 Manchu and Chinese troops
under General Chung Ying entered Lhasa, killing, robbing and raping everything they saw. The
Dalai Lama had to leave Lhasa once again.
He appointed a regent to rule the country on his behalf and went to the southern town of Dromo
and then on to British India. There he was greeted by Charles Bell, a young official in the
colonial administration who took good care of him throughout his exile. Their friendship lasted
until the Dalai Lama's death in 1933.
The Chinese occupation troops tried to divide Tibet in the meantime among China's border
provinces; exactly what the Chinese communists did less than half a century later.
But, in 1911, revolution came to China and the Chinese troops in Tibet rebelled against their
Manchu officers and killed most of them and then began robbing the Tibetans. Fighting broke
out between troops loyal to Chinese and Manchu generals and the Tibetans rebelled against
them because the Dalai Lama said they should be expelled from the country. Some of the
Panchen Lama's men sided with the Manchus as did monks in the big monastery of Drepung
and some others. The Tibetans overcame the Chinese troops and finally expelled them in 1912.
Tibetan ministers often said that the reason why the Chinese, and before them the British in
1904, got to Lhasa so easily was an order from the Thirteenth Dalai Lama to his troops not to
fight because killing is against Buddhist principles. Now, there were changes because the
Chinese had not only invaded but were endangering the Tibetan religion as well. The Dalai
Lama ordered his ministers to raise the entire country against the Chinese and because of that
order came under the criticism of orthodox Buddhists.
During that fighting, Chinese President Yuan Shih-kai tried to send reinforcements to his
beleaguered troops along with promises to calm the Tibetans. He apologized for "incidents" and
added that he recognized the Dalai Lama's rank. The Tibetan ruler answered that he never
asked the Chinese government for any rank, that he is determined to run the country's worldly
and spiritual affairs and that Tibet is a sovereign and independent country.

President Shih-kai made groundless claims at the start of the twentieth century that Tibet was a
Chinese province but later in the 1930s Wang Chingwei, head of the executive authorities under
Chiang Kai-shek, categorically claimed that Tibet is made up of several Chinese provinces.
Other Chinese officials made similar claims and the Chinese government which had relations
with Europeans for a long time and knew their customs, wrote into its official and semi-official
documents that Tibet is a part of China. The Chinese also changed their maps to show that
Tibet is inside China's borders.
On the other hand, the Tibetan government had almost no links with Europe, none of the
Tibetans knew any European language at the time and Tibetan documents from that period did
not include maps, which the Tibetans were not capable of making anyway, to refute Chinese
claims. The world found out about Tibet only from Chinese sources and since there were no
denials those claims were taken as more or less true.

Declaration of Independence
Between 1911 and 1950, the Tibetan government functioned as the government of a sovereign
country and had diplomatic relations with Nepal, Bhutan, Britain and India once that country
became independent in 1947. In January 1913, Tibet signed an agreement with Mongolia in
which both countries stressed their independence and stated that they have nothing in common
with China. The Dalai Lama returned from India that month and, a little later, he issued a
declaration formally proclaiming Tibet's independence. The declaration says that "the intention
of China to colonize Tibet has disappeared as a rainbow in the sky".
The Thirteenth Dalai Lama then explained that the break in relations with China happened
because of the toppling of the Manchu dynasty. "The Dalai Lama had relations with the Manchu
emperor who was a Buddhist. The Chinese are not Buddhists. When the Chinese revolution
broke out in 1911, the Chinese overthrew the Manchu emperor. That broke the ties between the
Dalai Lama and China. Since the link was broken, Tibet is now completely separated from
China," the Dalai Lama said. Mongol leaders voiced similar reasons in regard to relations
between their country and China.
A representative of the Tibetan government was an equal participant in the tripartite conference
of India, China and Tibet in Shimla in 1913. Tibet and China failed to agree on the status of their
mutual relations because the Chinese wanted Tibet to be treated as "an integral part of China",
something they demanded openly for the first time.
Tibet and British India signed a bilateral agreement on trade and borders. Their representatives
said they would not recognize any special rights over Tibet for China or any trade preferences
unless Beijing accepts the draft declaration which also proclaimed that the McMahon line is the
border between India and China. The declaration also envisaged the possibility of Tibet giving
up part of its sovereignty in return for Chinese guarantees of autonomy and security of the
Tibetan borders.
Sir Henry McMahon was the British envoy in that part of Asia at the time and his name was
given to the border line between India and China which the Chinese have both accepted and
disputed to this very day. McMahon was the main mediator in the difficult six month negotiations
but failed to convince the Chinese to accept the declaration.

The Chinese invasion of 1910 marked a turning point in Sino-Tibetan relations and a complete
change of Chinese policies. That was not the first time in history that the Chinese army got to
Lhasa and there were changes in the two countries' relations after every one of those
interventions, but, except for a short time in 1720, the Chinese never showed any wish to take
control of Tibet.
The Tibetans always avoided formally recognizing their dependence on the Chinese emperor
but they never openly questioned the emperor's right to keep an envoy in Lhasa or to send
troops to Tibet occasionally. However, for two centuries the Chinese emperors were making
sure they did not upset the more or less friendly relations with Tibet.
The Thirteenth Dalai Lama established relations with the world through the diplomatic missions
of Britain, Bhutan, Nepal and China in Lhasa but Tibet did not have its representatives
anywhere in the world. The Dalai Lama also introduced postal and telegraph services in Tibet.
Those were the first indications in many centuries of Tibet joining the rest of the world but those
steps came too late and their range was limited.
For centuries, the very influential Tibetan clergy held a deep mistrust of every foreigner in the
belief that the non-believers, especially westerners, will endanger the Tibetan religion. That
belief carried down to the people and those brave, simple and intelligent people feared
foreigners like nothing else. The country of snow stayed isolated, inaccessible and unknown to
the rest of the world. That enclosure into its own thousand year peace would take a terrible toll
on Tibet a few years later.

The Dalai Lama's Prediction

The Thirteenth Dalai Lama did not want Tibet to join the League of Nations and he told Bell:
"The League does a lot to promote material well being but Tibet's main goal is to preserve the
country's religion and independence. We should let the League know that we are an
independent country, that China claims suzerainty over Tibet but that we never accepted that;
that in 1912 we fought against the Chinese and expelled them from our country and that we
have been running most of the country since then. If Tibet were to join the League it would have
to maintain friendly relations with other members. Some of them could want to send
representatives to Tibet; travelers from other countries could come to our country. Those
representatives and travelers could ask unpleasant questions about myself and the Tibetan
government. Our customs differ from customs in Europe and America and we do not want to
change them. Perhaps even Christian missionaries would come to Tibet and try to spread
Christianity and speak against our religion. We could not tolerate that. On the other hand, if the
Chinese threatened to invade Tibet, would the League of Nations help us? Or would it perhaps
say that this is an internal problem for China and Tibet which it won't interfere in... In any case,
Tibet's distance and the problems of sending troops to our country could cause the League to
refuse to send any kind of military assistance. And it is not very probable that the League would
exert any pressure on China in case of an invasion."
The Thirteenth Dalai Lama died on December 17, 1933. Just before his death he predicted what
his country would go through. He recalled that the Chinese had recently killed the highestranking reincarnated lama in Mongolia, that they had destroyed Buddhist monasteries there and
recruited monks into their army, forcing them to break their vows. The Dalai Lama predicted that
something similar would happen to Tibet and that the Dalai Lama and other incarnations would

disappear from the country. He told his people to prepare for days of cruelty and horror, to
strengthen the army and spiritual powers.
After the Dalai Lama's death, a Chinese delegation came to Lhasa to express condolences and
negotiate the Sino-Tibetan border. When the delegation left, one of its members stayed behind
to continue the negotiations. He was allowed to stay under the same conditions as the
representatives of India and Nepal until he was expelled in 1949.
In the meantime, Tibet confirmed its sovereignty and stayed neutral during World War II despite
pressure from Britain, the US and China who wanted free passage over Tibetan territory. That
decision was taken by the regent because the Fourteenth Dalai Lama was still a child. Neither
the regent nor any member of the government thought to join the United Nations after the war
nor did they think to establish diplomatic relations with any country other than their immediate
neighbors.

**************************************
*1) Heinrich Harrer, Austrian mountaineer and explorer, lived in Tibet for seven years before the
Chinese occupation. He wrote the book Seven Years In Tibet which has been translated into a
number of languages.
*2) That is how the legend was told by Serbian writer Stevan Pesic (1939-1994), the humblest
and most spiritual of the few Yugoslav pilgrims who devoted their lives to the search for that
treasure. Pesic used to have those dreams, which meant the only future of the human race to
him, for years in southern Asia where he met Tibetans and believed firmly that they hold the
keys to the ultimate knowledge. His rare and noble talent allowed this writer to describe the
timeless Tibetan philosophy in magical books which seem to be fantasy because they are about
the most fantastic form of fantasy - the Tibetan truth of existance, purpose and the future.
*3) The chorten or pagoda was created by early Buddhists as a version of tomb and became the
place to perform religious rites. In time it became customary to build a chorten of stone or brick
as a big semi-circular tomb on a square foundation with a religious artefact or the ashes of a
famous religious teacher or saint inside it.
*4) After three decades of Chinese occupation and the arrival of over 100,000 Chinese who
settled in the town, Lhasa did not resemble itself any longer. Harrer visited Tibet in 1982 and in
his book Return to Tibet he described the changes: "After the Chinese invasion everything
changed except for the small old nucleus of the city. Everything around, as far as the eye can
see, was covered by a sea of horrible, tin roofs. Had I not seen magnificent Potala in the
distance I would never have recognized the city. In front of me was a huge gray industrial zone
with ugly buildings, a dusty cement factory, dirty warehouses and concrete roads. That was the
reality in 1982. I saw a dark image of the country that was once characterized by religion, where
there were monasteries at every step and where the images of gods were carved into rock and
painted in natural colors. When I climbed onto the roof of Potala I was so blinded by the shiny
tin that I had to close my eyes. The whole atmosphere of the city had disappeared..."
"The spacious Shugtri-Lingka park was also irretrievably lost. The park started at the village of
Sho beneath Potala where the Dalai Lama's stables, printing press and jail were located. In the

center of the park was a throne, Shugtri, which the Dalai Lama used in rare ceremonies. Now
there is a sea of shacks and tin covered houses in that space."
*5) Harer says that in the seven years he spent in Tibet he heard of whipping as punishment
being executed only twice. He says that on those occasions the people gathered there begged
the whip handlers not to hit so hard and to decrease the number of blows. People also gathered
donations for the prisoners and many of them cried.
*6) Dharma is the Buddhist road to release from the cycle of birth and death. The term is taken
from the Sanskrit word dhri which means support in the sense of support to the universe and the
individual. Dharma is Buddhist teaching, correct behavior, the result of true knowledge. The
term can be used a synonym for Buddhist's way of life.
*7) In his book on his visit to Tibet in 1982, Harrer wrote of the Samye monastery: "What I saw
from the plane caused a shock although I had heard about it from earlier reports. There were
only ruins left of the Samye monastery, the entire monastery had been leveled. And while I took
photographs I recalled the many photographs of the religious center I had taken almost 40 years
ago and which could now have only a documentary value unfortunately."
*8) Bodhisattva is a being which is on the way to becoming a Buddha which has completely
released itself from its ego and is capable of helping all living beings release themselves from
the bonds that tie them to this world and its illusions. The term Buddha is used as the name of
Prince Gautama and means the awoken, the one who won the battle with ignorance and
achieved enlightenment.
*9) Suzerainty is an institution of feudal law which regulated the relationship between the master
and his vassals. In feudal systems that concept also included the feudal lord's, the suzerain's,
right to allow autonomy to a vassal government. In the nineteenth century the term was used to
describe the states that were created after the breakup of empires as was the case with the
Ottoman empire. Prominent international lawyers say the use of the concept of suzerainty to
describe relations between states was always the cause of great confusion. In modern times,
suzerainty does not mean the existance or the negation of the existance of international identity
for a state entity but its status depends primarily on its formal and factual relations with the
suzerain.

The Chinese Attack

In September 1949, after the Communist revolution ended in victory, Chinese troops entered
Tibet without cause or provocation and after a slow but almost unobstructed advance captured
the town of Chamdo, the seat of the governor of eastern Tibet, on October 19, 1950. A month
earlier that attack was indicated in a statement by the vice-president of the newly formed
Peoples' Republic of China and commander of its armed forces General Chu The who said that
Tibet is part of China and that "the National Liberation Army of China will liberate the roof of the
world of the British and American imperialists". At the time there were exactly five "imperialists"
in Tibet: two Austrians and one Englishman (all three in the service of the Tibetan government),
the British envoy in Lhasa and his radio operator. There was not a single American in Tibet.
Despite the clear indications of what was being prepared, the Tibetan government was
paralyzed and failed to do anything except organize mass processions and endless prayer to

guardian deities to spare Tibet of the terrible fate. The government, in fact, did not have much
choice because there was almost no Tibetan army for three centuries. The few thousand
soldiers Tibet had were untrained and ill equipped and that did not change when men were
recruited to hastily form a few new regiments. The complete lack of any statement by the
government after the indications from China which might have drawn some reaction from the
world was the consequence of a thousand years of being closed up and not caring for the
outside world which was now the only one which could help.
It is interesting to note the testimony of Briton Robert Ford about those Chinese hints. Ford was
a radio operator for the Tibetan government in Chamdo. In his book Captured in Tibet,
published after he was released from four years in a Chinese prison, Ford wrote that one of his
daily jobs was to monitor radio Beijing. He monitored and registered customary messages from
the Chinese Communist party Central committe for the New Year and May 1.
"The May 1 message on radio Beijing was somewhat shorter than the one I heard just before
the New Year but the essence was the same: the goal of the National Liberation Amry in 1950
was to liberate Formosa and Tibet," Ford wrote.
"Thre weeks later, radio Beijing said China was offering Tibet regional autonomy and freedom of
religion if it agress to peaceful liberation. Tibet was also warned that it would be liberated in any
case and that it should not count on geographic obstacles or American and British help."
Ford was surprised that the Lhasa government did not react or prepare to counter the agression
and attack. Radio Lhasa reported nothing and the government did not say a thing not even that
it opposed China's aggression or that the Tibetans would defend themselves.
The Tibetan government did not react even to Chu Teh's statement or later to Mao Tse Tung's
call to the Tibetans to overthrow the Dalai Lama's government. No one said Tibet did not want
to be liberated or denied the presence of American and British imperialists which Chinese
propaganda kept repeating.
That paralysis could be explained with the centuries of struggle for power among the nobility
and clergy with the monks being in charge from the time of the Fifth Dalai Lama. Now the
nobles wanted to fight the Chinese and the monks wanted a conciliatory policy and agreements.
Ford advised his Tibetan friends, including the governor of the eastern province Lhalu Shappe
to either proclaim their independence and determination to remain independent or to send a
delegation to Beijing and try to reach as favorable an agreement as possible. All that is better
than waiting to be swallowed, Ford told them but the Tibetans waited and hoped in vain that
some other country would do something to save them.
Because of the critical situation, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso took over worldly
and spiritual duties before he came of age on November 17, 1950 when he was not yet sixteen.
"I was far from completing my religious education," the Dalai Lama says remembering those
days. "I did not know anything about the world nor did I have any political experience but I was
mature enough to be aware of the extent of my ignorance and how much I still had to learn". But
he was not too young or so ignorant as not to understand that his people were turning to him.
"During my childhooh there were disagreements between various factions in the government
and the running of the country had detriorated. We were in a situation where most people were
trying to avoid responsibility than to accept it. We needed unity more than ever before and I, as

the Dalai Lama, was the only figure who would be followed by everyone in the country without
fail."
Because of the situation, his education was cut short but his exceptional abilities enabled him to
miss nothing of the centuries old education program for the Dalai Lamas and before he was 16
he had his final exam and was brilliant in a debate with many lamas and monks, his older and
wiser teachers.
The Dalai Lama continued his studies even during the Chinese occupation and just before he
fled Tibet, in the early spring of 1959, he defended his doctor's thesis on Buddhist philosophy in
front of 20,000 elder lamas and monks.
The education of a future Dalai Lama begins at an early age with lessons to develop his spirit to
the highest possible level. He is first taught to read and write which is not as simple as it sounds
because written Tibetan is quite different to spoken Tibetan and the student has to learn four
different forms of Tibetan script. Several wise lamas spend every day, morning to evening, with
the young student whose time is planned to the last minute. He is always surrounded by monks
and the only female who can approach him is his mother. Besides religion as the most important
subject, he is taught arithmetic, the history of the Tibetan kings, debating skills and
administrative management. The young Dalai Lama is also taught meditation from a very early
age.
The Buddha's Sutras, texts on the Buddha's teachings written after his death by his followers,
are part of his obligatory literature along with five volumes of The Great Center on the
metaphysics of Tibetan Buddhism and the 108 volumes of the Buddhist bible - Kangyur, and
finally 225 volumes of comments on the Kangyur known as the Tangyur.
To make it easier to get through all that, the Kangyur and Tangyur were divided into five parts
Prajnaparamita - (perfection of wisdom); Madhyamika (the middle way) - teaching on avoiding
extremes; Vinaya (the code of monastery discipline); Abhidharma (Metaphysics; and Pramana
(Logic and Dialectics). Strictly speaking the Pramana is not part of the Kangyur but was
included in the program to stress the importance of logic in the development of mental strength.
Tantric texts on secret doctrines were studied separately only after the student went through the
five basic fields.
Several months after Chamdo was occupied, a Tibetan delegation headed by the captured
governor of the Amdo province Ngabo Ngawang Jigme arrived in Beijing on May 23 1951 to
negotiate with the Chinese. The governor had surrendered without a fight and without permision
to do so from his government in Lhasa. His surrender marked the end of the short-lived
resistance to the Chinese by the Tibetans. If that resistance had lasted longer (Ford believes the
Tibetans could have waged a long guerilla war against the Chinese from their inaccesible
mountains) the world would have seen that the Tibetans were willing to fight and die for their
independence and many countries would have been took embarrased to fake confusion over
the status of Tibet as they did when they heard reports on the Chinese invasion.
Some 4,000 badly armed and untrained Tibetan soldiers and volunteers died in the short
fighting against the Chinese. The Chinese themselves confirmed that the entire Tibetan arsenal
consisted of 56 light cannon, 40 machine guns and some 30,000 rifles most of which were
antiquated and many were damaged. There was very little ammunition.

The Sino-Tibetan negotiations, which were held on far from equal terms, ended with the signing
of the Seventeen-point Agreement on the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet. The Tibetan delegation
did not have the right to sign that agreement without the approval of the Dalai Lama but the
Chinese forged the Dalai Lama's seal and the agreement took effect. It promised the Tibetans
many rights and liberties but none of that was respected just as the Chinese broke every
promise they made, as the Dalai Lama says.

Fabrications and Lies

In his autobigraphy Freedom in Exile, the Dalai Lama wrote that he was astounded at the time
listening to radio Beijing. "I could not believe my ears. The speaker (of the Chinese radio)
described how 'over the last hundred years or more' aggressive imperialist forces had
penetrated into Tibet and 'carried all kinds of deceptions and provocation'. He went on to say
that 'uder such contitiond, the Tibetan nationality and people were plunged into the depths of
enslavement and suffering'. I felt physically ill as I listened to that unbelievable mixture of lies
and fanciful cliches.
But there was worse to come. Clause One of the 'Agreement' stated that 'The Tibetan people
shall unite and drive out imperialists aggresive forces from Tibet. The Tibetan people shall
return to the big family of Motherland - the People's Republic of China'. What could it mean?
The last foreign army to have been stationed on Tibetan soil was the Manchu army in 1912. As
far as I was aware (and now I know), there was no more than a handful of Europeans in Tibet at
that time. And the idea of Tibet 'returning to the Motherland' was shameless invention. Tibet had
never been part of China. In fact, as I have mentioned already, Tibet has ancient claims to large
parts of China. On top of which, our respective peoples are ethnically and racially distinct. We
do not speak the same language, nor is our script anything like the Chinese script (*11). As the
International Commision of Juristis stated subsequently in their report:
'Tibet's position on the expulsion of the Chinese in 1912 can fairly be described as one de facto
independence... it is therefore submitted that the events 1911-12 mark the re-emergence of
Tibet as a fully sovereign state, independent in fact and in law of Chinese control'.
An assessment in A Review of Tibetan History, published in Dharamshala by the Tibetan
government in exile, says the "the Chinese used the Seventeen-point agreement only to
implement their plan on turning Tibet into a Chinese colony."
Of this, the Dalai Lama wrote: "The terms of Seventeen-Point 'Agreement' made it clear that 'the
local government of Tibet shall carry out reforms of its own accord and that these would not be
subject to 'compulsion on the part of the authorities (i.e. the Chinese). However, although these
early attempts at land reform brought the immediate benefits to many thousands of my people, it
soon became clear that our liberators had an altogether different approach to the organisation of
agriculture (*12). Already, collectivization had begun in Amdo. Eventually, it was introduced
throughout Tibet and was directly responsible for widespread famine and the deaths of
hundreds of thousands of Tibetans from starvation. And although the authorities relented
following the Cultural revolution, the effects of collectivised farming are felt to this day. Many
visitors to Tibet have commented how small and underdeveloped the people in rural areas look
due to malnutrition".

Occupation

Thousands of Chinese troops, hardened in the revolution but exausted from the long marches
and with blue lips because of the rarefied air on the Tibetan heights, entered Lhasa on
September 9, 1951. The conquest of the country was practically finished. Witnesses said those
troops were in very bad shape and the Tibetans could have overcome them easily although
there were ten times more Chinese. But there was no one to lead them against the enemy and
Tibetan resistance had practically ended with the surrender of Ngabo.
Despite all promises, the Chinese occupation meant a systematic destroying of monasteries, a
ban on practising religion, an end to virtually all human rights and liberties, daily arrests and the
murder of countless innocent men, women and children.
The Dalai Lama stayed in Lhasa until 1959 showing limitless patience and persistence in his
efforts to get the Chinese to give his people at least some freedom. In 1954, despite opposition
from his advisors, he accepted an invitation to visit China. The Dalai Lama described the
exhalted mass of people who greeted him at the railway station in Beijing: "They looked like
students or members of the youth organization; they shouted and applauded but I had the
feeling that they would just as easily express hostility if someone told them to". During his visit to
China, Mao Tse Tung and his henchmen tried to convince the Dalai Lama that the Tibetans
were always "the children of Mother China" and that "10,000 flowers bloom" in Communism.
The Dalai Lama also described his first reception with Mao Tse Tung: "Mao was looking very
calm and relaxed. He did not have the aura of a particularly intelligent man. However, as we
shook hands I felt as if I was in the presence of a strong magnetic force. He came across as
being very friendly and and spontaneous, despite the formality of occasion. It began to look as if
the apprehension I had felt was unfounded."
"He told me: 'You know, religion is a poison. First, because it reduces the population since
monks live in celibacy and second, because it disregards material progress.' When I heard that I
felt my face burning and suddenly I was very scared. So, I thought, after all he is the destroyer
of Dharma."
"Mao obviously had a wrong impression of my interest in science and material progress. I really
did want to modernize Tibet as China had been modernized and my approach was basically
scientific. However, not knowing Buddhist philosophy, Mao completely disregarded Buddha's
instructions that everyone who wants to live according to the laws of Dharma should constantly
check their validity. Because of that I was always interested in the discoveries of modern
science. But, that probably led Mao to think that religion for me was nothing more than a
stronghold or convention. In any case, I knew that he had understood me completely wrong."
During his stay in Beijing, the Dalai Lama attended a session of the Chinese National Assembly.
This is how he experienced that meeting: "I was surprised that such a large number of the
people present showed so little interest in what was happening. I admit that I wasn't very
interested myself. I was too tired after the long trip to China and the debate was in Chinese
which I did not understand. I expected, however, that the Chinese would pay more attention. I
sat beside some of the older deputies who looked even more tired than I did and the
expressions on their faces showed that they were not following the debate and were bored.
They often looked at their watches waiting for a tea break and when the break was shorter than
usual they would complain."

The Dalai Lama attended a number of political gatherings and had the same impression about
all of them: "The speeches were most often meaningless and were usually just a list of
Communist achievements. There was no significance if someone voiced his own opinion. Older
party officials would voice the official stand in the end, the chairman would accept it without
allowing more discussion. In short, the long meetings and conferences were empty formalities
because none of the delegates could change anything even if they had been interested in
trying."
The Dalai Lama was also astounded by the length, senselessness and monotonity of the
speeches by Chinese officials. "It seemed that all the leaders were passionate orators who
would never pass up a chance to speak. I especially remember a speech by Chou En-lai when
he returned from an international conference. He began by mentioning the success of the
Chinese delegation at the conference. Then he spoke about the need to study international
relations and told the gathering that he met representatives of countries he had never heard of
at the conference and had to look them up in an atlas. That speech lasted a good five hours
before the speaker got around to glorifying the achievements of the Communist regime which
was a customary part of all speeches. But, Chen Yi (*13) probably held a record in terms of
length of speech. Once he started he usually didn't stop for seven hours. Listening to that
babble, I often wondered what the listeners thought. But they were mainly young Communists
on whose faces I rarely saw boredom or fatigue. The patience of most people seemed to me
like a sign that their minds had been reformed and shaped according to the Communist model."
During his stay in China, the Dalai Lama spent three months travelling around the Chinese
provinces, visiting monasteries, factories, workers' organizations, collective farms, schools and
universities. "I must say that there was an atmosphere of efficiency in the entire country," was
his impression. "I met many officials and I still remember some of them with pleasure. The best
of them were capable, polite and well versed in diplomacy. Management departments were well
organized and did their jobs quickly. I must also say that it seemed that even the unqualified
workers were satisfied and that living conditions as a whole at the time were satisfactory.
Among educated people alone could one sometimes feel a sign of hidden displeasure. No one
could deny the huge industrial progress China achieved under Communism."
"But it seemed to me that the efficiency and progress had a terrible price. That price was the
individuality of the people. Wherever I went I found them strictly organized, disciplined and
controlled; not only were they all dressed the same but they spoke the same, behaved the same
and I believe they thought the same. It could hardly have been any difference since they all had
one source of information - the newspapers and radio all published only official versions of
events. The reading of foreign newspapers and listening to foreign radio stations was prohibited.
It seemed that the people had lost their ability to laugh spontaneously; it seemed that they
laughed only when it was advisable and that they sang when they were told to sing. Certainly
some of the young Communists were bright and well-educated but they never voiced original
thoughts. It was always the same story of the greatness of China and its glorious
achievements."
The Dalai Lama returned from China disappointed. On his way to Lhasa through areas where
the Chinese had introduced collectivization he spoke to Tibetans who cried when he asked
them how they lived and said: "Thanks to President Mao, Communism and the Peoples'
Republic of China we are very happy".

"I saw how bitterness and hatred for the Chinese was growing among the Tibetans and at the
same time among the Chinese a ruthless determination grew out of fear and a failure to
understand," the Dalai Lama says. "A rebellion against the Chinese was inevitable. If they had
only destroyed the old system and brought liberation not indoctrination to Tibet, if they had
educated the people which the Tibetan government never did, if they had provided food and
health care, if they had done that the Tibetans would have felt differently towards them. Instead
of all that they only brought suffering."
"Many think the rebellion was incited by the Americans. That is not true. It was started by the
Tibetans themselves and only later was help offered. The CIA waged a global policy against
Communist China and we were fighting against Chinese Communist aggression; our basic
goals were not contradictory and we accepted the help."
That help came in the form of one delivery of a small amount of outdated British weapons and a
short guerilla course for four Tibetans.
In late 1955, an armed uprising against the Chinese broke out in eastern Tibet. Chinese Prime
Minister Shao-chi said the uprising was organized by "the agents of the Kuomintang and several
feudal lords who oppose the needed reforms in that backward region". But this was a rebellion
of the proud highlanders who could no longer tolerate Chinese violence. The uprising was a
sign that even the Dalai Lama, who always decisively advocated non-violence, was losing
control over his people among whom the Chinese had tried and failed to undermine his
authority.
The immediate cause of the uprising was a significant increase in property taxes and an attempt
to seize weapons which the inhabitants of those provinces always saw as their greatest
treasure. The monks at the Litang monastery also rebelled over the taxes and were bombed
from the air by the Chinese. After a ten day siege and bombing the Chinese took control of the
big monastery leaving 800 monks dead and capturing another 2,000. To prove that the lamas
were charlatans who could not save their own lives nor the lives of their friends, the Chinese
gathered crowds to see an elderly lama scalded with boiling water and then strangled; another
one was first stoned and then had his head split open with an axe. In the next few weeks, the
Chinese crucified a large number of lamas, tore them to bits or buried them alive in front of the
horrified Tibetans. Thousands of people took to the mountains swearing to take revenge.
Despite great efforts by the Chinese, they never managed to completely crush that uprising.
"What can the people do in that situation except respond with violence," the Dalai Lama says. "If
it is certain that there is no alternative to violence, then violence is acceptable. In fact, with the
right motivation, that is the wish to spare man long-term pain and suffering in this and future
lives, violent action theoretically does not represent violence because instead of causing harm it
actually helps."
Four years later, in 1959, the Dalai Lama left his country (for good, as it seems now) after the
Tibetans in Lhasa rebelled fearing that the Chinese would capture their leader. Rebels armed
mainly with swords were killed by Chinese artillery and machine guns. The Chinese destroyed
part of Lhasa and damaged the beautiful Potala palace. Tibetan refugees reported that some
200,000 people were killed in just two-three days. That figure is impossilbe to verify but there is
no need to check the Chinese statement that between March 1959 and September 1960 in
Chinese military actions in Tibet 87,000 people were killed. With that as a basis for estimates
and bearing in mind that the mass rebellion lost its initial elan only in 1963, it is clear that there

could have been 200,000 victims in that period. The more so since there were reports of many
villages being completely annihilated along with their inhabitants. It is also known that a new
rebellion broke out in 1969 and was followed by mass executions and the imprisonment of
thousands of Tibetans who died of hunger and cold in camps.
After every wave of this unbroken rebellion, the Chinese began mass arrests and deportations
of Tibetans, always first tragetting monks and destroying monasteries.
Genocide was underway in Tibet over that period and a total destruction of the culture of its
people. The armed resistance that spread across the country after the March uprising was
ruthlessly suppressed. New reinforcements were constantly brought in for the Chinese army,
and lamas, women and children were forced to build countless military facilities while
thoughtless changes in farming policies caused hunger. The forming of communes only
worsened the position of the Tibetans because most of their agricultural products was
commandeered by local party officials and the army as payment for some tax or other. Those
taxes included "a tax of love towards the Great Motherland" and "a tax for fortification against
the enemy". Despite the proclaimed autonomy of Tibet all high-ranking party and government
officials were appointed by the Chinese authorities and many of them could not even speak
Tibetan.

The Unted Nations

Then, as in 1950, none of the usually fierce advocates of human rights spoke up nor did the
United Nations. Only El Salvador's ambassador to the UN called for a debate on Tibet and a
condemnation of China. British diplomat and writer Hugh Richardson, who headed the British
mission in Lhasa for years, wrote in his book Tibet & Its History: "It must be recorded with
shame that the United Kingdom delegate, pleading ignorance of the exact course of events and
uncertainity about the legal position of Tibet, proposed that the matter be defered. That was
supported by the delegate of India, the country most closely affected and, uniquely, bound to
Tibet by treaty obligations, who expressed certainity that the differences could be settled by
peaceful means which would safeguard Tibetan autonomy."
American author Michael Harris Goodman said that "if the British statement was a flagrant
evasion of ethical and moral responsibility, the Indian assertion was an outright lie". Goodman
said the US administration knew exactly what the crisis was about but it reacted as it did
because of assessments that the US did not have any special interests in the region and that
they cannot guarantee the independence of Tibet because they would not be able to send
troops across the Himalayas and supply them if the need arose.
Naturally, the Soviet and Chinese representatives, and all members of the Eastern block,
opposed the debate saying Tibet was an integral part of China. The US envoy also agreed to
postpone the debate on Tibet in accord with the Indian stand. The debate was postponed and
nothing was heard about Tibet in the UN over the next nine years, up to the Lhasa uprising in
1959.
The Tibetans could not believe that the civilized world could treat them in such a fashion and
they sent two more desperate telegrams to the UN after the invasion. The last of those, sent on
December 11, 1950, asked for a UN commission to come to Tibet on a fact-finding mission.

They never received a reply.

Tibet was later mentioned on a number of occasions in the UN, but that was all. The UN
General Assembly adopted resolutions condemning China for human rights abuse in Tibet in
1960, 1961 and 1965 and confirmed the Tibetan people's right to self-determination. In the
debates on those resolutions many envoys spoke of Chinese "armed aggression" and
"invasion" of Tibet, they assessed that the 1951 Seveteen-Points agreement was imposed by
force and even went so far (the Philippines envoy) to say that the Chinese occupation of Tibet
"is the worst type of imperialism and colonialism".
Those resolutions and a large number of others were just words which only proves that the
balance of forces in the UN causes that organization to violate international law. By definition,
"this law, by its very nature, is a system developed and enforced by independent states in order
to protect their interests. Its most fundamental function is the protection of those states' very
existance. Consequently, the extinction of a state should neither be easily persumed nor lightly
accepted. Once established, the statehood of a political entity is buttressed by strog
presumption in its favour, despite sometimes very extensive loss of actual authority". In the case
of Tibet, China occupied that state and the international community, except for a toothless
condemnation, did nothing to preserve that state.

Exodus
The Dalai Lama came to India on March 17, 1959 and asked for political asylum. His arrival
marked the start of an unprecedented exodus of Tibetans and now 120,000 of them live in exile.
Most of them are in India but there are Tibetans all over the world.
Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru gave the Dalai Lama asylum although he was among
the first to recognize Tibet as an "autonomous region of China" right after te 1950 invasion. He
also told the Dalai Lama that he could not recognize a Tibetan government in exile. In any case,
the Dalai Lama did not ask India or any other country to do that. He spoke to me about that
once: "I believe that the recognition from our people is the most important thing for us. I think
that the entire population of Tibet is with us."
The Dalai Lama's words are confirmed by a seemingly small detail: an unaviodable decoration
on every Tibetan house, hut and shop in the world (except in Tibet itself where the Chinese do
not allow it) is a picture of the Dalai Lama with a small oil lamp or lightbulb burning. No one is
forcing the Tibetans to hang those pictures on their walls. The Dalai Lama has no political party
or any practical power. However, the Tibetans are deeply devoted to their ruler without power
and the greatest present a foreigner can bring the people in Tibet is a photograph of the Dalai
Lama even though they could have problems with the Chinese because of it.
Nehru later cared for the Tibetan refugees in a way unprecedented in the world which showed
pangs of conscience because the great statesman undestood that he could do nothing to stop
powerful China. Nehru also believed that his recognition of the Chinese annexation of Tibet
could help improve Sino-Indian relations. The quick and heavy defeat of the Indian army in the
short border war with China in 1962 proved him wrong.

1,2 Million Tibetans Killed

In India, the Dalai Lama continued his persistent and patient fight for the wellbeing of Tibet. He
tried to negotiate with the Chinese on the future of his country and remained consistently on the
Buddha's path of non-violence.
China, however, was busy "building socialism" in the until recently theocratic state, while its
huge army was taking food from the people. Reports in the German weekly Der Spiegel on July
13, 1987, British weekly Economist on May 23, 1987 and Times of India daily on April 28, 1987
said there were between 300,000 and 500,000 Chinese troops in Tibet along with one fourth of
China's nuclear capabilities. If we can believe US figures submitted to Congress and the Senate
in 1987, the "building of socialism" was paid for with the lives of one million 200,000 Tibetans.
The authorities in Beijing refused any contact with the undisputed Tibetan leader who was
declared to be a reactionary and parasite.
The Dalai Lama fended for the Tibetan refugees with the generous help of all the governments
of India and many humanitarian organizations. In the begining they were in camps and were
mainly employed in building roads.
During the first few years the Tibetan refugees died en masse because of the hot and damp
climate which they were not used to, as well as diseases they had never encountered before.
In time they founded a number of settlements on land given to them by the Indian government.
Those hard working people quickly learned to till the land and handle machines and they also
continued with their traditional production of carpets and wool fabrics. In just a few years, the
Tibetans were able to support themselves more or less and even contribute to the country that
took them in so whole heartedly. When some of them complained of the hard living conditions,
the Dalai Lama would tell them that they always had to bear India's efforts in mind because that
country did not have enough food for itself or schools for its children but was helping the
Tibetans.
In India and other countries, the Tibetans set up 53 farming and industrial settlements and 83
schools for their children. They built 200 Buddhist monasteries and founded over 600 centers of
Tibetan Buddhism across the world. The Dalai Lama's exile seemed like the return of the
Buddha to his homeland after 2,500 years. Because of that, many people who know about
Buddhism and the Tibetans say the Fourteenth Dalai Lama is the only Buddhists monk after
Buddha himself to contribute so much to spreading Buddhist philosophy in the world.
In the meantime, Tibet survived the invasion of the Red Guards which came to Lhasa soon after
its rampage through China in 1966. Besides persecuting the population, the Red Guards killed
all the animals in Lhasa and the surrounding area, including birds and the wonderful Tibetan
poodles called Apso, an act of undescribable sacrilege for Buddhists. The Guards' goal was to
eradicate everything Tibetan as soon as possible starting with the language and multi-colored
clothing to little things like the beautifully decorated braids worn by Tibetans. Simply, everything
that was gay and colorful had to become gray and depressive.
That was also when the mass migration of Chinese to Tibet began. There were 40,000 Tibetans
in Lhasa and 120,000 Chinese already. Of the 6,250 monasteries and temples, just 13 were
spared. All the others were destroyed either during the "democratic reforms" prior to the arrival
of the Red Guards or during the revolutionary terror implemented by those fanatics. Some
reports from that time said the Chinese Prime Minister Chu En-lai prevented the total

destruction by deploying regular troops to guard the remaining monasteries since even the Red
Guards feared the army.
The Chinese knew that the names of streets, buildings and monuments were drawn from
Tibetan religious and cultural heritage and they changed them with a warning of severe
penalites for "reactionaries" who dare to use the old names. Norbulingka, the Dalai Lama's
summer palace became the National Park, the Chakpori hill, the site of an ancient School of
medicine, where thousands of Tibetans died during the 1959 uprising, was renamed Victory Hill,
Tsugla Khang, the primary cathedral of the famous Jokhang temple the repository of a valuable
icon of the teacher Jowo Rinpoche brought to Tibet 1,300 years ago by king Song-tsen
Gampo's Chinese bride, was renamed Guest Building No 5, Barkhor, the main shopping street
in Lhasa, became the Road of Progress. Only Potala kept its old name but part of the palace
was turned into a propaganda museum with exhibits showing such events as monks burning
children alive.
People were forced to take Chinese names, especially those that included parts of the name of
Mao Tse Tung. They also had to carry Mao's red book around with them and recite from it at
request. Traditional fairs and religious celebrations were banned and children were taught to
inform on their parents if they caught them performing religious rituals or spoke against the
Chinese administrators. The children were also taught to kill insects, dogs, birds and other
"parasites" in an effort to eradicate the generations old compassion for all living things.

"Overall Progress"
After many years of fierce indoctrination in Tibet, the Chinese finally allowed several of the Dalai
Lama's delegations to visit the country between 1979 and 1985 to see the "overall progress"
under "the wise leadership of the Communist party".
The first of those delegations stayed in Tibet from August to December 1979 and saw that not
even the decades of brutal repression could shake the deep rooted faith of the Tibetans. They
cried when they greeted the Dalai Lama's representatives with prayer wheels and khatas (white
silk scarves put over the arms of visitors as a sign of respect) which they kept hidden till then.
The second delegation travelled across Tibet between May and August 1980 visiting the places
where monasteries once were. That delegation reported that 99 per cent of the monasteries and
temples had been destroyed. Some had been restored somewhat and were opened for tourists
who were ready to pay high prices to see that new tourist attraction. The Chinese said there
were just a few hundred monks who support themselves by tilling the land or building roads.
The Chinese publication Lobjung Che Zhi (issue 55, April 1985), which included instructions for
young party members in the Chamdo province, said: "religion is a capitalist weapon of
exploitation and there is no reason for the party to support religious freedoms". Naturally, the
Chinese constitution, article 46, guarantees the right to freedom of confession but despite that
many of the "liberated" Tibetans were abused and imprisoned for saying their sacred mantras
(prayers), spinning prayer wheels, owning pictures of the Dalai Lama etc. They were also
banned from leaving their place of residence which put a stop to the usual practice of going on
pilgrimages to sacred places. Violators of those rules had their supply cards and salaries taken
away and they lost their jobs. Tickets for the few bus lines were unimaginably expensive to the
Tibetans. They cried when they told the delegation that "the Chinese first said they would help
us. Instead they destroyed everything, took everything we had to China and turned us into
slaves".

The third delegation's mission (June-October 1980) was to tour schools which they found had
just 44 per cent of Tibetan children attending and 30 per cent of Tibetan teachers. Two thirds of
the school programs were based on studies of Marxist literature. Classes in higher grades were
held in Chinese and there was not a single university educated Tibetan in the country at the
time. In the meantime, about 100 Tibetan refugees graduated from universities in India.
The fourth delegation's report in 1985 was disturbing. The Dalai Lama's envoys warned of a
massive assimilation by force. The Chinese were constantly trying to eradicate the religion and
had settled about 7.5 million people from their over-populated country in "their latest liberated
province". That was completely in accord with what was probably not just an accidental
statement by Mao Tse Tung to a group of Tibetan officials on October 8, 1952: "Tibet is a vast,
but scarcely populated country and the number of people should be increased from the current
two-three to six and then to over ten million". The Chinese also introduced an unprecedented
systematic method of "transforming" the Tibetans: settlers forced Tibetan women to marry them
so that the children from those marriages would be Chinese.
All in all, the Tibetans are a minority in their own country and their numbers are constantly
decreasing faced with a future of complete assimilation unless China's policies change
drastically, but there is no prospect of that. The Dalai Lama is aware of that and he believes that
"if the situation does not change in the next ten-fifteen years, Tibetans will become a
meaningless minority whose presence will practically not be felt in Tibet itself. If that happens
Tibet will be completely finished".
Commenting the reports from his delegations to Tibet, the Dalai Lama says: "There is no doubt
that the Chinese have built a great network of roads in Tibet, factories have been built in some
areas, modern housing colonies in many towns, several well-known monasteries have been
reconstructed, schools have been opened in many towns and villages. But our delegates were
astounded to see that only Chinese officials, their families and the Chinese troops stationed all
over Tibet benefit from all that. Ordinary Tibetans are without any rights and are burdened by
poverty. Factories have been built either to meet the needs of the Chinese who were brought to
Tibet or to process Tibetan raw materials like leather, wood or minerals before exporting them to
China. The new housing colonies have been built only for the Chinese. Even the profession
intended for the Tibetans, education, for example, are used as an instrument to brainwash the
minds of young generations of Tibetans. Because of that the Tibetans who live in Tibet are
dissatisfied. Thousands of them came to see my envoys and tell them how much they are
suffering. That proves that the Chinese officials sent to Tibet have continuously sent false
information to their leaders in Beijing on the situation in the country."
The Chinese should have seen from the reactions of the people who greeted the delegations
that the methods they used to so successfully "re-educate" the Mongols and Manchurians had
failed in Tibet. In truth, there are just two-three million of Manchurians left in Manchuria and over
75 million Chinese were settled there; in Outer Mongolia there are about 2.5 million natives and
8.5 million Chinese.
Harrer wrote of the nature of that "re-education" in his book Return to Tibet quoting young
Tibetan Lobsang Tempa who told him: "The Chinese have divided Tibetans into three main
categories. The first of these were the Tibetans woed by the Chinese, the 'two-headed-ones', as
the people called them, the collaborators. They and their families enjoyed numerous privileges:
they could go to school and to university, they were allowed to improve their qualifications by

studying in Peking, and of course they got the jobs in the administration. Their salaries was in
the region of 80 to 100 yuan, approximately to per month."
"The large numbers of the Tibetans in the second category, those who - like Lobsang Tempa's
parents - did not wish to commit themselves publicly to either side, who were neither pro
Chinese nor nationalisticaly Tibetan, had a pay of about 40 yuan (). The third category are the
Tibetans who bravely defended their integrity and independence. Most of them are nobles and
lamas. The Chinese punished them by making them do the worst jobs - building roads and
bridges. They also humiliate them by forcing them to clean the towns before the tourists arrive.
They are then put on trucks and taken out of the towns so that tourists and especially the Dalai
Lama's delegations could not talk to them. There is a camp near Lhasa - Tsal Gungthang originally intended for beggars and vagrants. It was set up before the arrival of the Dalai Lama's
first delegation, as part of the deception practised on them and on the tourists."
"Members of the third category of Tibetans received only something like about 35 yuan (20
Dollars) per month. Because of them a new word emerged in Tibetan: Thabzing - a synonim for
mental cruelty and destruction of all human dignity. That expression is close to brainwashing but
using the cruelest methods. Whenever the Tibetans in that group returned home in the evening
Thabzing began. At 7 p.m. they all have to attend a conference where, under the control of
Chinese 'experts', they are forced to 'criticize' each other. One stands in front of all the others
and everyone has to scold and slander him. Finally, the poor man was compelled to accuse
himself before he is beaten. If the Tibetans do not hit him hard enough, the Chinese would finish
him. Every member of that category takes turn in being the central figure of the horror show.
Some families committed collective suicide to avoid that horror."
Lobsang Tempa told Harrer that as a child he was allowed to attend school and study from
books in Tibetan. Tibetan and Chinese children were strictly separated except when they played
soccer against each other. Classes were held Monday to Friday and on Saturday afternoons the
pupils cleaned the school. This is what the young man said about their clothes: "The Chinese
praised children who came to school in dirty and torn clothes with many patches. The only
colors that were allowed were gray and blue. The teachers were especially fond of children like
that."
In 1980, the Chinese proclaimed a so-called "policy of liberalization" and eased somewhat the
very strict control of movement over Tibetans along with the persecution of people who pursued
their religion and introduced some economic reforms. Some monasteries and temples were
restored but their once normal activities as the religious, cultural and scientific centers of the
country were still banned. They continued settling hundreds of thousands of Chinese and in
most towns and villages the Tibetans became a meaningless minority.
The few tourists and reporters allowed to visit Tibet confirmed the reports of the destruction and
repression of the people which Chinese propaganda rejected as "fabrications of the refugees".
In May 1980, some parts of Tibet were visited by Chinese party Central Committe Chairman Hu
Yao Bang who publically voiced amazement at the barbaric destruction in the country. He was
the first of the top Chinese officials to visit Tibet after 30 years of occupation. Hu Yao Bang was
also the first Chinese official to say that the conditions the Tibetans were living under were very
bad and he shocked his party comrades in Beijing. The Chinese energetically claimed that they
had brought progress to Tibet and had liberated the people from slavery and that the Tibetans
were happy now. They always rejected even the mention of a referendum which would provide
the Tibetans an opportunity to say how happy or unhappy they are under Chinese rule.

John Fraser, China correspondent for the Toronto Globe and Mail for two years, described that
"happines" in his book The Chinese: Portrait of a People (New York 1980): "Tibet is undoubtedly
the worst example of the fate of a national minority in China. That is an astounding accusation
against a country which advocates hostility towards colonialism and racism". Fraser and
nineteen other foreign correspondents visited Tibet at the invitation of the Chinese authorities.
He only saw what the Chinese wanted to show but that was enough for his conclusion that "the
persecution of the Tibetans, especially during the Cultural Revolution and afterwards was at
least equal and perhaps much worse than melodramatic Chinese stories of unbelievable crimes
the Communist party propaganda blames on 'the feudal Dalai Lama's clique'. Since the Tibetans
refuse to give up their national identity they are a threat to the Chinese government and have to
be placed under control and anyone who wants to look at things honestly quickly sees that the
goal of Chinese policy is absorbtion. No doubt that the wanted final result, regardless of how
long it will take to achieve, is complete assimilation of that minority into the Chinese masses" Fraser wrote.
The Tibetans are suffering the same fate as the Jews and they learned many things from them.
I asked the Dalai Lama of the similarities of their fates and whether he hoped the Tibetans, like
the Jews, could survive without their country for a thousand years.
The Dalai Lama answered: "Tibetans adapt to new situations easily. The main thing is not to
forget our culture, our tradition. Now it is fourty-two years of the Chinese occupation. The
Tibetans who settled in Europe or America, sometimes with entire families, are still guarding
their traditions, their way of life, national identity and national sentiments."
"Since we came to India as refugees we have invested great efforts to preserve our national
identity, our culture. We often spoke of Jewish tradition to use their experience and follow their
example."
Since they have been refugees for decades I asked: are there any signs that the idealism of the
younger generations of Tibetans is weakening because they are losing hope of returning to their
country one day?
The Dalai Lama does not think so. He said: "Most of the young people, I believe, have a very
strong motivation and great determination to persist although some are becoming very radical
because of those sentiments. They openly criticize my conciliatory stand towards China".
The young people want to fight as their countrymen the Khampas have been doing in Tibet itself
for decades. But if they do not know, the Dalai Lama does know that the fight would be suicidal
since the Tibetans would stand no chance in a possible battle with the Chinese.
Many former Communist leaders have declared themselves to be great democrats and I asked
His Holliness if he would trust the Chinese prime minister if he started talking of democracy
now?
The Dalai Lama's answer: "I would like to hear that but I do not believe that I will have that
opportunity. In any case, there is not the slightest indication at present that something like that
could happen. Absolutely none."

The Lawyers' Report

Important testimony on the situation in Tibet came in the form of a report by a legal research
Committee of the Geneva-based International Lawyers' Commission in June 1960. The authors
of that document can hardly be considered not objective and their conclusions, based on
numerous documents and testimonies they studied, deserve to be quoted in this context.
Among other things the Committee report said:
"The Committee found that acts of genocide have been committed in Tibet in an attempt to
destroy the Tibetans as a religious group... The Committee did not find that there was sufficient
proof of the distruction of Tibetans as a race, nation or ethnic group as such by method that can
be regarded as genocide in international law. The evidence established four principal facts in
relation to genocide:
"(a) that the Chinese will not permit adherence to and practice of Buddhism in Tibet;
"(b) that they have systematically set out to eradicate this religious figures because their
religious beliefs and practice was an encouragement and example to others;
"(c) that in pursuit of this design they have killed religious figures because their religious belief
and practice was an encouragement and example to others;
"(d) that they have forcibly transferred large numbers of Tibetan children to a Chinese
materialist environment in order to prevent them from having a religious upbringing.
"The Committee therefore found that genocide had been committed against this religious group
by such methods."
As for human rights, which the Chinese government claims are "within the frameworks of the
law", the Committee said:
"The Committee examined evidence in relation to human rights within the framework of the
Universal Declaration on Human Rights as proclaimed by the General Assembly of the United
Nations."
" The Committee in considering the question of human rights took into account that economic
and social rights are as much a part of human rights as are civil liberties. They found that the
Chinese Communist authorities in Tibet had violated human rights of both kinds.
"The Committee came to the conclusion that the Chinese authorities in Tibet have violated the
following human rights which the Committee considered to be standards of behavior in the
common opinion of civilized nations:"
"Article 3: The right to life, liberty and security of person was violated by acts of murder, rape
and arbitrary imprisonment."
"Article 5: Torture and cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment were inflicted on the Tibetans on
a large scale."
"Article 9: Arbitrary arrests and detention were carried out."

"Article 12: Rights of privacy, of homes and family life were persistenly violated by the forcible
transfer of members of the family and by indoctrination turning children against their parents.
Children fron infancy upwards were removed contrary to the wishes of the parents."
"Article 13: Freedom of movement within, to and from Tibet was denied by large-scale
deportations."
"Article 16: The voluntary nature of marriage was denied by forcing monks and lamas to marry
(monks are obliged to live in celibacy, author's note)."
"Article 17: The right not to be arbitrarily deprived oof private property was violated by the
confiscations and cumpulsory acquisition of private otherwise than on payment of just
compensation and in accordance with the freely expressed wish of the Tibetan people."
"Article 18: Freedom of thought, conscience and religion were denied by acts of genocide
against Buddhists in Tibet and by other systematic acts designed to eradicate religious belief in
Tibet."
"Article 19: Freedom of expression and opinion was denied by the destruction of scriptures, the
imprisonment of members of the Mimang (*14) group and the cruel punishement inflicted on
critics of the regime."
"Article 20: The right of free assembly and association was violated by the suppression of the
Mimang and the prohibition of meetings other than those called by the Chinese."
"Article 21: The right to democratic government was denied by the imposition from outside of
rule by and under Chinese Communist Party."
"Article 22: The economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for the dignity and free
development of the personality of man were denied. The economic resources of tibet were used
only to meet the needs of the Chinese. Social changes were adverse to the interests of the
majority of the Tibetan people. The old culture of Tibet, including its religion, was attacked in an
attempt to eradicate it."
"Article 24: The right to reasonable working conditions was violated by the exaction of labour
under harsh and ill-paid conditions."
"Article 25: A resonable standard of living was denied by the use the Tibetan economy to meet
the needs of the Chinese settling in Tibet."
"Article 26: The right to liberal primarily in accordance with the choice of parents was denied by
compulsory indoctrination, sometimes after deportation, in communist philosophy."
"Article 27: The Tibetans were not allowed to participate in the cultural life of their own
community, a culture which the Chinese have set out to destroy."
"Chinese allegations that the Tibetans enjoyed no human rights before the entry of the Chinese
were found to be based on distorted or exaggerated accounts of life in Tibet. Accusations

against the Tibetan 'rebels' of rape, plunder and torture were found in cases of plunder to have
been deliberately fabricated and in other cases unworthy of belief for this and other reasons."
The Committee also published its opinion on the international position of Tibet:
"The view of the Committee was that Tibet was at the very least a de facto independent State
when at the Agreement on Peaceful Measures in Tibet (known as the Seventeen-Point
agreement, author's note) was signed in 1951, and the repudiation of this agreement by the
Tibetan Government in 1959 was found to be fully justified. In examining the evidence, the
Committee took into account events in Tibet as realted in authoritative accounts by official and
scholars familiar at first hand with the recent history of Tibet and official documents which have
been published. These show that Tibet demonstrated from 1913 to 1950 the conditions of
statehood as generally accepted under international law. In 1950 there was a people and a
territory, and a government which functioned in that territory, conductinig its own domestic
affairs free from any outside authority. From 1913-1950 foreign relations of Tibet were
conducted exclusively by the Government of Tibet and countries with whom Tibet had foreign
relations are shown by official documents to have treated Tibet in practice as an independent
State."
"Tibet surrendered her independence by signing in 1951 the Agreement on Peaceful Measures
for the Liberation of Tibet. Under that agreement, the Central People's Government of the
Chinese People's Republic gave a number of undertakings, among them: promises to mantain
the existing Tibetan political system, to mantain the status and function of the Dalai Lama and
Panchen Lama, to protect freedom of religion and the monasteries and to refrain from
compulsion in the matter of reforms in Tibet. The Committe found that these and other
undertakings had been violated by Chinese People's Republic of China and that the
Government of Tibet was entitled to repudiate the Agreement as it did on March 11, 1959."
The German parliament's Research Department also concluded in its August 1987 study that
"at the time it was forcibly annexed to China, Tibet was an independent state".
Lawyers of the Wilmer, Cutler and Pickering law firm drew almost exactly the same conclusion
after studying hundreds of documents from past centuries and in May 1986 they published a
study on Tibet's legal position. That firm, one of the most prominent specialists on international
law, concluded:
"Since the reunification of Tibet under the Sakya hierachs, backed by the Mongolian Emperors,
in the mid-thirteenth century, and her reemergence as fully independent state less than a
century later, the state of Tibet never ceased to exist. Neither the protection exercised by
Manchu emperors, nor their periodical interference in Tibetan affairs, nor even the temporary
occupation of Lhasa in 1910, constitute proof of the extinction of the Tibetan state. The same
must be said of the Nepalese and British invasions and the subsequent ties those states
established with Tibet. This follows logicaly in international law from the strong presumption in
favour of continued statehood. But even if, for the sake of argument, the assertion of Manchu
supremacy at the peak of their influence, immediately following the 1792 war with Nepal, should
be regarded as sufficient to warrant the conclusion that Tibet lost her independence or
statehood at the time, the rapid erosion of Manchu influence to a mere nominal role and, more
importantly, the succesful reassertion of Tibetan independence after 1911, still amply justify the
conclusion that on the eve of the Chinese Communist invasion of Tibet, that country was a
state, independent both in fact and law."

"We find no basis to support the claim advanced by the Peoples' Republic of China that Tibet
was an integral part of China for centuries. The present status of Tibet is, consequently, that of
continued legal independence. Thus, the Peoples' Republic of China continues its occupation of
Tibet in violation of international law."
"It must be concluded, therefore, that the state of Tibet still exists at this time as an independent
legal entity, with a legitimate government, in exile in Dharamsala, to represent it. The continued
Chinese presence in Tibet is, therefore, a serious violation of internal law."

Accepting Reality
Having grasped the political reality of today's world, the Dalai Lama accepted the possibility of
some kind of union of Tibet with China. One September 22, 1987 he disclosed his five point
plan to resolve the Tibetan problem in the US Congressional Human Rights Committee. The
plan calls for:
- Turning Tibet into a zone of ahimsa (non-violence).
- China's abandoning of the policy of settling Chinese in Tibet since that endangers the very
existance of the Tibetans as a nation.
- Respect for fundamental human rights and the democratic freedom of the Tibetan people.
- A restoration and protection for the natural environment in Tibet and a stop to the production of
nuclear weapons and the storage of nuclear waste in Tibet.
- The start of sincere negotiations on the future status of Tibet and on relations between the
Tibetan and Chinese people.
The Dalai Lama voiced his proposal in the European Parliament in Strasbourg as well on June
15, 1988, saying that "under certain circumstances, Tibet, as a self-managing democratic
political entity, could be in a union with the Peoples' Republic of China". The Dalai Lama added
that in that case China would conduct Tibet's foreign policy but that the Tibetan government,
through its foreign affairs bureau, would developed and maintain international relations in the
domain of religion, trade, education, culture, tourism, science and sports.
Since independence is synonymous with happiness for some Tibetans, the Dalai Lama asked:
"What is in fact the goal of independence? Happiness or misfortune? In every human society
the most important goal is happiness. If we can achieve it through autonomy, that is all right; if
we can be happy as part of a federation, all right again; if we will be happy as independent, that
is all right as well. But in the past few decades we have gotten nothing from China; therefore it
should be clear why we want to be a separate country. However, if the Chinese follow their
words with acts, and if we Tibetans get more as member of the Middle Kingdom, I have nothing
against that. The question of the independence of Tibet is not an issue as long as the people
are satisfied. The fact that the people are not satisfied is more important than history. If the
Chinese stand changes, if they begin respecting the wishes of the Tibetans and come to Tibet
truly as liberators who want to help, then we can think of mutually beneficial combinations. So
far, however, they have conducted a policy that has forced us to make an effort to separate from
them. If they now have something to offer the situation could be changed, especially if we have

some advantages in a union with them. Finally, we are just six million people. We have no exit
to the sea. Our country is inaccesible because we live at great heights. We are rich only in
minerals and man cannot eat minerals."
China did not respond to that or any other Tibetan proposal although it must know that without
the Dalai Lama it cannot establish complete control over Tibet.
In the words of the Dalai Lama, the Tibetan government in exile is prepared to negotiate with
the Chinese authorities whenever they want to. "But, I stressed that it is just a proposal and that
the decision should be taken by the Tibetan people, not myself," the Dalai Lama said. Those
words shed an unusual light on the ruler who is, by definition, God and King to his people, but
his acts prove the he respects democracy much more than many legally elected "people's
representatives". More proof of that, unprecedented in theocracies and monarchies, is the
Tibetan constitution of 1963, adopted at the persistent insisting of the Dalai Lama despite
opposition from the lamas and his followers who were astounded by even the idea that
someone could dismiss their ruler. "I behaved slightly authocratically in insisting on the adoption
of that article," the Dalai Lama said smiling. That consitution states that all Tibetans of age elect
members of parliament which, besides all the other usual rights and duties, has the right to
dismiss the Dalai Lama if over two thirds of its members vote in favour!
The Dalai Lama has said he has no intention of taking any political post once his country is free
again. "I do no want to be like Tito," he said to me with a smile. "It is better to withdraw early like
Mahatma Ghandi did. Before India won its independence, he was the leading figure and
afterwards he chose to stay out of the government. My wish is to be free of political
responsibility in the future if that is possible so that I can practice yoga, meditate and study the
Buddha's teachings in some remote spot."
"You see, if the institution of Dalai Lama is still of use to the Tibetans and the entire Buddhist
community, I think it would be better to adopt a new system. The new Dalai Lama should be
chosen before the death of the old one. In the past the system of chosing the Dalai Lama in the
way I was chosen did not always function well. The Seventh Dalai Lama was under the
influence of his father for many years and the Ninth, Tenth and Eleventh all died in their youth
leaving the management of the country in the hands of the regent. Further, the Fourth Dalai
Lama, who was a Mongol, came to Lhasa not as a monk but as a worldly man. His biography
was written by the Fifth Dalai Lama who believed that it would have been better for Tibet if the
Fourth had not become a monk but remained king. In my opinion, the strange behaviour of the
Fifth Dalai Lama's reincarnation is connected with that. If the Sixth Dalai Lama had managed to
achieve his intention of removing his monk's frock and rule as a king and pass the title of Dalai
Lama onto one of his sons I think the central Tibetan government wold be much more stable
and the Manchus would perhaps never have come to our country."
"The title of Dalai Lama is mine and I can pass it on to someone else turning that person into
the Dalai Lama from that moment on. In that case I would become a bikshu, an ordinary
Buddhist monk. The new Dalai Lama does not have to be my reincarnation. In any case, at the
time of the Second Dalai Lama there were indications of hundreds of reincarnations of the
previous Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama has to be a mature and respected theologian, a man with
an aura; a mysterious spiritual strength that can be felt but not seen. In fact, it would be a good
idea to replace the Dalai Lama every seven years. Naturally, the people would be against that
but there was no Dalai Lama at first and the idea was gradually accepted among the people.
People would get used to this as well."

This is how the Dalai Lama imagines a future free Tibet: "It should be what I called the Zone of
Ahimsa (non-violence): a neutral, demilitarized retreat where weapons are not allowed and
where people live in harmony with nature. That is not just a dream. That is exactly the way we
Tibetans tried to live for over a thousand year before our country was occupied. As you know,
under Buddhist principles all forms of life were protected in Tibet and in the past 300 years we
did not have any significant army. Since the ninth century, after our three great religious kings,
Tibet focused all its energy on living in harmony with the principles of Buddhism and gave up
war as an instrument of national policy."
"When our great kings Song-tsen Gampo and Trisong Detsen ruled Tibet, our country was one
of the most powerful in central Asia. The Amdo region where I was born was ruled by king
Mangsong Mangtsen, grandson of Song-tsen Gampo and my ancestors were the soldiers that
king sent out from central Tibet. Only much later did that region fall under China. But in Amdo,
as in other border regions between China and Tibet, our people lived together with the Chinese
for over a thousand years. Naturally, they spoke Chinese besides their own language but they
never accepted the Chinese way of life; the spirit and traditions of the Tibetans were never
changed. Now, if we look at Buddhism in Tibet only from a political viewpoint it may seem that
there is some mistake there but you cannot say that Tibet has become weak because of
Buddhism. However, because of Buddhism, Tibet has become just a word - Tibet."

The Panchen Lama Dispute

In May 1995, the Chinese tried once more to sidestep the Dalai Lama. They annulled the Dalai
Lama's decision on the confirmation of the reincarnation of the Panchen Lama, the second
ranking Tibetan clergyman. A spokesman for the Chinese foreign ministry informed the Dalai
Lama that he does not have the right to confirm the reincarnations of high priests and invoked
an alleged agreement between the Tibetan government and Emperor Chien Long of the Ch'ing
dynasty two centuries ago. That was the Chinese emperor who sent a golden urn to Lhasa with
instructions to pull the name of the reincarnation out of it. The Tibetans did not like that order
and did not abide by it.
Six year old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, whom the Dalai Lama, on the basis of centuries old
tradition and strict examination, declared the Eleventh Panchen Lama, was arrested along with
his parents by the Chinese and taken to Beijing. Later that year, the Chinese brought 75 lamas
from Tibetan monasteries to Beijing and forced them to confirm the choice of their candidate, six
year old Gyatsain Norbu who was than formally enthroned in the Tashilhunpo monastery in the
town of Shigatse, the traditional seat of the Panchen Lama, in the presence of high ranking
Chinese officials.
For generations, the Chinese lent their support to the Panchen Lama as the Dalai Lama's rival
and tried to deepen the gap between the two although they always had a relationship of follower
and guru, with the Dalai Lama as the guru. The Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama rarely had an
opportunity to meet and their relations were always good. That cannot be said of their
subordinates who were competitive among themselves and gave the Chinese opportunities to
interfere in their relations.
At the time of Younghusband's expedition, when the Thirteenth Dalai Lama first fled the country,
the Chinese government issued a declaration taking away all of the Tibetan ruler's rights and
proclaiming the Panchen Lama regent. Under Tibetan tradition worldly power belongs only to
the Dalai Lama and in that regard the Panchen Lama is subordinate to him. The Ninth Panchen

Lama politely refused the Chinese offer to become regent. But, in 1924, Chinese efforts to
create a rift between the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama caused an open conflict and the
Panchen Lama and his entourage went to Beijing where he died in 1937 without responding to
the Dalai Lama's calls to return to Tibet.
The Tenth Panchen Lama was taken to Beijing after the occupation where he was educated
and when the Fourteenth Dalai Lama left Tibet in 1959 the Chinese government appointed him
chairman of the Preparatory Committee for the Formation of the Tibetan Autonomous Region. In
1972, he handed Mao Tse Tung his famous "Memorandum of 70,000 Characters" demanding
an end to Chinese repression in Tibet. Two years later, during the new year Monlam festival, the
Panchen Lama prayed publically for the independence of Tibet, long life and return of the Dalai
Lama. He was put into house arrest and subjected to long term brainwashing on charges of
"organizing a counter-revolutionary clique and conducting wild activities against the people, the
homeland and socialism in the interest of the slave owner classes".
After thirteen years of solitude and "re-education" he was rehabilitated in 1978. The Tibetans
respected him very much having seen that the Panchen Lama had justified the Dalai Lama's
trust in him. The Panchen Lama died in Beijing in 1989.
Because of the great respect the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama enjoy among the people,
China is most likely counting on the possibility of the young Panchen Lama who is being
educated by the Chinese could one day replace the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, the more so since
the Dalai Lama is growing old. However, it is hard to believe that the followers of any religion
could accept the appointment of their high priest by some party central committee, even if that is
the powerful Chinese Communist Party.
Despite that, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama is consistent in his conciliatory policy towards China. In
an interview to Associated Press TV in mid-December 1995, the Dalai Lama voiced fears for the
fate of six year old Gedun Chokyi Nyima who he said was "probably the youngest political
prisoner in the world". He added: "I still favour a middle path: I do not insist on complete
separation, complete independence from the Peoples' Republic of China. As soon as some
positive signs come from the Chinese side I am prepared for negotiations anywhere, at any time
with no preconditions."
Obviously, the Tibetan leader is not giving up his principle of non-violence which won him the
Nobel Peace Prize in 1989.
Just as obviously, China is not giving up its repressive policies in Tibet. United Press
International reports from Beijing on January 15, 1996 that Chinaman Li Chue, the deputy party
secretary for Tibet, told a press conference in Lhasa: "We have to strengthen our control over
the temples and monasteries, we have to continue our patriotic education of monks and take
control over the remaining religious institutions. We will not allow the Dalai Lama's clique to use
temples and monasteries for their destructive activities." The report quoted the Chinese official's
words from the Tibet Daily newspaper. That newspaper reported on April 5, 1996 that the
Chinese authorities had called the "Tibetan faithful" to "decisively strike back at the rebel
propaganda of those who want a breakup of the country and to respond to every blow in that
struggle". That stand was adopted by the official forum of Tibetan religious leaders who were
appointed by the Chinese, along with a demand to punish anyone in temples and monasteries
who is found in possession of publications or audio-video material which mentions the
independence of Tibet.

The statement from that gathering said they also demanded "the strengthening of patriotic
education in temples and monasteries and stricter control of the movement of religious leaders".
It also reccomended a campaign against the Dalai Lama and said "the Dalai Lama's clique has
recently increased its destructive infiltration in our region. The masses must know clearly that
the Dalai Lama is no longer a religious leader who can bring wellbeing to the masses but only a
criminal against the people and homeland," Tibet Daily reported.
A Reuter's report quoted a statement by a Washington-based group The International
Campaign For Tibet which claims there were scores of fierce protests against the Chinese
occupation in the past few years and that the protests were headed by monks. "Many reliable
sources testified that the vast majority of arrested monks and nuns were brutally beaten, kept
from sleep, strangled or showered with ice water for days and weeks after their arrest. Nuns
were forced to take their clothes off before being tortured and that includes rape and rape with
electric batons," the report said. The group concluded that, forty-six years after the occupation
of Tibet, "Chinese leaders fear that the Buddhist community, although decimated, could be the
driving force around which the disatisfied population would rally and turn against the occupiers".
China denied all that. A Reuter's report from Beijing on April 16, 1996, said a Chinese foreign
ministry spokesman reacted to the charges, saying nothing like that had happened and the
people who are spreading those stories want to cause chaos in Tibet. He added that the Tibetan
economy was developing quickly, that religious rights were guaranteed and that new temples
were being built.

China's Obsession
It is clear that China will not give up Tibet and that in today's world the political will or power
does not exist which could force it to do that. The idealists who occasionally organize
international conferences on Tibet can change nothing in that regard. One of those conferences
in London in July 1990, organized by members of the British parliament and US Congressional
Foundation for Human Rights, condemned "Chinese imperialsim" and decisively upheld the
inalienable right of self-determination for every nation.
The 130 participants from 37 countries included the prime minister of Iceland and high ranking
officials from Czechoslovakia, Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, Mongolia...
There was no representative of the nominal head of the largest group of developing countries,
the Nonaligned Movement's chairman - Yugoslavia. Because of its "principled" policy former
Yugoslavia never spoke out about Chinese crimes in Tibet either on its own behalf or in the
name of the Movement. Similar, also "principled" reasons, led the great India to criticize its own
former President Zail Singh for attending the opening of an international conference on Tibet in
New Delhi in August 1989.
The declaration adopted in London called the world to recognize the Dalai Lama's government
in exile. Five years later, at the time of writing this book, no one has responded to that call.
In June 1996, China clashed openly with Germany over a Bundestag resolution condemning the
violation of human rights in Tibet and demanding that China give the region autonomy. That
resolution drew fierce Chinese reactions, a cancellation of a visit by German Foreign Minister

Klaus Kinkel and a demand for the government in Bonn to take "concrete measures to minimize
the damage" the resolution inflicted on their relations.
Some time earlier, the Chinese government strongly protested against the organizing of an
international conference on Tibet and the Dalai Lama's visit to Germany. The conference was
held but, because of China's protest, the German foreign ministry withdrew its approved
donation of 300,000 German marks for the conference. That drew very strong criticism in
parliament and the press along with question on whether China will dictate Germany's policy.
On the other hand, the two countries' trade stood at 27 billion German Marks in 1995 and
German businessmen signed many lucrative deals with the Chinese. Probably the Tibetans'
human rights issue will be forgotten soon.
Hugh Richardson offers an original and unusual interpretation of China's passionate wish to
conquer Tibet, a wish that led the Communists, right after the end of their revolution, to attack
the country without even seeking a pretext as justiciation in front of the world.
Richardson is one of few westerners who deeply undestood the Asian mentality and customs.
He wrote: "The Chinese have, as is well known, a profound regard for history. But history, for
them, was not simply a scientific study. It had the features of a cult, akin to ancestor worship,
with the ritual object of presenting the past, favourably emended and touched up, as a model for
current political action. It had to conform also the the mystical view of China as the Centre of the
World, the Universal Empire in which every other country had a natural urge to become a part.
In return, the emperor will be gracious towards them. That understanding leaves no room for the
idea of political relations on an equal basis. The absurd that can lead is illustrated in the letter of
Emperor Ch'ien Lung to King George III in 1793 in which the Emperor addresses the British
sovreign as if King George were a humble and loyal petitioner and advises him to obey the
Emperor's instructions with respect. Also, the Pope was on the list of 'payers of tribute to the
Ch'ing dynasty' together with Holland, Portugal and Russia."
"The conflict of that concept of history with the violent intrusion of the outside world in the latter
part of the nineteenth century led to the obdurate irredentism with which the Republican and
Nationalistic Governments of China persisted, against all the facts, in claiming that Tibet had
always been part of the Chinese fold and was longing to return to it. In the absence of any voice
of protest from Tibet, their persistence made some effect even on the minds of other countries."
"In spite of the adoption of Western political ideas, the Communists, like their predecessors,
continued to be influenced by the tradition of their ancestors. They inherited the same peculiar
historical perspective embittered in the more recent past by resentment at the humiliation and
exploitation inflicted by the West; and they were the first Chinese to have the power to convert
their atavistic theories into fact. They saw opportunity, calculated that no one was likely to
oppose them, and acted."
Unlike Richardson, who thinks he understands the Chinese, the Dalai Lama admits he does not
understand them despite his often repeated theory on the need to understand enemies who he
feels are very precious because they enable a man to nurture his own tolerance.
The Chinese, however, defly used the nonexistance of any links between Tibet and the West
and the shortage of information in western countries which simply did not understand or did not
even try to understand what actually happened after the 1911 revolution. This is what
happened: The Chinese overthrew the foreign Manchu dynasty in the revolution but used that

opportunity to present the Manchu empire as the Chinese empire which the not very interested
world accepted as fact. The Chinese suddenly won sovereignty over Manchuria, eastern
Turkestan and Mongolia - countries which were part of the Manchu empire as China was and
which did not have ties with China itself before the Manchu conquerers arrived. Tibet was not
part of the Manchu empire but was included because the Chinese simply accepted the Manchu
emperors wish to rule that country. Unlike the Manchus who had neither the will nor the power
to take Tibet, the Chinese Communists lacked neither.
And the World was indifferent.

******************************
*11) Of the difference between Chinese and Tibetan, Sir Charles Bell wrote:"Firstly, the
Tibetans are deeply religious; they have fought for their religion and it has been a strong bond of
unity for the whole race. The Chinese have never fought for religion nor been united by it; they
have adopted forms of philosophy, but very little religion.
The Tibetan Government is truthful. It can be slow, obstinate and secretive in dealing with
foreigners, but it has a strong regard for the truth. But the Chinese authorities from time to time
made statements which were deliberately untrue. For instance, when the Dalai Lama was in
exile in India during 1910 to 1912, the Chinese Amban violated the Trade Regulations of 1908
by forbidding the Panchen Lama and his officials to communicate with the British agent at
Gyangtse. The Chinese denied that this had been done, but we obtained a photograph of the
prohibitory order, after which the denials ceased. Many years after the Younghusband
expedition had returned to India, reports were frequently issued that a fresh British army had
invaded Tibet; every one of these reports was completelu untrue.
The Chinese are far more more cruel than the Tibetans are. When they tried to conquer areas in
Tibet, they used to put to death what prisoners of war they captured, although the only offence
of these was fighting in defence of their homeland. The Tibetans, when they captured Chinese
prisoners of war, used simply to send them back to China.
The Chinese treat the granting of favour merely as a step towards asking for another. So it was
in their dealings with Tibet, as the Dalai Lama used to point out; so it is in their war against
Japan. They had full notice that this war was coming. Their population is more than four times
as numerous as that of Japan, and they might have done much more to help themselves. The
help that the Chinese Government has received from the United Nations it has not only used as
a stepping-stone for obtaining further assistance, it has utilised it also in fighting its own people
to keep itself in power. It fears the strength of the Chinese Communists in northern China, and
seems accordingly to have posted several hundred thousand of its troops in the north, where
they hold the Communists in check but do little, if anything, to fight the Japanese.
The Tibetans do not treat favours in this way. They have a national memory of things for which
they are grateful, and of things that they cannot forgive. The kind treatment of the Dalai Lama
during his exile in India established a strong bond of friendship between Britain and Tibet. The
memory of Chao Erhfeng's rutless invasion in eastern Tibet, his destruction of the monasteries
and killing of monks, has established a memory of bitterness that is still alive in Tibet.

One would have expected higher standards in truth, mercy and gratitude from the governing
authorities of a nation that boasts of its "five thousand years of culture."
Many other examples of the differencies dividing these two nation could be given... For
instance, the statuse of women in Tibet is higher than in China; the kinder treatment of animals;
and the more orderly government. Of course, the Chinese on their side have many national
qualities in which they are superior to the Tibetans. For instance the Chinese mind is quicker,
more ingenious and more versatile; but these differencies emphasise still further that the two
nations are distinct. Emphatically we have here two separate and distinct nations.
*12) In the first 20 years of their occupation of Tibet, the Chinese slaughtered almost all the
yaks, on which farming heavily depended because there was no machinery, as well as all the
cats, dogs and birds which they declared just "mouths to feed needlessly". Also, farmers were
forced to replace barley, the main staple up to then, with rice which the Chinese prefer. The
problem was that in the Tibetan heights rice can only be grown in a few places. Besides that,
the rice exhausts much faster the not too fertile mountain land.
*13) One of the high ranking Chinese leaders.
*14) Mimang Tshogpa or the National Party got its name from a group of Tibetan nobles who
banded together in the late 19th century to prevent the Manchu Amban from killing the
Thirteenth Dalai Lama while he was still under age. Mimang was such a loosely organized
group that it can hardly be considered a party in the modern sense of the word; it had no
leadership or any political platform except emotional opposition to the Chinese presence. The
activities of its members boiled down to putting up protest poster in Lhasa and sending
memoranda to the Chinese and Tibetan government demanding that the Chinese army leave.
Although it is hard to believe that the Mimang could turn into an efficient revolutionary group, the
Chinese saw it as the greatest individual danger to their authority in Tibet and they exerted
pressure on the Dalai Lama who proclaimed the disbanding of the Mimang on May 1, 1952. The
organization went underground and reappeared later.

Who is the Dalai Lama?

This is how the Tibetan leader explains his title and function: "Dalai Lama means diffrent things
to different people. To some it means that I am a living Buddha; the earthly manifestation of
Avalokiteshvara, Bodhisatva of Compassion. To others it means that I am a 'god-king'. During
the late 1950s it meant that I was a Vice-President of the Steering Committee of the People's
Republic of China. Then when I escaped into exile, I was called a counter-revolutionary and a
parasite. But none of these are my ideas. To me 'Dalai Lama' is a title that signifies the office I
hold. I myself am just a human being, and incidentally a Tibetan, who chooses to be a Buddhist
monk..."
"In fact, 'Dalai' is a Mongol word which means 'ocean' and 'lama' is a Tibetan word which is the
same as the Indian 'guru' and is translated as teacher. Sometimes the words 'Dalai Lama'
together are freely translated as 'Ocean of Wisdom'. Actually, 'Dalai' is a partial translation of the
name Sonam Gyatso, the Third Dalai Lama: 'Gyatso' means 'ocean' in Tibetan. A wrong
interpretation contributed to the Chinese using 'huo-fuo', which means living Buddha, instead of
'lama'. Tibetan Buddhism does not accept anything like that. In Tibetan Buddhism, some

creatures, including the Dalai Lama, can choose how they will be born. Those beings are called
tulku (incarnations)."

Samsara and Reincarnation

Since Buddhism is not a very well known religion in Europe, and Samsara (which means wheel
of life, or suffering) and reincarnation are the fundamental terms of Buddhism, a number of my
questions focused on them. The Dalai Lama explained:
"The fundamental perception of Buddhism is Interdependence or the Law of Cause and Effect.
This simply states that everything which an individual being experineced is derived through
action from motivation. Motivation is thus the root of both action and experience. From this
understanding are derived the Buddhist theories of consciousness and rebirth."
"The first holds that, because cause gives rise to effect which in turn becomes the cause of
further effect, consciousness must be continual. It flows on and on, gathering experiences and
impressions from one moment to the next. At the point of physical death, it follows that the
being's consciousness contains an imprint of all these past experiences and impressions, and
the actions which preceded them. This is known as karma which means action. It is thus
consciousness, with its attendant karma, which then becomes 'reborn' in a new body - animal,
human or divine. "
"So, to give a simple example, a person who has spent his or her life mistreating animals could
quite easily be reborn in the next life as a dog belonging to saomeone who is unkind to animals.
Similarly, meritorious conduct in this life will assist in a favourable rebirth in the next. "
"Buddhists further believe that because the basic nature of consciousness is neutral, it is
possible to escape from the unending cycle of birth, suffering, death and rebirth that life
inevitable entails, but only when all negative karma has been eliminated along with all worldly
attachments. When this point is reached, the consciousness in question is believed to attain first
liberation and then ultimately Buddhahood. However, according to Buddhism in the Tibetan
tradition, a being that acheives Buddhahood, although free from Samsara, the 'wheel of
suffering', as the phenomenon of existence is known, will continue to return to work for the
benefit of all other sentient beings until such time as each one is similarly liberated."
"Now in my own case, I am held to be reincarnation od each of the previous thirteen Dalai
Lamas of Tibet (the first having been born in 1315 AD), who are in turn considered to be
manifestations of Avalokiteshvara, or Chenrezi, Boddhisatva of Commpassion, holder of the
White Lotus. Thus, I am believed also to be a manifestation of Chenrezi, in fact the sevetyfourth in a lineage that can be traced back to a Brahmin boy who lived in the time of Buddha
Shakyamuni. I am often asked whether I truly believe this. The answer is not simple to give. But
as a fifty-six year old, when I consider my experiences during this present life, and given my
Buddhist beliefs, I have no difficulty accepting that I am spiritually connected both to the thirteen
previous Dalai Lamas, to Cherenzi and to Buddha himself."
When I asked: what, in fact, is consciousness, the Dalai Lama responded:
"There is no way to posit consciousness exept as being a continuation of former moments of
consciousness; in this way consciousness can have no beginning, in which case rebirths can

have no beginning. The mind in general has no beginning; the continuation of it has no
beginning or end, but there are specific minds that have a beginning but no end and others that
have no beginning but an end."
"Consciousness must be produced by consciousness because it cannot be produced by matter
as its substantial cause. Particles cannot create an entity of luminosity and knowing. Matter
cannot be the substantial cause of consciousness, and consciousness cannot be the substantial
cause of matter."
"It is hard to identify the mind. Its definition is that the mind is pure light and awareness or
knowledge. That is not something physical which has a color and shape. When we think of the
mind we imagine it as something completely clear, completely empty space where all
appearances have stopped and where awareness of anything can appear or disappear as pure
light and knowledge in that clear space.
"The nature of the mind, which is created simultaneously with energy wind, drops and other
elements of a subtle body at the first moment of creation, is pure light and knowledge. For that
phenomenon to be created, its immediate cause needs to be something that exists in the same
category or is of the same nature as that mind. It is neccesary for a previous moment of pure
light and knowledge to exist and act as the cause of creation of the first moment of pure light
and knowledge at the moment of creation. Using that reasoning we can prove the existance of
previous lives. And if previous lives existed future lives will also exist."
"Since the light and knowledge we have represent something that will go on into future lives, it is
very important to eliminate the dark areas or layers which accumulate over them because of our
errors or suffering. If we remove those layers we can reach the natural basis of consciousness
which is pure, completely discernible light and knowledge. That is what can become the Allknowing mind of the Buddha or Enlightened Being. Since the bases of our own mind, the Allknowing mind and the mind of the Enlightened Being are the same, then that type of mind is
surely something we can achieve ourselves. The Buddha was not someone who was
enlightened from the start; he became enlightened in dependance on many causes. He gave up
what should be given up and adopted what should be adopted. If we do the same, we will
achieve the same."
"Buddhists also believe that, because the basic nature of consciousness is neutral, it is possible
to escape from the endless cycle of birth, suffering, death and rebirth - which is inevitable in life
- but only when the negative kharma is eliminated along with attachments to anything in this
world. When we reach that point, consciousness will first achieve liberation and then
Buddhahood. However, under Tibetan Buddhist tradition, a being that achieves Buddhahood,
although liberated from Samsara, the wheel of suffering (the name for the phenomenon of
existance), continues returning to worldly life to continue working for the wellbeing of all other
living beings until every one of them is liberated in the same way."
Buddhists believe that their leader is Boddisattva, a being who achieved perfection in previous
lives and returned among the living beings to help them along that path. I asked: what is the
subjective feeling of a Boddisattva?
"Nothing special, it is quite ordinary experience," the Dalai Lama replied. "I believe that my strict
religious education gave me enough strength to face departure from my current body without
anxiety. I always felt that I am just a mortal being and that the end of a mortal form has no great

importance. As a Buddhist, I believe in previous lives, in some mysterious force from those lives
which caused me to be born again in this place and be of some use to the Tibetan people and
to some measure to Buddhism in general. In any case, we Buddhists believe in the existence of
previous causes on several levels, that is that there exist direct causes and remote causes of
certain events."
"One of the consequences of previous lives was felt during my education: I learned some
subjects easily and some with great difficulty; in some domains I perfected my mind without
difficulty and in others it was very difficult. All that is the consequence of efforts invested and
experienced gathered in previous lives."
Since, under Buddhist belief, all living beings are reincarnated spirits, I asked the Dalai Lama if
there are signs which can tell what a man was in a previous life?
His Holiness answered: "We believe in the reincarnation of every living being which has a mind
since the mind exists only on the basis of continuity. Whether someone will know something
about a previous life depends primarily on the sharpness of the mind and on memory. Children
and adults, for example, have different habits and customs which are not always the
consequence of the effect of the environment they live in. We believe those are clear indications
which indicate a previous life. In dreams and with the help of the subtle mind we can sometimes
refresh our memory of previous lives."
"I know of several boys and girls, including some Indians, who remember events from the past.
Their parents were not firm believers in previous lives, in reincarnation. Ten years ago I met two
girls; one from Ludhiana in Punjab, the other from a village near Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh. They
were about five years aold and both very clearly rememberd their previous lives. Among the
Tibetans there are also cases of children remembering the past."
I asked His Holiness if he would say something about his own past lives and whether, as the
reincarnation of his predecesors, he has any links with them.
The Dalai Lama said: "I do not remember everything clearly but my mother and other people
said that when I was quite young I remembered my past lives. Now that I am older, those
memories which are usually quite pale, sometimes come through my dreams. The earliest of my
lives which I can recall was over 1,000 years ago."
"It is not good to talk about this, and that is especially true of Buddhist monks who are forbidden
to do this; they are forbidden to speak of those experiences without true reason, it is considered
a sin towards other spirits.
You know, there are 233 rules of behavior for Buddhist monks. First the four most important
ones, then 13, then 30 and another 90, etc. According to one of the group of 90, it is bad to
speak of some spiritual experience without true cause."
"I think, however, that you are a serious person and I won't overdo it. I am telling you not out of
some selfish motivation but to prove it to you, to convince you, to make things clear for you. I
think that is right. I can tell you that, according to some of my dreams and spiritual experiences
and some of my habits in earliest childhood, I was an Indian sage, scientist and believer in the
earliest of my lives a thousand years ago. Then, 600 years ago, I lived as a monk, also very

learned and devoted to religion, one of the founders of the Drepung monastery in Tibet. Those
are my memories of previous lives."
"As for my predecesors, I occasionally met with them in my dreams. I recently had a meeting of
that kind with the Thirteenth Dalai Lama. We spoke of Tibet. While I was still in Tibet, I had a
similar meeting with the Fifth Dalai Lama. These are mysterious things, are they not?"
The Dalai Lama just smiled when I asked if we had met in previous lives and that was the only
question His Holiness left without an answer in all of our discussions.

Searching for a Reincarnation

If one accept the Buddhist belief in reincarnation as a general principle, what remains is, to
Europeans, the fairly confusing question: how do you find a reincarnation of a certain being in
the ocean of people and do mistakes happen in that quest.
The Dalai Lama's answer to that question:"The business of identifying tulkus is more logical
than it may first appear. Given the Buddhist belief that the principle of rebirth is fact, and given
that the whole purpose of reincarnation is to enable being to continue its efforts on behalf of all
suffering sentient beings, it stands to reason that it should be possible to identify individual
cases. This enables them to be educated and placed in the world so that they can continue their
work as soon as possible."
"Mistakes in identification process can certainly be made, but the lives of the great majority of
tulkus (of whom there are presently a few hundred known, although in Tibet before the Chinese
invasion there were probably a few thousand) are adequate testimony of its efficacy."
"The whole purpose of reincarnation is to facilitate the continuity of a being's work.This fact has
great implications when it comes to searching for the successor of a particular person. For
example, whilst my efforts in general are directed towards helping all sentient beings, in
particular they are directed towards helping my fellow Tibetans. Therefore, if I die before
Tibetans regain their freedom, it is only logical to assume that I will be born outside Tibet. Of
course, it could be that by then my people will have no use for a Dalai Lama, in which case they
will not bother to search for me. So I might take rebirth as an insect, or an animal - whatever
could be of most value to the largest number of sentient beings."
"The way that the identification process is carried out is also less mysterious than might be
imagined. It begins as a simple process of elimination. Say, for instance, we are looking for a
reincarnation of a particular monk. First it must be established when and where the monk died.
Then, considering that the new incarnation will usually be conceived a year or so after the death
of its predecessor - these lengths of time we know from experience - a timetable is drawn up.
Thus, if Lama X dies in year Y, his next incarnation will probably be born around eighteen
months to two years later. In the year Y plus five, the child is likely to be between three and four
years old: the field has narrowed already."
"Next, the most likely place for the reincarnation to appear is established. This is usually quite
easy. First, will it be inside or outside Tibet? If outside, there are a limited number of places
where it is likely - the Tibetan communities in India, Nepal or Switzerland, for example. After

that, it must be decided in which town the child is most likely to be found. Generally this is done
by referring to the life of the previous incarnation."
"Having narrowed the options and established parameters in the way I have shown, the next
step is usually to assemble a search party. This need not necessarily mean that a group of
people is sent out as if they were looking for treasure. Usually it is sufficient to ask various
people in the community to look out for a child of between three and four who might be a
candidate. Often there are helpful clues, such as unusual phenomena at the time of the child's
birth: or the child may exibit peculiar characteristics.
"Sometimes it is not neccesary to send out a group to search since the previous incarnation left
detailed information on its heir including the name and the names of the parents. But that is
rare. In other cases, monks who seek an incarnation can see clearly in their dreams or in
visions where they should look. On the other hand, a very learned lama recently said that his
incarnation should not be sought at all. He said he should be followed by someone who will
wholeheartedly serve Buddha's Dharma and his community and added that we should not
invest effort to identify his incarnation. All in all, there are no firm rules."
"Sometimes, it happens that several children are possible candidates and in those cases the
final testing is done by someone who knew the previous incarnation well. That person is
frequently recognized by one of the children which is firm proof and sometimes markings on the
body are taken into consideration."
"In some cases, the identification process involves consulting one od the oracles or someone
who has powers of 'ngon she' (clairvoyance). One of the methods that these people use is 'Ta',
whereby the practitioner looks into a mirror in which he or she might see the actual child, or a
building, or perhaps a written name. I call this 'ancient television'."
"That is equal to the visions people see in the Lhamoi Lhatso lake where Reting Rimpoche saw
the letters Ah, Ka and Ma and the monastery and house when they were seeking me."
"Sometimes, I myself am called to direct the search for the reincarnation. In these
circumstances it is my responsibility to make the final decision on whether a given candidate
has been corectly chosen. I should say that I have no powers of clairvoyance. I have had
neither time nor the opportunity to develop them."
"As an example of how I do this, I will relate the story of Ling Rinpoche, my Senior Tutor. I
always had the greatest respect for him. I realized that he is one of my greatest and best
friends. When he died I felt that life without him at my side would be very difficult. He had
become a rock on which I could lean."
"I was in Switzerland in the late summer of 1983 when I first heard of his final illness: he had
suffered a stroke and become paralyzed. This news disturbed me very much. Yet, as a
Buddhist, I know there was no much use in worrying. As soon as I could I returned to
Dharamsala where I found him still alive but in a bad physical state. Yet his mind was sharp as
ever, thanks to a lifetime of assiduous mental training. His condition remained stable for several
months before deteriorating quite suddenly. He entered a coma from which he never emerged
and died on December 25, 1983. But, as if any further evidence of his being a remarkable
person were needed, his body did not begin to decay until thirteen days after he was

pronounced dead, despite the hot climate. It was as if he still inhabited his body, even though
clinically it was without life."
"When I look back at the manner of his demise, I am quite certain that Ling Rinpoche's illness,
drawn out as it was over a long period, was entirely deliberate, in order to help me get used to
being without him. However, that is only half the story. Because we are speaking of Tibetans,
the tale continues happily. Ling Rimpoche's reincarnation has since been found, and he is
presently a very bright and naughty boy of three. His discovery was one of those where the child
clearly recognises a member of the search party. Despite his being only eighteen months old,
he actually called the person by name and went forward to him, smiling. Subsequently he
correctly identified several other of his predecesor's acquaintances."
"When I met the boy for the first time, I had no doubts about his identity. He behaved in a way
that made it obvious he knew me, though he also showed the utmost respect."
"On that first occasion, I gave little Ling Rimpoche a large bar of chocolate. He stood
impassively holding on to it, arm extended and head bowed all the time he was in my presence.
I can hardly think any other infant would have kept something sweet untasted and reamined
standing so formally. Then, when I received the boy at my residence and he was brought to the
door, he acted just as his predecessor had done. It was plain he remembered his way round.
Moreover, when he came into my study, he showed immediate familiarity with one of my
attendants."
"Today, Ling Rimpoche is already reciting scriptures, though remains to be seen whether, when
he has learned to read, he will turn out to be like some of the young tulkus who memorise texts
at astonishing speed, as if they were simply picking up where they had left off. I have known a
number of small children who could declaim many pages with ease." (Learning Buddhist texts
by heart is one of the vital elements in the schooling of Tibetan monks - authors note).
"Certainly there is an element of mystery in the process of identifying incarnation. But suffice to
say, as a Buddhist, I do not believe that people like Mao or Lincoln or Churchil just 'happen',"
the Dalai Lama said.
When the Dalai Lama or some other tulku dies in Tibet, a search is organized in due time for the
child his spirit was transferred into. The late man usually indicates the direction which the
search should focus on.
Tibetans claim that there are reliable signs leading seekers to the incarnation. Those signs
include large ears standing little out from the head or the marks of another pair of hands below
the armpits. Children aged two to four, which are assumed to be a possible incarnation, are
tested extensively. Among other things they are offered things the deceased used and identical
objects which are new. The true candidate chooses objects which his predecesor used.
Sometimes the child, as the current Dalai Lama did at age three, recognizes people who worked
with the deceased.
This is how the Fourteenth Dalai Lama describes how he was found after the death of his
predecesor:
"When I was not quite three years old, a search party that had been sent out by the government
to find the new incarnation of the Dalai Lama arrived at Kumbum monastery. It had been led

there by a number of signs. One of these concerned the embalmed body of my predecessor,
Thupten Gyatso, the Thirteenth Dalai Lama, who had died aged fifty-seven in 1933. During its
period of sitting in state, the head was discovered to have turned from facing south to northeast. Shortly after that the Regent, himself a senior lama, had a vision. Looking into the waters
of the sacred lake, Lhamoi Lhatso, in southern Tibet, he clearly saw the Tibetan letters 'Ah', 'Ka'
and 'Ma' float into view. These were followed by the image of a three-storeyed monastery with a
turquoise and gold roof and a path running from it to a hill. Finally, he saw a small house with
strangely shaped guttering. He was sure that the letter 'Ah' reffered to Amdo, the north-eastern
province, so it was there that the search party was sent."
"By the time they reached Kumbum, the members of the search party felt that they were on the
right track. It seemed likely that if the letter 'Ah' reffered to Amdo, then 'Ka' must indicated the
monastery at Kumbum - which was indeed three-storeyed and turquoise roofed. They now only
needed to locate a hill and a house with peculiar guttering. So they began to search the
neighbouring villages. When they saw the gnarled branches of juniper wood on the roof of my
parent's house, they were certain that the new Dalai Lama would not be far away. Nevertheless,
rather than reveal the purpose of their visit, the group asked only to stay the night. The leader of
the party, Kewtsang Rimpoche, then pretended to be a servant and spent much of the evening
observing and playing with the youngest child in the house.
The child recongized him and called out 'Sera lama, Sera lama'. Sera was Kewtsang Rinpoche's
monastery. Next day they left - only to return a few days later as a formal deputation. This time
they brought with them a number of things that had belonged to my predecessor, together with
several similar item that did not. In every case, the infant correctly identified those belonging to
the Thirteenth Dalai Lama saying, 'It's mine, it's mine'. This more or less convinced the search
party that they had found the new incarnation. However, there was another candidate to be
seen before a final decision could be reached. But it was not long before the boy from Taktser
was acknowledged to be the new Dalai Lama. I was that child."
The Fourteenth Dalai Lama was born on July 6, 1935 in the eastern Tibetan province of Amdo
not far from lake Koko-nor.
The testimony about the search for the incarnation of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama by the chief of
staff of the Tibetan army Dzasa Kunsangtse is also interesting. He also mentions the indications
by the late Dalai Lama and says the emmisaries first tested several boys but none of them met
all the conditions. Kunsangtse says the group members were amazed when the boy from
Takster village was not tricked by the disguises the lamas wore and immediately indentified
where they were from the Sera monastery.
The general says the boy was immediatelly questioned and the results were impressive. They
were certain they had found the incarnation and informed the government in a letter written in
secret signs and sent through China and India.
Kunsangtse says the Tibetans had to pay a big ransom for the Dalai Lama to Chinese General
Ma Pu-feng who controlled Amdo province at the time and in the late summer of 1939 they
returned to Lhasa with the boy and his family.
The Dalai Lama's mother had sixteen children of which two daughters and five sons survived.
The eldest son Thubten Jigme Norbu was identified as the incarnation even before the current
Dalai Lama was born. He later became a translator and professor at the university of

Bloomington, Indiana. A second, also older Dalai Lama's brother Gyalo Thondup was schooled
in China, married a Chinese woman and lived in Formosa. The third brother Lobsang Samten
became a Buddhist monk but he is no longer alive. The Dalai Lama's eldest sister Tsering
Dolma also died after wholeheartedly helping her brother to care for Tibetan refugee children in
India. The youngest brother Ngari Rimpoche was found to be the incarnation of a wise lama and
he is the head of several monasteries in the Indian province of Ladakh on the western side of
the Himalayas. Ladakh is the only Indian province where Buddhists are a majority.
Before Ngari Rimpoche, the Dalai Lama's mother had a son who died at the age of two. "That
was the usual grief for my parents since many of their children died," the Dalai Lama says. "But
this time something interesting happened. The custom in Tibet is to consult a lama and an
astrologer, sometimes an oracle too, before the funeral. The advice they gave after the death of
that child was not to burn the body but to preserve it so that another child will be born in the
same house. They also said a sign should be drawn in butter on the body of the dead child.
That was done. Later my mother had another child, her last, a boy. When he was born there
was a pale spot on his body in the place where the sign had been drawn on the dead child's
body. It was the same being, born in a new body to start life again."

Ideology
The Dalai Lama is the ruler of an endangered people, peaceful and compassionate and
constantly exposed to the ruthless attacks of Chinese propaganda which seems not to have
forgotten to use even one of the many senseless qualifications fabricated for various "enemies
of the people" in the time of Stalin and Mao. It is natural that politics and ideology hold a
prominent place in talking to the exiled god because his answers complete the picture of the
current situation in Tibet.
Curious from early childhood, with a tendency towards science and technical things, dissatisfied
with the situation in Tibet and determined to implement wide-ranging reforms even before the
arrival of the Chinese, the Dalai Lama, just like millions of young people in the world, felt a
magnetic attraction for Communist ideals as soon as he even cursorily found out about them.
"I am half Marxist, half Buddhist," he told with a laugh the last day of June 1990 in our second
conversation in his residence in Dharamsala. "During my stay in Beijing in 1954-55 I waned to
become a member of the Communist party."
The Dalai lama was 20 then and had been god and king in his country for five years.
He laughed out loud at my remark that it is a good thing he didn't. His impressions, quoted
earlier, about his two years in China and talks with Mao Tse Tung and other leaders are an
explanation of his reasons. Also, the Dalai Lama's impression of then Chinese Prime Minister
Chu En-lai is interesting: "He was overly polite and kind and that is a sure sign that a person like
that cannot be trusted."
But, the Dalai Lama does not hide the fact that he inclines towards some kind of union of China
and Tibet.
"The more I got to know about Marxism, the more I liked it. That was system based on equality
and justice for all and it seemed that this was the cure to all the evils of the world. Theoretically,

as far as I could see, insisting on a purely materialistic view of human existance was in the
background although I could not agree with that on the whole. I was also worried about the
methods the Chinese used to achieve their ideals. I expressed the desire to become a party
member. I was certain, and I still am, that a synthesis could be found between Buddhism and
pure Marxism and that it would be a truly good policy."
I asked the Dalai Lama what he thinks of the basic thesis of the Marxist philosophy. He said:
"Buddhists believe that everything is relative. There is no absolute negative or absolute positive.
Everything is a mixture. I think that only enlightenment and Budhahood are completely positive.
Viewed from that standpoint, some aspects of Marxism, as I said before (concern not only about
producing something but also about distributing it equally) are more moral than in capitalism.
You see, the only concern in capitalism is money. The main topic in Marxism is a just
distribution. Also, great care is taken for people of lower classes who are in the majority and
who always have the hardest life. Those are the good aspects of that philosophy."
Of the similarity between Marxism (theoretical of course) and Buddhism, the Dalai Lama says: "I
think Marxism includes some kind of Buddhism. Carl Marx expressed great concern for the
rights of people who were left without care, but on the other hand, because of him a lot of hatred
was created in the world. In achieving those ideas, the accent was placed on class struggle. In
that struggle, there was a lot of insisting on negative emotions. Therefore, although Marxists say
they serve the working classes, when they implement their theory their main motivation is made
up of negative emotions."
"In Mahayana Buddhism (10), the need to serve endangered beings is also stressed but that
teaching is achieved through compassion without disregarding the fact that exploiters have the
right to be happy, I mean true happiness which cannot be achieved through exploitation and
endangering others. In Marxism, the exploiters have to be punished, eliminated. Therefore, the
stress is on negative emotions. My feeling is that the entire Marxist project is destructive
because of a lack of compassion."
"It is also negative that Marxism gradually became only a name the Communist leaders used to
hide their goals - nationalism and power. Some followers of Marxism destroyed the privileged
social classes only so that they could take their place. That is the same thing the followers of
Buddhism did once when they turned monasteries from centers of science into centers of trade.
We have to see the difference between the systems and the people who epitomiye the system.
The essence of Marxism is absolutely antireligious and there is no point in the faithful being
cautious towards that teaching because that only creates tension and strengthens overall
mistrust. On the other hand, because of ignorance and a lack of personal experience, Marxists
believe religion is completely counter-productive, which is wrong. A true Marxist must abandon
the narrow and dogmatic views and understand the values of spiritual teaching."
"If we speak about my political sympathies, I presume I am half Marxist. I have no argument
with capitalism, so long as it is practised in a humanitarian fashion, but my religious beliefs
dispose me far more towards Socialism and Internationalism, which are more in line with
Buddhist principles. The other attractive things about Marxism for me is its assertion that man is
ultimately responsible for his own destiny. This reflects Buddhist thougth exactly."
"I always differentiate between original Marxism and Communism as it was in various states. My
stand towards original Marxism is positive: it includes a number of clearly stated issues. One of

those examples is Marxist economic theory which stresses the need for rightful distribution and
use of wealth or money, and not only the accumulation of increasing amounts of wealth."
"In the domain of philosophy, Buddhism insists on self-creation and the development of
personality. Marxism also believes in some kind of self-creation and development. Some say
that Buddhism is a type of atheism because there is no Creator or God in it. We believe that
everything depends on us and that the fate of a man is in his own hands, not in the hands of
some unknown force. And of course, one of the essential stands of Buddhism is that man
should care more about others than himself."
"You see, those two philosophies have a lot of things in common. However, despite clear
positive stands on several important issues, communism has no satisfactory answer to all
human problems and needs. It also includes some characteristic, immanent limitations which
are clear in many cases. For example, despite its good points, Communist practice stresses
hatred too much. The result is that more energy is spent on the destructive than on the
constructive side. Also, since it completely lacks compassion, I would say that Marxism can
learn from Buddhism since Buddha's Dharma is complete in that sense."
"In today's world, a majority of the Buddhist civilizations, from Thailand to parts of Siberia, are
under the rule of Communist ideology. Over a quarter of mankind lives in that area and most of
them are Buddhists. History has shown that one political, economic or social ideology was never
enough for mankind. I think that it would be truly important for those two great systems,
Buddhism and Communism, to start interacting. For the sake of developing a peaceful, friendly
human family of nations with a rich diversity of beliefs and political and economic systems, each
of us is responsible for movements towards that harmony."

The Cruel Communist's Regimes

"I do not think the word Communism itself now should be removed. I told that recently to the
leader of the Italian Communists who asked my opinion about the new name of his party. They
want to remove the word Communist, but the term Communism does not represent anything
bad. The bad thing was that cruel regimes were created in the name of Communism.
Communism finally broke down because it depended on the force it used to try to spread its
ideas. People who use deception and violence can achieve a short lived success but in the end
they will be defeated. I still believe Socialism is very good. But, the question remains: how to
build Socialism? Certainly not by force!"
"Regardless of its cruelty, raw power can never suppress the inborn human desire for freedom.
That was proved by hundreds of thousands of people who demonstrated throughout Europe in
1989. They simply expressed their human need for freedom and democracy. Their demands
had nothing to do with any ideology, didn't they? What the Communist regimes advocate - food,
a roof over your head and clothing - are not enough for man. If we have those things but we lack
the precious breath of freedom which satisfies the essence of our nature, then we are just half
man, like the animals which are satisfied when their physical needs are met."
"Eastern Europe gave the world a big lesson: it showed that peaceful changes are possible. In
the past, enslaved nations always resorted to force to liberate themselves. Now, these peaceful
revolutions, which followed the path of Mahatma Ghandi and Martin Luther King, leave future
generations an excellent example of successfully non-violent changes. Moreover, the year 1989

showed that human nature, at its fundamental level, does not lean only towards freedom but
also towards peace. That was also evident in China where the democratic student movement,
although brutally suppressed, stayed on Mahatma Ghandi's path."
"I sometimes hear Westerners say that a long-term struggle in the Ghandi style, a fight through
non-violent passive resistance, is unsuitable for the West but suits the East more. People in the
West are very active. They seek quick results in all situations even at the cost of their lives. I
think that belief is not always good. Non-violence certainly suits everyone. It simply demands
persistence and patience."
The Dalai Lama sees Communism as a pure and never achieved ideology and says he believes
most Communists have no reason to regret belonging to those parties which became infamous
across the world first because of the mistakes of Marx and later Stalin's camps and other
crimes. Of that he told me: "As young men you joined the communist parties attracted by the
ideology which included good things, you did not want persecute others. Also, that was a way, a
condition, for you to work. That is not something bad and you should not regret it although I
understand the feelings of Communists like that, after the late knowledge of the crimes of their
leaders, that a good part of their lives was spent in vain."

****
While he has been saying this the Dalai Lama took me by the hand and held for a few minutes
almost gently. There was no pressure and my hand was not in a position that would explain
what was happening: it grew numb gradually and that feeling was not unpleasant and lasted for
over an hour after I left his residence. I did not understand the possible message or the
explanation of a friend later: "He wanted to show you what they can do." My only conclusion
was that to us who were born west of the Himalayas, there is a lot we cannot understand
unfortunately.

****
"My life was similar in a way," the Dalai Lama continued, "although I did not join the Communist
party of China. Nine years in occupied Tibet, 31 years in exile, even though it is in free India, is
a lot of negative experience and all of it because of Communism. Communist countries now are
changing, accepting reality. The events in Eastern Europe (in the late 1980s - author's note) are
the consequence of overpowerful Communist repression which is disappearing now".
The Dalai Lama was saddened by the discord among the nations in the former Yugoslavia and
said: "I think that you, the Yugoslavs, can solve everything. The important thing is to bear in
mind long-term interests, to think of the world as a whole. This is a time when the situation in the
world is becoming more stable. Differences and disputes still exist, of course, but all that can be
solved in the spirit of harmony, mutual respect and understanding."
"Only China is staying with its old practices in that situation but I think that it will be impossible to
postpone changes there for long" - the Dalai Lama said. (The changes in China in the early
1990s confirmed his predictions - author's note).
"I am certain that there will be great changes in China and, if there is a mood of human
understanding, talks will be possible then. The Chinese often say that there is 4,000 years of

civilization behind them. However, history is history and in the current situation it is
incomprehensible how a country can so persistently stick to the old system despite changes in
all the Communist countries. I think that in the next five to ten years there will be great changes
in China. I said a number of times that six million Tibetans have no reason to be against a union
with a billion Chinese if some advantages are secured. We are not against the Chinese people.
That is why I submitted my five point proposal (the proposal was made in the US Congress and
European Parliament - author's note). I agreed to great concession but the Chinese government
never replied and no discussion was started. So, despite my efforts made with an honest
motivation and the hope that real negotiations will start, there was no reply. If the Chinese
government does not do something concrete soon I will consider the concessions I offered
invalid."
"Truthfully, I do not think any reply will come from Beijing. Still, I am truly devoted to the principle
of non-violence and I believe the Tibetan issue should be resolved through negotiations."
The Dalai Lama says he does not understand the Chinese Communists.
"I must admit I do not fully understand the way the Chinese mind functions. When I visited China
in the early 1950s, I could see that a lot of people had given up everything in order to help bring
about a tranformation in society. Many bore physical scars from the struggle and most were
men of the highest principle who genuinely sought to bring about real benefits for every person
in their vast country. To do this, they constructed a party system which enabled them to know
every last detail about one another, right down to the number of hours' sleep each one needed.
They were so passionate about their ideals that they would stop as nothing to achieve them.
And in their leader, Mao Tse-tung, they had a man of great vision and imagination, someone
who realised the value of constructive criticism and frequently encouraged it.
Yet in no time at all, the new administration became paralysed by petty in-fighting and
squabbling. I saw it happen in front of my own eyes. Soon, they began to exchange fact for
fable, to tell falsehoods whenever it was necessary to show themselves in a good light. When I
met Chou En-lai in India on that occasion in 1956 and told him of my fears, he replied by telling
me not to worry."
"That is what their press is like. During my stay in China, I realized for the first time to what
extent reports in the Communist press are distorted: it seems that lying is in the blood of the
Chinese authorities."
"I remain at a loss to explain how this happened, how the noble ideals of so many good men
and women became tranformed into sensless barbarity. Nor can I understand what motivated
those people within the Chinese leadership who actively counselled the total destruction of the
Tibetan race. It seems that China is a country which has lost its faith, as a result of which the
Chinese people have themselves endured unspeakable misery over the past forty-one years all in the name of Communism."
"I realized that the Chinese leaders were not true Marxists, not the people who strive to create a
better world for all people. They were in fact just nationalist and chauvinists who portrayed
themselves as Communists; all in all they were a group of narrow minded fanatics. Yet the
pursuit of Communism has been one of the greatest human experiment of all time, and I do not
deny that I myself was very impresed with its ideology at the first. The trouble was, as I soon
discovered, that although Communism claims to serve 'the people' - for whom there are

'people's hotels', 'people's hospitals', and so on - 'the people' does not mean everyone, only
those who hold views that are held by a minority to be 'the people's views'.
Summing up this conversation about his ideological and political beliefs, the Dalai Lama said: "If
I were actually to vote in an election it would be for one of the Enviromental parties. One of the
most positive developments in the world recently has been the growing awareness of the
importance of Nature. There is nothing sacred or holy about this. Taking care of our planet is
like taking care of our houses. Since we human beings come from Nature, there is no point in
our going against Nature, which is why I say the enviroment is not a matter of religion or ethics
or morality. These are luxuries, since we can survive without them. But we will not survive if we
continue to go against Nature."

The Dalai Lama - the Traveler

The Fourteenth Dalai Lama is the only ruler in Tibetan history who has toured most of the world.
His Holiness used to say that that happened thanks to the Chinese. As good will ambassador
and emissary of a people who are threatened with destruction, the Dalai Lama has traveled
often and gladly since 1967, visiting over 40 countries explaining the situation in Tibet to anyone
who is willing to listen, lecturing on Buddhism and answering every question that is posed.
There is no distance between him and others as can be expected in the case of a king who is
also a god. Much like a missionary in unknown lands, the Dalai Lama use every possible
opportunity to speak of his deep belief of the uniqueness of the human family, the need for
every individual to be aware of his own responsibility for the fate of the world, of compassion
based on love and sympathy for every living being, of tolerance which he believes is the only
true source of peace in the world.
During his several visit to the United States, he spoke to ordinary people, members of Congress
and then President George Bush. Of that he told me: "Those were useful visits. During my first
trip to that country in 1979, I noticed that Americans, I mean the people, know little of Tibet.
However, I found great sympathy everywhere. The Americans hold freedom and democracy
very dear and whenever they hear of crimes, violations of human rights, invasions, they take the
side of the victim. Now, I saw that we enjoy wide support in the US. Over the past two years, the
American Congress and Senate adopted resolutions in support of Tibet. This time we got even
stronger support."
"I also met President Bush who I consider a very sympathetic human being with warm feelings. I
had the opportunity of talking to congressmen and senators in the Rotunda. My impression was
that the leaders of both US parties support Tibet very much, its freedom and respect for the
human rights of Tibetans."
"President Bush asked me what the situation is in Tibet and expressed concern for my country. I
told him what was happening in Tibet, told him the facts about Tibetan culture and spiritual life. I
explained the current situation, told him that there are many violations of human rights and
destruction performed by the Chinese in Tibet. I also explained that the Tibetan national
struggle is not just political but also a fight for spiritual freedom. Because of that the struggle of
the Tibetans is of great importance not only to them but also to the Chinese, since if we win
freedom that means Tibetan spirituality will be preserved and developed. That opens

opportunities for us to help millions of young Chinese who lost their souls because of the
Communist dictatorship. I want to say that their mental state is confused."
"President Bush listened to me carefully. He was very interested and very concerned over
everything, but I do not know how much he could do as the president of the United States."
I told the Dalai Lama what he already knew: the president of the most powerful country in the
world can do a lot if he thinks he should. Judging by developments later, Bush did not think so.
In any case, the US were restrained, to say the least, in their attitude towards Tibet since the
Chinese invasion. For example, the CIA gave the Tibetans a symbolic help in the early 1950s
which was not very useful. Some ten yeas later, when Sino-US relations improved, Tibet was
virtually forgotten. In 1971, the White House banned the screening of a 13 minute documentary
film title The Man From the Forgotten Land which the US Information Service (USIS) had made
about the Chinese invasion and the Dalai Lama's flight. The official explanation for the ban was
that it could anger the Chinese prior to President Richard Nixon's visit in February 1972.
Also, unlike thousands of Vietnamese, Laotians and Cambodians and somewhat less Poles and
Hungarians, the Tibetans were never given the status of refugees in the US. Out of the total of
over 100,000 Tibetan refugees just 300 live in the States and those of them who managed to
become US citizens were only recently allowed to list Tibet, not China, as their country of origin.
One of them said: "Making Tibetans list China as the country they were born in is the same as
forcing Jews to list Auschwitz as their birthplace."
Along with all that, the Dalai Lama was given his first visa to the US in 1979 after years of the
State Department discreetly telling the Tibetans not to expect a visa for their leader. However,
the US Congress' foreign policy Committee described Tibet as "an occupied sovereign country"
for the first time in the spring of 1995 in a law on foreign relations. That formulation was included
in the law at the suggestion of committee chairman Senator Jesse Helms, a man known for his
critical stands on "red China". Helms' stand was supported by Republican leader in Congress
Robert Dole. After a debate on Tibet, the committee concluded that the country "can be
considered an occupied sovereign country under international law whose legal representatives
are the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government in exile."
This is what the Dalai Lama said about the Tibetan issue: "The problem of Tibet is not the
problem of the Dalai Lama; it is a question of the survival of an entire race, the Tibetan nation.
Tibet is not a new nation. Its history is over 2,000 years old. The Tibetan civilization is five to six
thousand years old. We also have had experiences with the Chinese for over 1,000 years."
"The world should bear in mind that China use Tibet as a place to produce nuclear weapons.
There are indications that Beijing could allow third countries to dispose of nuclear wastes in
Tibet. That service would be paid for by those countries in hard currency."
During his stay in Sweden in 1989 when he received the Nobel peace prize, the Dalai Lama
predicted great changes in China over the next few years. I asked him what he based those
predictions on.
His Holiness answered: "My personal prediction is that those changes will take place in five to
ten years. However, my Chinese friends tell me that they can be expected sooner. Events in
eastern Europe and the rest of the world, where Communism is disappearing, indicate that the

current system in China cannot survive for long, the more so since the Chinese people are very
embittered."
Although the Dalai Lama dislikes speaking about the mystical aspects of Tibetan tradition, which
includes state oracles, I insisted on an explanation of the basics for those predictions. The Dalai
Lama mentions "a number of Tibetan predictions in the late 1950s" which he said "represent
indications that great changes in that part of the world could come sometime around 1993.

Oracles and Predictions

Tibet is perhaps the only state in the world which has a state oracles. The Fourteenth Dalai
Lama, as far as I know, does not think too good of astrology but respects his oracle, Nechung,
very much. This is what the Dalai Lama said about astrology: "Since the most important days in
a man's life, the date of birth and death, cannot be foreseen in consultation with astrology, I
always felt it was not worth the effort to consult it about anything else. However, that is only my
personal opinion. That does not mean I am against Tibetans consulting astrology. On the
contrary, it is very important to our culture."
The Tibetans really are superstitious and, like most Asian people, nothing important can be
done without consulting an astrologer who sets not only the date when an important ceremony
should be performed but sometimes also how the participants should arrive at the ceremony
and the kind of food that should be served. Since weddings are undoubtedly one of those very
important dates, an astrologer can establish the day when individual and joint elements will be
in perfect harmony for the young couple to be wed. The parents of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama
waited for that favorable day for two years after their families decided to marry them.
Unlike astrologers, oracles have played a much more important state role in Tibet for centuries.
The Dalai Lama's description of their importance, appearance and seances is certainly the most
authentic possible.
"I must stress that the purpose of oracle is not, as might be supposed, simply to fortell the
future. This is only part of what they do. In addition, they can be called upon as protectors and in
some cases they are used as healers. But their principal function is to assist people in their
practice of the Dharma. Another point to remeber is that the word 'oracle' is itself misleading. It
implies that there are people who possess oracular powers. This is wrong. In the Tibetan
tradition there are merely certain men and women who act as mediums between natural and the
spiritual realms, the name for them being 'kuten', which means, literally, 'the physical basis'.
Also, I should point out that whilst it is usual to speak of oracles as if they were people, this is
done for convenience. More accurately, they can be described as 'spirits' which are associated
with particular things, people and places. That should not be taken to imply belief in the
existence of external independent entities."
"In former times there must have been many hundred oracles throughout Tibet. Few have
survived, but the most important - those used by the Tibetan government - still exist. Of these,
the pricipal one is known as the Nechung oracle. Through him manifests Dorje Drakden, one of
the protector divinities of the Dalai Lama."
"Nechung originally came to Tibet with a descendant of Indian sage Dharmapala. During the
reign of King Trisong Detsen, in the eighth century AD, he was appointed protector of the

Samye monastery by the Indian Tantric master and supreme spiritual guardian of Tibet
Padmasambhava. Samye was the first Buddhist monastery to be built in Tibet and was founded
by another Indian scholar, the abbot Shantarakshita. The Second Dalai Lama developed a close
relationship with Nechung - who had by this time become closely associated with Drepung
monastery - and thereafter Dorje Drakden was appointed personal protector of succeeding
Dalai Lamas."
"For hundreds of years now, it has been traditional for the Dalai Lama, and the Government, to
consult Nechung during the New Year festival. I myself have dealings with him several times a
year. This may sound far-fetched to twentieth century western readers. Even some Tibetans,
mostly those who consider themselves 'progressive', have misgivings about my continued use
of this ancient method of intelligence gathering. But I do so for the simple reason that as I look
back over the many occasions when I have asked questions of the oracle, on each one of them
time has proved that the answer was correct. This is not to say that I rely solely on the oracle's
advice. I do not. I seek his opinion in the same way as I seek the opinion of my Cabinet and just
as I seek the opinion of my own consciousness. I consider the gods to be my 'upper house'. The
Kashag constitues my lower house. Like any other leader, I consult both before making a
decision on affairs of state. Sometimes, I consult other predictions besides Nechung's.
"In one respect, the responsibility of Nechung and the responsibility of the Dalai Lama towards
Tibet are the same, though we act in different ways. My task, that of leadership, is peaceful. His,
in his capacity as protector and defender, is wrathful. However, although our functions are
similar, my relationship with Nechung is that of commander and lieutenant: I never bow down to
him. It is for Nechung to bow to the Dalai Lama. Yet we are also very close, almost friends.
When I was small, it was touching. Nechung liked me a lot and always took great care of me.
For example, if he noticed that I had dressed carelessly or improperly, he would come over and
rearrange my shirt or ajust my robe."
"Despite this sort of familiarity, Nechung has always shown respect for me. Even when his
relations with the Government have deteriorated, as they did during the last few years of the
Regency, he invariably responds enthusiastically whenever asked anything about me. At the
same time, his replies to questions about government policy can be crushing. Sometimes he
just responds with a burst of sarcastic laughter. I well remember a particular incident that
occured when I was about fourteen. Nechung was asked a question about China. Rather than
answer it directly, the kuten turned towards the East and began bending forward violently. It was
frightening to watch, knowing that this movement combined with the weight of the massive
helmet he wore on his head would be enough to snap his neck. He did it at least fifteen times,
leaving no one in any doubt about where the danger lay."
"Dealing with Nechung is by no means easy. It takes time and patience during each encounter
before he will open up. He is very reserved and austere, just as you would imagine a grand old
man of ancient times to be. Nor does he bother with minor matters: his interest is only in the
larger issues, so it pays to frame accordingly. He also has definite likes and dislikes, but he
does not show them very readily."
"Nechung has his own monastery near Dharamsala, but usually he comes to me. On formal
occasions, the kuten is dressed in an elaborate costume consisting of several layers of clothing
topped by a highly ornate robe of golden silk brocade, which is covered with ancient designs in
red and blue and green and yellow. On his chest he wears a circular mirror surrounded by
clusters of turquoise and amethyst, its polished steel flashing with the Sanskrit mantra

corresponding to Dorje Drakden. Before the proceedings begin, he also puts on a sort of
harnes, which supports four flags and three victory banners. Alltogether, this outfit weighs more
than seventy pounds and the medium, when not in trance, can hardly walk in it."
"The ceremony begins with chanted invocations and prayers, accompanied by the urgings of
horns, cymbals and drums. After a short while, the kuten enters his trance having been
supported until then by his assistants, who now help him over to a small stool set before my
throne. Then, as the first prayer cycle concludes and the second begins, his trance begins to
deepen. At this point, a huge helmet is placed on his head. This item weighs approximately
thirty pounds, though in former times it weighed over eighty."
"Now the kuten's face transforms, becoming rather wild before puffing up to give him altogether
strange appearance, with bulging eyes and swollen cheeks. His breathing begins to shorten and
he starts to hiss violently. Then, momentarily, his respiration stops. At this point the helmet is
tied in place with a knot so tight that it would undoubtedly strangle the kuten if something very
real were not happening. The posession is now complete and the mortal frame of the medium
expands visibly."
"Next, he leaps up with a start and, grabbing a ritual sword from one of his attendants, begins to
dance with slow, dignified, yet somehow menacing, steps. He then comes in front of me and
either prostrates fully or bows deeply from the waist until his helmet touches the ground before
springing back up, the weight of his regalia counting for nothing. The volcanic energy of the
deity can barely be contained within the earthly frailty of the kuten, who moves and gestures as
if his body were made of rubber and driven by a coiled spring of enormous power."
"There follows an interchange between Nechung and myself, where he makes ritual offerings to
me. I then ask any personal question I have for him. After replying, he returns to his stool and
listens to the questions put by members of the Government. Before giving answers to these the
kuten begins to dance again, trashing his sword above his head. He looks like a magnificent,
fierce Tibetan warrior chieftain of old."
"As soon as Dorje Drakden has finished speeking, the kuten makes a final offering before
collapsing, a rigid and lifeless form, signifying the end of the possession. Simultaneously, the
knot holding his helmet in place is untied in a great hurry by his assistants, who then carry him
out to recover."
"Surprising as it may seem, the oracle's replies to questions are rarely vague. As in the case of
my escape from Lhasa, when he clearly confirmed that the Dalai Lama should leave the
country, he is often very specific. I suppose that it would be difficult to prove or disprove
conclusively the validity of his pronouncements by using scientific methods. The same would
surely be true of other areas of Tibetan experience, for example the matter of tulkus. I hope that
one day some sort of enquiry into both phenomena will be made.

Anger and Violence

The conviction of Buddhists that every being in the endless cycle of birth and death was once
mother or father to every being comes from the strong belief in reincarnation. That is one of the
reasons for the ban on violence which Buddhists respect. Because of it, even the tilling of land
was a problem in old Tibet because worm or insects could be harmed. That ban is not absolute

however. The Dalai Lama says that even Buddha committed suicide once but with noble
motives which just contributed to his good karma.
This is how the Dalai Lama tells the tale:
"In one of his previous births, Shakyamuni Buddha was born as the captain, the Compassionate
One. On his ship were 500 traders, and among them was one who thought to kill the other 499
and take all their goods. The captain tried many times to advise the man not to do such evil, but
he held to his plan. The captain had compassion for the 499 persons who were in danger to be
killed and wanted to save their lives; he also had compassion for the man who was planning to
kill them and who, by doing so, would accumulate tremendous bad karma. Thus he decided
that, having no other means to stop him, it would be better to take upon himself the karmic
burden of killing one person in order to spare that person the karma of killing 499, and he killed
the would-be murderer. Because of his compassionate motivation, the captain accumulated
great merit, even through a deed of killing. This is an example of the type of activity that a
Boddhisattva must do in order to undertake appropriate action to stop someone else's doing an
evil deed."
This story can be a sort of an introduction to the Dalai Lama's interpretation of the stand about
violence.
"In some situations," the Dalai Lama told me, "we have to take counter-action. China, for
example, occupied our country by force and caused much destruction (The Dalai Lama means
the 6,254 of a total of 6,259 Tibetan monasteries the Chinese destroyed or turned into
warehouses, stables and troop facilities - author's note). We are not reconciled with that, we
cannot accept Chinese crimes and violence. When some Chinese official orders arrests, torture,
executions we first feel anger but immediately try to control it, to create a true human feeling
towards the Chinese people in ourselves. That is not easy but we can achieve it through
practice. Situations like that give Buddhists the opportunity to cultivate their tolerance. I want to
say that tolerance and patience as preached by Buddhism do not mean accepting injustice and
reconciliation with it. It is quite right to rebel against injustice, against violence. It is not important
whether we will succeed or not, the important thing is to defend the principle. But there must be
no negative emotions, no hatred."
The Dalai Lama is an incurable optimist who has unlimited faith in people. He firmly believes
that good prevails in human nature, that humanity is increasingly becoming aware of the
dangers threatening it, and that the next century will be better and happier than the twentieth.
"Although it has last for forty years now, the Chinese occupation is not the end of the Tibetan
people," the Dalai Lama told me. "In a way, the Chinese have done us a favor. Until they
occupied our country, the political awareness of Tibetans had been limited for centuries: they
were united by Buddhism, they expected spiritual leadership from the Dalai Lama but they
thought more about their clan or region than the country as a whole. Now all that has changed.
In the private letters I get from central or southern Tibet, people write of our country as Bod
Chenpo - Great Tibet, which includes the vast eastern provinces of Kham and Amdo. The letters
from eastern Tibet use the name Khazachen - Snow Country, which also includes all of Tibet in
its former borders. That shows that our people are aware that our country is much larger than
the 'autonomous region' whose name and borders the Chinese invented in 1951. You see, all
six million Tibetans gained a feeling of unity once again thanks to Chinese cruelty and that fact
leads me to conclude that the nations that suffered the most - and I recall the Jews when I say

that - become the strongest. Until recently, the Chinese called the Tibetans bandits. Bandits or
not, they are firm; they will never accept repression."
Although history, filled with wars and mass crimes, seems to deny his stands, the Tibetan leader
persistently claims that "violence is against human nature although it is a part of it". He believes
that love, patience, forgiveness, compassion prevail in human nature.
It is hard to disprove the proof the Dalai Lama supplies to back up his claim: "If anger were the
dominant force in humans; there would be more murders than births. We usually do not notice
expressions of the good side of human nature - friendship, marriages, care for children is
considered normal, customary. But, when someone is killed, the newspapers report it
immediately and we gain the impression that violence prevails in human society."
"Violence is basically against human nature," the Dalai Lama said and added: "But you are right
when you claim it is part of that nature. That is so because of various types of human mind.
When we say mind, it seems to be something united, solid. However, that is not so. If we look
closely, we'll see that there are many variations of the mind making some thoughts positive and
some highly negative. We try to develop the ones which are useful to man and suppress the
others. Also, a closer look shows that anger and hatred are also part of the human mind but so
are compassion, forgiveness, patience.Today, there are over five billion human beings and their
number is increasing. That in itself confirms that love and compassion are the dominant forces
in human nature."

Control of the Mind

One of the prevailing beliefs in the world is that Buddhists are introvert in order to perfect their
mind through years of physical and spiritual exercise. I asked the Dalai Lama about the result of
those efforts. I compared the training of athletes, which can develop extraordinary physical
abilities, with the much longer and more intense mental training of the Buddhists whose
outcome is mainly unknown to the rest of the world.
"We believe," the Dalai Lama said, "that the mind is superior. Once man becomes capable of
controlling his mind completely he gains special abilities and energy. He become capable of
doing much more than before and gains a special psychic power. To a Buddhist, the final goal is
to transform his consciousness through those practices and achieve the state of enlightenment."
"From my own experience, I can tell you that this is the way to sharpen the mind, increase the
ability of memory and achieve mental stability. Man becomes calmer even when unpleasant
things happen to him, including tragedies. Naturally, there is shock initially, man is upset but that
feeling disappears quickly and the mind becomes calm again. That mental relaxation is very
useful for physical health as well,"he said and continued: "Unlike Western science which
generally rejects or disregards unusual human experience, we accept it as a fact of like.
Perhaps those beliefs are why some foreigners think the Tibetans are strange but there is
nothing strange there. There are people in the West who have strange experiences but that
always goes unnoticed."
"The Buddhist approach has a lot in common with Western science. At the start of any research
we are skeptical, questioning, experimenting. Only when we find a solid basis, when things
become clear, we do accept it. It is wrong to accept anything without a foundation, based only

on faith. The difference, as I see it, is that Western science wants to measure everything as
well. What significance do particles that can be measured have? Buddhism deals with the mind
which is without shape, without those measurable particles. I believe that in the next century a
new concept of science will appear. In the nineteenth and start of the twentieth centuries,
scientists believed only in what they could measure independently and objectively. Some great
neurologists and physicists I talked to in the present day, especially the ones working with
quantum theory, understand that a vast world of probability exists and that we cannot measure
many things independently and objectively, that many events include the subjective side."
"Naturally, I do not expect them to accept our view of the continuity of the mind, of life after life,
of life after death. But, at the same time, they hesitate to reject that decisively. Those are open
questions, aren't they?
The Dalai Lama did not want to speak in more detail about the slightly mystical aspects of the
physical and spiritual achievements of Buddhists which have turned into legends across the
world. He said the popular books of Lobsang Rampa describing some of those achievements
such as levitation, the opening of the third eye, astral journeys, are the fruit of fantasy. "If the
operation of opening the third eye were performed in Tibet then the Dalai Lama, as leader of the
Tibetan nation, should have a third eye, and you can see that I do not," he told me with his
characteristic laughter.
The Dalai Lama said that many Buddhist monks who spent years living alone in the mountains
had much more exciting spiritual experiences than he did and indirectly confirmed the well
documented reports of monks who spend their lives as scantily clothed hermits in the snows of
the Himalayas.
Young educated Tibetans told me, with complete conviction, that there is a monk in the
mountains near Dharamsala who can stop or cause rain to fall at will among other things.
But, the Dalai Lama and other Tibetans avoid speaking about their powers and experiences,
probably because they do not want to be considered freaks by people who tend to ridicule them.
It is an accepted principle that people who are capable of performing miracles, and many are
said to have that ability, can do so only for some useful purpose. In any case, they do not speak
about it because that would be a sign of vanity which is a bad trait. In fact, the miracle makers
should not only not speak about their abilities but also cannot perform them in public especially
not just to show someone how they do it. If someone does that, he will draw the anger of spirits
onto himself and shorten his own life. What Buddhists offer publicly to the people is advice,
instructions on how to achieve spiritual peace, how to make use of the positive potential every
human being has and which they believe is vast. Although, at first glance, that could seem to be
to little, there is some basis to the belief that this is the way to save humanity from its own
destructiveness.
At the same time, the Dalai Lama believes that ancient Tibetan practices - from medicine to
astrology - is quite normal, although he realizes that many things could seem strange to
foreigners. "I think the difference in approach came because the Western nations, accustomed
to their science and technology, tend to reject or disregard unusual human experiences," the
Dalai Lama said. "If something unusual happens they say: but that is not scientific. We, the
Tibetans, do not pay special attention to unusual occurrences but we accept their existence.
The ability to foresee events is a usual phenomenon, one that does exist, and we accept it as a

fact. I know that there are people in the West who have had unusual experiences but that is
almost never noticed."
In his autobiography, the Dalai Lama described something of the magic and mystery of Tibet.
This is what he said: "I am often asked about the so-called magical aspects of Tibetan
Buddhism. Many Westerners want to know whether books on occult practices in Tibet, written
by people like Lobsang Rampa and some others, are true. They also ask me whether
Shambhala really exists (the legendary land which is mentioned in ancient texts and which is
assumed to be hidden in the unexplored northern wastes of Tibet). In reply to these questions, I
usually say that the most of these books are works of imagination and that Shambala exists,
yes, but not in any conventional sense. At the same time, it would be wrong to deny that some
Tantric practices do genuinely give rise to misterious phenomena."
"However, I have agreed to a number of scientific investigations into the nature of certain
specific practices. The first of these was carried out by Dr Herbert Benson, who is presently
head of the Department of Behavioural Medicine at Harvard Medical School in America. When
we met during my 1979 visit, he told me that he was working on an analysis of what he termed
'relaxation response', a physiological phenomenon encountered when a person enters a
meditative state. He felt that it would further understanding of this proces if he were able to
conduct experiments on highly advanced practitioners of meditation."
"As a strong believer in the value of modern science, I decided to let him proceed, though not
without some hesitation. I knew that many Tibetans were uneasy about the idea. They felt that
the pratices in question should be kept confidental because they derive from secret doctrines.
Against this consideration I set the possibility that the results of such an investigation might
benefit not only science but also religious practitioners and could therefore be of some general
benefit to humankind."
"In the event, Dr Benson was satisfied that he had found something extraordinary. (His findings
were poublished in several books and scientific journals, including Nature.) He came out to India
with his two assistants and several pieces of sophisticated equipment and conducted
experiments on some monks in hermitages near to Dharamsala and in Ladakh and Sikkim,
further north."
"The monks in question were practitioners of Tum-mo yoga, which is designed to demonstrate
proficiency in particular Tantric disciplines. By meditating on the chakras (energy centres) and
the nadis (energy channels), the practitioner is able to control and prevent temporarily the
activity of the grosser level of consciousness, permitting him or her to experience the subtler
levels. According to Buddhist thought, there are many levels of consiousness. The grosser
pertain to ordinary perception - touch, sight, smell and so forth - whilst the subtles are those
which are apprehended at the point of death. One of the aims of Tantra is to enable the
practitioner to 'experience' death, for it is then that the most powerful spiritual realisations can
come about."
"When the grosser levels of consiousness are suppressed, physiological phenomena can be
observed. In Dr Benson's experiments, these included the raising of body temperatures (as
measured internally by rectal thermometer and externally by skin thermometer) by up to 18
degrees Fahrenheit (10 Centrigrade). These increases allowed the monks to dry out sheets,
soaked in cold water and draped around them, even though the ambient temperature was well
below freezing. Dr Benson also witnessed, and took similar measurment from monks sitting

naked on snow. He found that they could remain still throughout the night without any loss of
body temperature. During these sessions, he also noted that the practitioner's oxigen intake
decreased to around seven breaths per minute."
"Our knowledge of the human body and how it works is not yet sufficient to offer an explanation
of what is happening there. Dr Benson believes that the mental processes involved may enable
the meditator to burn up 'brown fat' deposits in the bodies - a phenomenon previously thought to
be confined only to hibernating animals. But, whatever mechanisms are at work, what interested
me most is the clear indication that there are things about modern science can learn from
Tibetan culture."
"In fact, Buddhism and modern science do not contradict one another. Spirit and matter, that is
energy, are just two aspects of the same thing. Does not modern physics teach us that? Our
lamas have known that for centuries and always found out again that that is so. Energy or spirit
condenses in regular intervals into matter. Under Buddhist teaching, matter is turned into
energy. The things we see are just different transitional phenomena of the same eternal flow
from which we come and with which we will be united again."

Will the Dalai Lama Be Reincarnated?

In 1988, the Tibetan leader said that he had not yet decided about his next incarnation and that
it seems to him that the Tibetans might not need the institution of Dalai Lama in the future. I
asked His Holiness what he thinks of that now.
"I assume I will live another 20-30 years. That is why I am not thinking about that now. If the
institution of Dalai Lama is not necessary and useful to my people then it could disappear. On
the other hand, I have time to think about my next incarnation. If the Dalai Lama truly is needed
by the Tibetans it won't be hard to find a suitable candidate. Whether my spirit will come to the
same position or not is not important. If my next life is in another place, that position will be
taken by an equally qualified spirit or being and there will be no problem. In any case, the
Fourteenth Dalai Lama will be reincarnated and I am not worried about my future or the future of
the institution of Dalai Lama. As a Mahayana Buddhist, I will return for as long as there is
suffering in this world. Whether I will come back as the Dalai Lama is not important at all."
"Some people think that the disappearance of the institution of Dalai Lama would mean the end
of my reincarnations. That is completely wrong. Whether the institution remains or not, my
reincarnations will continue. As for myself, I always say in one of my daily prayers that as long
as space exists, as long as suffering of living beings exists, I will be there to serve them to ease
their suffering. As long as living beings exist I will be among them to serve them the best I can.
That is the real spiritual value of an individual, the true sense of life."
"I might be the last Dalai Lama," the Tibetan leader said with a smile, "although the predictions
about that are not quite clear. But if I remain on earth for another 20-30-40 years, things will
change; Buddhists believe that all phenomena are impermanent. Whether the Tibetan people
will choose a Dalai Lama or not is basically the question of the usefulness of the Dalai Lama as
an institution. Now the Dalai Lama is very important for Tibet and it is my responsibility to
perform that duty in the best way. But that does not mean that the Dalai Lama is Tibet or that
Tibet is the Dalai Lama. Nothing of the sort. The Dalai Lama is simply an individual".

"What will happen if the Dalai Lama dies? I think the circumstances are such that the Dalai
Lama will be needed after me. I want to say quite clearly that my reincarnation will never fall into
the hands of the Chinese. The Fourteenth Dalai Lama consciously left his country because of
the circumstances there and that fact makes quite clear the conclusion that if the Dalai Lama is
reincarnated, that reincarnation will have a clear purpose. Since its predecessor left his own
country, Tibet, for a certain purpose to live in India, the reincarnation will most certainly appear
in that region, not among the Chinese. That is final, or else my exile and efforts to liberate Tibet
would have no logic."
I asked if His Holiness believes in an eventual return to Tibet and the Dalai Lama said: "Since
we are Tibetans we will certainly return. For now our life in exile has a purpose. You see, my
reason for leaving Tibet was because I believed I was doing good for my country. I spent nine
years with the Chinese before becoming a refugee in 1959, when we could no longer serve our
people in Tibet and have been serving it outside Tibet instead. We are not against reforms, not
against Communism or the Chinese, we are simply fighting for our rights. Therefore, until the
situation in our country becomes truly satisfactory I will not return. I believe that I can serve my
people better outside Tibet."
"On the whole these years have been sad. For the Tibetan nation this was the darkest period of
history. But, the difficulties and problems help man to see reality better and increase his inner
strength. In that sense exile was useful for me too, without a doubt."
The Dalai Lama sees some good sides in all of that: "In Tibetan history there were periods when
the people in many areas did not even know who the Dalai Lama was. Today however, thanks
to the Chinese government and the changed circumstances, the popularity of the Dalai Lama is
so great that every Tibetan accepts him as leader. If I had stayed in Tibet at the head of the
Tibetan government, many people would be against me or would not know of me. You see, as a
head of state, you are forced to take many decision which satisfy some and do not satisfy
others. But now I am doing exactly what the entire Tibetan people want. The people are
satisfied with me. There used to be distant places where no one heard of the Dalai Lama. Today
everyone has great respect for Tenzin Gyatso, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama."
"Also, the Tibetans did not have as many photographs of the all previous Dalai Lamas as of this
Dalai Lama. None of the previous Dalai Lamas had the privilege of being interviewed by foreign
journalists or of flying around the world and meeting new people, seeing new places. Who
enabled me to do all this? The Chinese government!. Don't you think I should be grateful? - the
Dalai Lama said with a laugh. But his face shows sadness and he adds: "This is the darkest and
most critical stage of Tibetan history. Because of that the Fourteenth Dalai Lama has become
the most needed of all as a person who rallies everyone around him but he is also the saddest
Dalai Lama who ever lived."
All Buddhist and Hindus firmly believe in karma, the law of cause and effect, and in Samsara,
the endless cycle of birth and death. Under that belief, all beings die and are born again until
they become enlightened through learning and good deeds in many consecutive lives and
become worthy of getting out of the cycle to unite with the universal being, or mind, or spirit.
The Dalai Lama says followers of other religions are susceptible to that although they do not
believe in it. They die and are born again but since reincarnation is unknown in their tradition
they do not notice it. However, as the Tibetan leader says, "from a Buddhist point of view, that is
so whether you believe it or not; reality is reality. Buddhists believe that every being, every

phenomenon, are created, last and gradually disappear and that it all happens because of
karma."
As indirect proof or indication of proof of that Buddhist belief you can take the result of research
done by Western experts. In hundreds of interviews with people who lived on after clinical
death, they all described their experience as a separation of consciousness from the physical
body and its departure towards a strong light which attracted them strongly and frightened them
at the same time. That same experience was described centuries ago in the Tibetan Book of the
Dead with detailed instructions on how to free the spirit of the deceased from fear and
encourage it to go towards the light which leads to a new birth.
This is what the Dalai Lama has to say about the way to experience that: "Special tantric
exercises lead us to the knowledge of some kind of process of dying of the mind and that is a
real experience. Therefore the knowledge about the feelings of a dying man, the knowledge that
comes from those exercises and which are a fact, reality. Western scientists investigated that
knowledge and confirmed it."
One of the few books on the experience of death was published in the US in 1975 under the title
Life After Life and a very indicative subtitle: Research into the phenomenon of survival of the
death of the body. The author is American Raymond Moody Jr., a doctor of philosophy and
medicine. He said in the introduction: "I hope my book will draw public attention to the
occurrence which is both widespread and well hidden - the phenomenon of death. Many will say
the claims made in this book are incredible and their first reaction will be to reject them without a
thought. I cannot blame them in any way. I would have done the same a few years ago... Many
readers will discover that they are not the only ones who experienced something like that. To
them, especially if they have only related their experience to the people close to them, I would
like to say: I hope this book will encourage you to speak more freely. That will contribute to
shedding light on the most puzzling aspect of the human soul."
American psychiatrist and therapist Dr Elizabeth Kubler-Rosh wrote in a foreword to the book:
"Doctor Moody's research sheds some more light on something that we have been told for
2,000 years - that life does not stop with death... I think that our society is now in a transitional
period. We should have the courage to admit that modern scientific methods are unsuitable for
a lot of this research and take a new road."
And finally, in an annex to Moody's book, Dr Antun Vituri, psychiatrist and therapist, wrote as if
his words came straight from the Dalai Lama: "Life and death are dialectically interdependent.
Fuller life with great awareness helps us accept death more easily. An open attitude towards
death enables us to live a more wholesome life.

Religion and Politics

I asked the Dalai Lama how he explains the fact that horrible crimes were committed in the
name of religion throughout history although no religion advocates violence.
He answered: "If people accept religion as religion, I believe things like that could not happen.
Unfortunately, people see religion as an organization they belong to, almost like a political party.
That kind of belonging stimulates attachment and divisions into 'us' and 'them' and completely

disregards looking into one's own soul, our own inner world. For many people, religion is a
refuge. They do not think, do not try to change in their souls."
"Once a religious community gets the form of an organization, worldly activities automatically
come to the front. A permanent organization has financial obligations and when it comes to
money there are enemies. The personal weakness of people make religious organizations more
or less similar to worldly organizations. An organization formed in the name of religion then
takes a bad road. That is how religious organizations in earlier centuries gradually entered into
financial transactions and politics; not fair politics but dirty politics."
"I always stress that religion, on the one hand, and good human traits such as altruism and
compassion, on the other, are separate things. Preachers of different religions often stress the
importance of human qualities but those traits do not have much to do with religion. When we
speak of compassion or forgiveness, most people conclude that we are speaking of religious
ideas. I do not think that because man is born without religion but not without love. Compassion
and love are the dominant forces not only in human beings but in animals as well. Without love,
human society would fall into a severe crisis; without love it would face tremendous problems in
the future. Love is the center of human life."
"If we assume that our mind is made up of several parts, then anger and hatred will be only
small parts and the dominant part is love. That is quite simple: take the first thing a baby does, it
sucks milk, and I think that milk is the symbol of tenderness, affinity. By sucking milk from its
mother's breast, the baby certainly cannot feel anything unpleasant, especially not hatred. On
the contrary, that has to be a very pleasant feeling of being protected, closeness. As for the
mother, if her mind is dominated by anger, there is no milk. When her mind is calm, when she
feels the closeness of the baby strongly, there will automatically be milk."
"That is a manifestation of the most noble emotions in human life. Besides, the best source of
inspiration is the affection of other human beings; brothers, sisters, friends, even enemies.
Everyone appreciates expressions of affection towards themselves. That is why I think that the
basic human emotions are affection and compassion. Even tyrants like Hitler and Stalin had to
have pleasant feelings when someone truly showed their affection for them."
"Those are my beliefs. That is why I usually say that it is not important whether someone is a
believer or not; even if someone is highly unreligious, that is all right because the only important
thing is to be a good human being. A good human being means a good warm heart. I think that
science can prove the importance of a good heart in that sense. That is important for health,
that is a condition for happy family life and happy human society."
"In fact, when we speak about religion there is no need to delve into deep philosophical topics.
Compassion is the real essence of religion. If you try to be compassionate in everyday life then,
if you are a Buddhist, there is no need to invoke Buddha too often and that is all right. The same
is true of Christians; if they show love for others they do not need to get into other philosophical
topics. The only important thing is to show those vital traits - compassion and love - in everyday
life, and there is hardly any difference in that between Buddhism, Christianity and other
religions. All of them try to develop brotherhood among men and that is their essence."
"I think, and I tell other Buddhists this, that there is time for nirvana; there is no need to hurry. If
you live decently, if you are not selfish but are full of love and compassion for all living beings,
that will automatically lead you to nirvana. On the other hand, if we only speak about

philosophy, nirvana, and do not take too much care about your behavior in everyday life, that
can lead you into a strange nirvana but not true nirvana since your everyday life was empty in
regard to true efforts to achieve true nirvana."
"The noble teachings must be implemented in everyday life. It is not that important whether you
believe in God or Buddha or reincarnation. The important thing is to live and act guided by good
motivation and it is made up of compassion without dogmatism, without complicated philosophy.
The only thing you need to understand is that all the others are your brothers and sisters and
respect their rights and dignity. The fact that we are able to help one another is a unique human
ability. We also have to share suffering with other people; if we cannot help them with money,
for example, we must at least show care for them, offer them moral support and express
sympathy, which is valuable in itself. That is what the basic thing should be in human behavior
and whether someone calls it religion or not is not important."
If one are really interested in Buddhism then the most important thing is to implement Buddhist
principles in one's life. It is wrong to study Buddhism only so that you can have arguments to
criticize other theories and ideologies. The fundamental purpose of religion is to learn to control
yourself, not to criticize others. You should examine yourself, constantly ask yourself: how much
have I done to control my anger, my attachments, my hatred, my pride, my jealousy? Those are
things which have to be examined every day with the help of Buddhist teaching."
"When I was in America I heard that 13 per cent of the population of the US have mental
problems. I thought that was a high percentage. Recently an Indian doctor told me that India
has the same percentage of mentally ill. I was confused. The conclusion of the psychiatrists and
psychologists is that the causes of those problems are in society, in the family. That shows that
altruism and compassion are necessary whether you are religious or not. Schools teach about
hygiene and that is good for physical health. But few people deal with the hygiene of the mind. I
think that, independently of religion, we should pay special attention to the hygiene of the mind
to teach children altruism and compassion so that they can live peacefully and contentedly."
"Under Buddhist psychology, the cause of most of our troubles are our strong desires and
attachment to things which seem to be lasting entities to us. Fulfilling our desires means
aggressiveness and a competitive approach as seemingly efficient instruments. Those mental
processes are easily turned into action whose usual consequence is belligerence. Those
processes have happened in the human mind always but in modern conditions their realization
through action has become much more effective. What can we do to control those 'poisons' deceit, greed, aggression? And those 'poisons' are the cause of almost every trouble in the
world."
"Since I was raised in the spirit of Mahayana Buddhism, I believe that love and compassion are
the moral base of world peace. Let me first explain what I mean by compassion. When you feel
pity or compassion for a very poor person, you are expressing your sympathy because that
person is poor and your compassion is based on altruism. On the other hand, love for your wife
or husband, your children or close friends is usually based on attachment. When that
attachment changes, your affection also changes perhaps even disappears. That is not true
love. True love is not based on attachment but on altruism. In that case your compassion
remains a human reaction to the suffering of all beings who suffer. That is a kind of compassion
which we should develop in ourselves until it becomes limitless. An unselective, spontaneous
and unlimited compassion for all living beings differs from ordinary love for friends or family
which is spoiled by ignorance, desire and attachment. The love we Buddhists speak of is

comprehensive love which we can feel even for those who cause us harm: for enemies. In fact,
we have to think of the enemy as our greatest friend and teacher since he is testing our inner
strength, our tolerance, our respect for others. Love for friends and relatives is mainly selfish
and if it is not returned in the measure we expect we become sad and disappointed, hurt and
angry. But love for an enemy is true love: that is love without emotions and attachment, love
with strong reason and feeling; even when he tries to harm us we must be grateful and react
patiently and kindly."
"As for violence committed in the name of religion, that impression comes from the fact that in
the past religious organizations did what political parties do today. That is why the world has the
impression that there were many conflicts, holy wars, because of religion. I think that is a thing
of the past. In the end, the purpose of religion is not the construction of pretty churches but the
cultivation of positive human qualities such as tolerance, nobleness and love. Every great world
religion, regardless of its philosophical views, is based primarily on the belief that we must
overcome our greed and serve others. Unfortunately, religion itself sometimes causes more
arguments than it resolves."
"I feel that the modern concept of secularism is very good. religion should act only towards the
individual. Some people, true believers with positive motivation, begin acting negatively only
because of ignorance or wrong directions. For example, while we were in Tibet, completely
isolated from the world, we believed that our religion and tradition were the best while the others
were inferior. When we came to India we met another people with a different tradition and our
ignorance gradually disappeared. We realized that there are many forms of tradition and religion
and each of them includes something good. In time, we grew to respect those different
traditions.
"I think some people in the world were similar to us. Because of isolation and ignorance they did
not understand others and tried to convert them to their faith because they believed it to be the
best. When those others rebelled, there was conflict. Therefore, individual motivation can be
truthful but because of ignorance it becomes negative in cases like that. Modern communication
technology can be useful to remove that ignorance."
"You see, I am not interested in converting other people to Buddhism, but in how we, the
Buddhists, can contribute most to human society in accord with our ideas. I believe that other
religions are similar, that they try to contribute to achieving a common goal... Finally, just as
Buddha was an example of calm and tolerance in serving others with no selfish motives, so was
Jesus Christ. Almost all great religious teachers lived the lives of saints; not in luxury as kings
but as simple human beings. Their inner strength was vast, limitless, but they were quite content
with a simple way of life. "
This is what the Dalai Lama told me in response to the often asked question about the
possibility of a synthesis of the best aspects of all religions and the creating of a universal world
religion: "The forming of a new world religion would be difficult and not very desirable. However,
since love is vital in all religions, we can speak of the universal religion of love. As for the
methods for developing love and reaching salvation and liberation, there are great differences
between the religions. That is why I do not think it is possible to create one philosophy or one
religion. Moreover, I think the differences between the religions are useful. The fact that there
are so many concepts on the right Path represents wealth. I think that is good because there
are so many types of people with various predispositions and affinities. The fact is that there are

so many differences among human beings and I think that one religion, one system, simply
could not satisfy all that variety."
"As a Buddhist, I believe Buddhism is best for me. But it is quite clear that I cannot say:
Buddhism is best for everyone. Different people need different religions and that variety is more
useful than if there were only one religion. The existence of many religions does sometimes
create problems, divisions among people. That is also a fact. The question, therefore, is how to
work together, how to remove those misunderstandings between various religions."
"But if we analyze the messages of various religions, their philosophy, their goals, we see that
all of them mainly want to make people better human beings. On the other hand, there are
great, even fundamental, differences between religions. For example, from the point of view of a
religion that recognizes God the Creator, Buddhism is pure atheism, Buddhism is not a religion.
From a Buddhist point of view, religions which recognize God the Creator are wrong, and that
wrong approach will lead to the wrong result."
"For some people Buddhism is acceptable, for others, Christians for example, it is more
acceptable to believe in the existence of God the Creator. Simply, some people prefer believing
that God the Creator exists, that they are his creation and their fate depends on the Creator so
they bow to his desires. And what are the desires of that God? For people to become better
human beings, beings with good hearts who love God and those close to them. The way that
desire is expressed differs in various religions but the essence of the message is the same.
Whether God exists or not, whether karma exists or not, the important thing is for the faithful to
be good human beings. If we understand the uniqueness of mankind then we can realize that
differences are secondary. By developing respect and care for other beings in ourselves we
create an atmosphere of happiness. Only in that way can we create true harmony, true
brotherhood."
"Under Buddhist tradition, serving others is one of the most important religious tasks. It is not
enough to sit and pray. For example, the UN declaration on human rights is nothing on paper; it
has to be implemented in the real world. Therefore, a good person must be included in politics.
religion is intended for man, politics is intended for man. What are all the political, ideological,
economic systems for? All that is for the good of mankind. Controlling ourselves and serving
others - that is a trait which I think is necessary for politicians as well. As long as my motivation
is correct, my worldly work will be a religious act."
"You see, whether you are religious or not, people respect and appreciate love and
compassion. From the moment of our birth we are surrounded by the caring and love of our
parents; later in life when we become ill and grow old, we depend on the affection and care of
others once again. If we depend on the care and kindness of others at the beginning and the
end of our lives, why should we not show care and kindness to others in the middle of our
lives?"
"According to Buddhism, the future of man depends only on his behavior and that is why he
cannot blame others for what happened to him. Be good human beings, beings with warm
hearts - that is the message of Buddhism expressed in a completely different way than in other
religions but in essence it is almost identical."
"From that point of view, the more diversity - the more wealth. If there were only one religion, a
world religion, I think we would all loose many of the good sides of our traditions and methods."

Cooperation Between Different Religions

The Dalai Lama always urged cooperation between different religions. He even met with the
Pope. I asked His Holiness: was there any talk of that cooperation on those occasions and does
he believe in the possibility of all great religions uniting in the effort to secure peace and
prosperity on earth?
The Dalai Lama said: "Oh, yes, of course. I talked to the Pope and other religious leaders, the
Archbishop of Canterbury for example, on a number of occasions. The Pope and I share the
same view about many problems. I think the Pope is a positive and cordial person with a good
heart. The current Pope is a man who I respect deeply. The first time we met he left the
impression of a very practical man. I do not doubt that he is a great spiritual leader. In any case,
every man who is capable of addressing the man who tried to kill him with 'brother' - and Pope
John Paul II did that - must be an exceptional person with highly developed spirituality. I think
that Catholics, that is the Vatican, now accept the principle of pluralism of religions. I think that is
a great step forward."
"I also talked to the Archbishop of Canterbury at the time, Dr Robert Runcie. We agreed that
religion and politics today do overlap and that the basic task of religion is to serve mankind but
without ignoring reality. For the faithful, it is not enough to just pray. They are morally obliged to
do everything they can to contribute to resolving world problems."
"I remember I once said something similar to an Indian politician. He replied: 'But we are
politicians, not priests. Our first concern is to serve the people through politics'. I told him that
politicians need religion more than hermits do. If a hermit does something with bad motivation,
he will harm only himself. But if someone who can influence all of society acts with bad motives
then a great number of people will be affected. I do not believe that religion and politics are
contradictory. What is religion in fact? For myself, every deed done with noble motivation is a
religious act."
"Social and religious institutions have an important role in stimulating the development of good
human qualities. That is their moral obligation. Because of that religious leaders should forget
their prejudices and vanity and work together. Honest talks between the leaders of various
religions can greatly help create an atmosphere of harmony and understanding among
members of different religions and all that to achieve the common goal. Do not forget that we all
gain if we manage to create a world based on love, justice, equality and mutual trust. We cannot
secure our survival unless we develop a feeling of universal responsibility based on morals."
The Dalai Lama also met some Moslem leaders. I asked His Holiness what he though about
Islam and he replied: "When Khomeini returned to Teheran, many people in the world had a
negative impression about Iran because they said there had been many murders there and
many bad things had happened. Soon afterwards, I met a journalist who had spent some time in
Teheran. He told me that during his stay there the mullahs collected contributions from rich
people and shared it among the poor in a very just way. That is a kind of socialism without
proclamation."
"I also heard from some Moslem friends, Tibetan Moslems, that Islam devotes much attention to
charity. So, on the one hand, the impression is that the Moslem religion uses force and it has no

compassion, but from what I have been told the impression is that they also value compassion,
love, service to others. That is my impression at least."
"Actually, many bad things happened because of a lack of contacts among people. Narrowmindedness creates those problems. If things are viewed more widely and if personal contacts
are established among people then those negative aspects will be diminished."

There is Nothing Outside the Mind D

This is how the Dalai Lama explained the concept of Buddhist religious philosophy: "Buddhism
does not accept God so it is a kind of atheism. Its goal is the perfection of the human mind
which we consider to be a kind of final creator. There is no other creator than our mind.
Therefore, the main goal of Buddhism is the perfection of the mind. Buddhism includes more
profound explanations of the nature and the functioning of the mind and there are special
physical and mental exercises to establish control over the mind."
"The qualities that depend on the mind can be increased limitlessly. It is said that since we have
a mind that has a nature of mere luminosity and knowning, all of us have the fundamental
substances necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood. A basic Buddhist point is that in
dependence upon the mind's being essentially an entity of mere luminosity and knowing, it can
be shown that the mind can eventually know everything."
"The reason why it is hard to identify the nature of the mind is that it is as if covered over by our
own conceptions. Therefore, first, stop remembering what happened in the past and stop
thinking about what it might happen in the future; let the mind flow of its own accord without
conceptual overlay. Let the mind rest in its natural state, and observe it. In the begining, when
you are not used to this practice, it is quite difficult, but in time the mind appears like clear water.
Then, stay with this unfabricated mind without allowing conceptions to be generated."
"For this meditation early morning, when your mind has awakened and is clear but your senses
are not yet fully operating is better. It helps not to have eaten to much the night before nor to
sleep too much; this makes the mind lighter and sharper the next morning. Gradually the mind
will become more and more stable; mindfulness and memory will become clearer."
"See if this practice makes your mind more alert throughout
the day. As a temporary benefit your thoughts will be tranquil. As your memory improves,
gradually you can develop
clairvoyance, which is due to an increase of mindfulness. As
a long term benefit, because your mind has become more alert
and sharp, you can utilize it in whatever field you want.
"If you are able to do a little meditation daily, withdrawingthis scattered mind on one object
inside, it is very helpful. The conceptuality that runs thinking of good things, bad things, and so
forth and so on will get a rest. It provides a little vacation just to set a bit in non-conceptuality
and have a rest."

"Buddha said that no negative action should be taken and that our mind should be completely
subjected which means establishing control over it. If everyone could achieve that level of
control of their own mind, there would be no more tyranny or spite among people. The current
different coalitions and fractions, which stimulate sectarian fighting and only create unnecessary
and harmful problems, would disappear."
"Buddha told his followers of the Four Noble Truths: the truth about suffering, the truth about
cause of suffering, the truth about end of suffering and the truth about the path to this end. To
understand those truths well, you need to understand that they are based on two fundamental
truths:
conventional and ultimate truth. At the level of conventional truth, the truth about things and
beings as we see them, about this or that object, ourselves and others, everything seems to
exist independently, unto itself; but from the point of view of ultimate truth, every object and
being exists only in dependence on all other existing entities. This understanding leads to the
understanding of the ultimate nature of existence, that is the awarness of the complete lack of
independent or inherently isolated existence of anyone or anything. That ultimate, final nature of
the phenomenon is called the emptiness and its two different concepts are known as the
conventional and ultimate modes of the existence of phenomena."
"Understanding of those two truths is the basis of the correct understanding of the Four Noble
Truths. In regard to the true nature of phenomena we see that they are created depending on
many conditions and they are devoid of independent existence in themselves. Namely, when
certain conditions are met phenomena occur, when those conditions do not exist or when they
disappear, the phenomena do not exist. That is the process under which phenomena occur or
disappear."
"Searching for the cause of suffering leads to the conclusion that it is in the mind, especially in
mental elements and mental deviations such as attachment and anger, as well as one more evil
that comes from anger - jelousy. Anger, hatred and similar afflictive emotions are the real
causes of suffering. Of course, there are also outside 'weapons' but in themselves they are not
the cause of the problem because they cannot act on their own but are moved by human
beings. For human beings to use those 'weapons' they have to be motivated. Those motivations
are mainly hatred and attachment, especially hatred. That is a vicious state of mind. If we are
satisfied, happy or calm we have our inner peace. If we do not have that inner or mental peace,
how can we have outer peace? To achieve that inner peace we should not drop atom bombs on
people; in seeking peace, man should turn to his own mind. Outside weapons are no effective in
removing mental defects. The only way is to achieve control of our own mind."
"Politicians, for example, try to achieve arms control and that is good. At the same time, we the
faithful, are obliged to and responsible for establishing control over our own bad thoughts. That
is the true disarmament, our own arms control. With inner peace and complete control of
negative thoughts, outside control is not especially significant. If there is no inner control,
whatever else is done will not bring great results. In the current conditions, members of religious
communities have a special responsibility towards mankind; a universal responsibility."
"Suffering is the consequence of either karmic causes or our own afflictive emotions. Karmic
causes come from bad physical, verbal or mental actions in the past. Of the afflictive emotions
the three most important are: obscuration, desire and hatred. These induce many other varieties
of afflictive emotions such as jealousy and enmity. In order to cease the karmas or actions that

are a source of suffering, it is necessary to cease these afflictive emotions which act as their
cause. Therefore, between karma and afflictive emotions the main source of suffering is the
later, afflictive emotions."
"Those emotions can be removed since they are not in the very nature of the mind; if afflictive
emotions resided in the very nature of mind, it would be impossible to remove them. If hatred,
for example, resided in the nature of the mind, then as long as we are conscious we should be
hateful, but this is obviously not the case. The same is true for attachment. Therefore, it is
considered that the nature of the mind, or consciousness, is not polluted by defilements. The
defilments are susceptible to being removed, suitable to be separated from the basic mind. "
"There is a great difference between the disciplined and controlled mind and one that is not and
that is the only important thing. Everything else is irrelevant since, in fact, everything outside the
mind does not exist. When the mind becomes like that there are no more deceptions and we
become happy. That is the best thing that can happen. But if some deception does appear, the
disciplined mind does not allow us to act on its basis. For example, it is best if we never get
angry but if we have controlled our own mind, when we feel anger we will not act under that
impulse, we will not react badly."
"A disciplined mind stimulates the development of healthy qualities, an undisciplined mined unhealthy qualities. In that process, the mind acts as the root which feeds healthy or unhealthy
actions depending on what it is like itself. In the end, healthy actions lead to positive phenomena
while unhealthy lead to evil. Generally speaking, what I mean under the terms good and evil is
what brings good to ourselves and others, that is what does not bring good temporarily or
permanently, but leads to misery. Here is an illustration. The wrong concept of 'self' begins with
an understanding of self as a seemingly independent, self-existing entity; later one easily
convinces himself of the reality of that wrong interpretation of appearance. Depending on that
wrong concept, attachment to our own interests is created. If, as a consequence, anger or
hatred is developed, it destroys all peace and happiness if there were any in the mind. Those
feelings will then be the motive for what follows: perhaps very harsh words to others. At the
same time, the expression on the face of that person will change to one of darkness and anger.
That will cause unpleasantness in the minds of other people. Therefore, as a result of the verbal
and facial expression of that person a tension in the atmosphere will be created. The
consequence of that is the loss of harmony, because of tension brings usually hostility which
could even lead to wars."
"You know, when faced with a clear and clam mind, problems can be succesfully resolved.
When, instead, we lose control over our minds through hatred, selfishness, jealousy or anger,
we lose our sense of judgement. Our minds are blinded and at those wild moments anything
can happen, including war. Thus, the practice of compassion and wisdom is useful to all,
especially to those responsible for running national affairs, in whose hand lie the power and
opportunity to create the structure of world peace."
"The purpose of developing patience is the strengthening of mind and heart. It is important to
always remain calm since an atmosphere of calmness allows human beings to learn wisdom.
Wisdom is like ammunition, and a clam mind is like a weapon ready to fire. If you loose
patience, if your mind is preoccupied by emotions, you loose the ability to analyze. On the other
hand, if you are patient - and patience is based on altruism - then not only do you not loose
mental strength but you increase it and increase the strength you use to find a way in which to
overcome negative forces which act against you. In any case, which doctor prescribes anger as

the cure for a sickness? Which doctor will say that anger will lead you to happiness? It is better
to forget than to nurture anger."
"Take us the Tibetans for example. Will we be happy if we feel anger or jealousy for the
Chinese? Is that a happy state of mind? Certainly not. Think of someone whose every action in
life came from their feeling of attachment or aversion. That person can be very powerful, very
famous, even go down in history. However, that person has not become happy, but has died. If
all our life is based on wrong conceptions then that cannot make us happy regardless of the
wealth or power we have achieved."

The Purpose of Life

Every Tibetan lama spends his entire life, from early childhood, studying Buddhist scriptures
and, equally importantly, studying himself and his mind which, according to Buddhist belief, has
no beginning nor end and has lasted since the world exists through countless incarnations. That
is why there is probably no one better qualified than the Dalai Lama to answer the question:
What is the purpose of life?
We came back to that question several times because the Dalai Lama has obviously given it
deep thought and has studied everything many Buddhist thinkers wrote about that issue over
the centuries. His Holiness' reply was detailed.
"I believe the purpose of life is to be happy. Every human being, from the moment of his or her
birth, wants happiness and does not want suffering. No social conditioning, education or
ideology is necessary for us to feel this way. We simply desire contentment, from the very core
of our being. As a result, all of our acts are, in one way or another, a quest for happiness. I do
not know whether the universe with its countless galaxies, stars and planets, has a deeper
meaning or not. But, at the very least, it seems clear that we, human beings living on this earth,
face task of making a happy life for ourselves. Therefore, it is important to discover what, in
reality, will bring about the greatest degree of happiness."
"To begin with, it is possible to broadly divide every form of both happiness and suffering into
two main categories: mental and physical. Between these two, is the mind which exerts the
strongest influence on us. Unless we are either gravely ill or deprived of basic necessities, our
physical condition plays a secondary role in life. If the body is content, we virtualy ignore it. The
mind, however, registers every event, no matter how small, as being either pleasurable, painful,
or, if it is unrelated to us, simply neutral. Hence we should devote our most serious efforts to
bringing about mental peace. I have found, from my own limited experience, that the greatest
degree of inner tranquility derives from the development of love and compassion. The more one
cares for the happiness of others, the greater becomes one's own sense of well-being.
Cultivating a close, warm-hearted feeling for others automatically puts the mind at ease. It helps
to remove whatever fear or insecurity we may have and gives us the strength to cope with the
obstacles we face. This last quality, in turn, is the ultimate source of success in life."
"So long as we live in this world we are bound to encounter problems. At such times, if we loose
hope and become discouraged our ability to face difficulty will obviously diminish. On the other
hand, if we remeber that everyone undergoes suffering, not just ourselves, this more realistic
broad-minded perspective will increase our determination and hence our capacity to overcome
troubles."

"With such an attitude, each new obstacle, though obviously unfortunate, presents a valuable
opportunity to improve one's mind. Gradually, one's attitude can become more compassionate;
one can develop both genuine sympathy for other's suffering as well as the will to help remove
their pain. As a result, one's own serenity and inner strength will increase. In this way, a
compassionate mentality is of great practical benefit. Compassion, by nature, is gentle, peaceful
and soft. It is not harsh at all; yet it is very powerful."
"The reason why I feel that love and compassion bring the greatest happiness in life is simply
that our nature cherishes them above all else. The need for love lies at the very foundation of
human existence. It results from the profound interdependence we all share with each other. In
virtually every sense, we human beings are social animals. Even our sustenance depends on
one another. However an individual may be capable and skillful, left alone, he or she will not
survive. However vigorous and independent one may feel during the most prosperous periods
of life, still, when one is sick or very young or old one must depend on the support of others.
Interdependence, of course, is a fundamental law of nature."
"Many of the smallest insects are social beings who, without any religion, law or education,
survive based on innate recognition of their interconnection, by mutual cooperation. The most
subtle level of material phenomena, is also governed by dependency. All phenomena, from the
planet we live on to the oceans, clouds, forests and flowers around us, arise in dependence on
subtle patterns of particles and energy. Without their proper interaction, the phenomena they
support, dissolve and decay."
"Because our own existence depends on the help of others, we must cooperate with them. For
this, we need a genuine sense of responsibility; a true feeling for their suffering, a sincere
concern for their welfare."
"We have to consider what we, human beings, really are. We are not like machine made
objects. If we were merely mechanical entities, then the machines themselves could alleviate all
of our suffering and fulfil our needs. Therefore,as we are not solely material creatures, it is a
mistake to place all of our hopes for happiness on external developments alone. Instead, we
should consider our own origins and nature to discover what we require. Leaving aside the
complex question of the creation and evolution of the universe, we can at least agree that each
of us is the product of our own parents. But even our conception generally takes place not just
in the context of sexual desire, but from a parent's decision to have a child, a decision founded
on a deep sense of love, responsibility and altruism - the compassionate commitment to take
care for children until they are able to care for themselves. Thus, right from the moment of our
conception our parents' love is directly involved with our formation."
"Moreover, we ourselves are dependent upon our mother's care from the earliest stage of our
growth. According to some scientists, the mental state of the mother during pregnancy - whether
she is calm or agitated - has a direct physical effect on her unborn child."
"The need for love and the caring of others is present throughout life. Even in everyday life if
someone speaks with warm human feeling, we enjoy listening to him and respond in the same
way regardless of how unimportant the topic may be. On the other hand, if a person speaks
harshly, we feel uneasy and wish for a quick end to the interaction. From the least to the most
important event, the respect and care of others are vital for our happiness. External, material
objects, no matter how beautiful and valuable, cannot express any feelings towards us.
Regardless of how attached to them we become, external facilities cannot make us feel loved.

For this very reason, many of us keep pets, such as cats and dogs, who can read our feelings
and return our affection."
"Nowadays, many people grow up in unhappy homes where the parents have constant quarrels
or are divorced. If those people do not receive proper affection as children they rarely love their
parents later in life, and, very often, find it hard to love others. Moreover, unless they develop
compassion and learn to trust others, many of them will suffer from mental and physical
problems which do not afflict those who enjoyed a happy, harmonious childhood. This is very
sad and it clearly demonstrates the importance of love throughout life."
"We, humans, have existed in our present form for about 100,000 years. If, during this time, the
human mind was primarily controlled by anger, I believe that our overall population would have
decreased. Wars and killings would definitely have taken a greater toll. However, today, despite
our wars, we find more human beings than ever before. This clearly indicates that the activities
of love and compassion predominate in our world."
"Mental stability is directly linked to physical health. There is no doubt that anger and agitation
make us more susceptible to illness. In fact, losing one's peace of mind has a can interfere with
one's appetite and sleep which gradually destroys a person's health. On the other hand, if the
mind is tranquile and engaged with positive thoughts - the body will not easily fall prey to
disease. Therefore, the real secret technique for good health is not just to eat well, take vitamins
and visit the doctor; it is to keep one's mind calm and involved in an atmosphere of altruism.
That will have an absolutely tremendous effect on the body. Even when one does fall ill, an
altruistic attitude, recalling that all beings suffer, lessens fixation on one's own uncomfortable
feeling; and that, in turn, helps the body to recover more rapidly."
"Because the values of compassion and kindness are so clear we should make an effort to
develop those feelings in ourselves. The first step in developing compassion is to properly
define it. Thera are numerous forms of compassionate feeling, many of which are mixed with
desire and attachment. For instance, parents' love of their children are often closely associated
with their own needs. It is therefore not fully compassionate. In a marriage as well the love
between a husband and a wife - particularly at the beginning of married life, when each partner
still may not know the other person's deeper character that well - depends more on attachment
than on genuine love. If, when one partner's attitude changes, the other's undergoes
disappointment and reversal as well, it is a direct indication that love has been motivated more
by personal need than by genuine care for the other individual. Desire can be so strong that the
person to whom we are attached appears to be good when, in fact, that person is actually very
negative. In addition, we have the tendency to exaggerate a small, positive quality into a trait
which seems a hundred percent beautiful. However, as soon as our mental attitude changes the
picture will completely reverse."
"Genuine compassion is not just an emotional reaction. It is a firm commitment based on
reason. It is not selective, but applies equaly to all. To develop it, one should consider the
following facts."
Everybody has a right to be happy
"Wether people are beautiful and friendly or unattractive and disruptive, ultimately they are
human beings, just like oneself. Like oneself, they want happiness and do not want suffering.
Furthermore, their right to overcome suffering and be happy is equal to one's own. Now, when

you recognize that all beings are equal in both their desire for happiness and their right to obtain
it, you automatically feel empathy and closeness for them. Through accustoming your mind to
this sense of universal altruism, you develop a feeling of responsibility for others; the wish to
help them actively to overcome their problems. That is true compassion."
"We should bear in mind that when we say 'I' we are speaking about only one single person,
one soul. Others are limitless. Thus, one should visualize the following: On one side imagine
your own 'I' which so far has just concentrated on selfish aims. On the other side imagine others
- limitless, infinite beings. You yourself are a third person, in the midle, looking at those on either
side. As far as the feeling of wanting happiness and not wanting suffering, the two sides are
equal, absolutely the same. Also with regard to the right to obtain happiness they are exactly the
same. However, no matter how important the selfishly motivated person is, he or she is only one
single person; no matter how poor the others are, they are limitless, infinite. The unbiased third
person naturally can see that the many are more important than one. Through this, we can
experience, can feel, that the majority - the other limitless beings - are more important than the
single person 'I'. Thus, the question is: Should everyone be used for my attainment of
happiness, or should I be used to gain happiness for others? If I am used for these infinite
beings, it is right. If others are used for this single 'I', it is absolutely wrong. Even if you can use
these others, you will not be happy, whereas if this one single one contributes, serves as much
as he or she can, this is a source of great joy. It is in terms of this attitude that the real
compassion and love for others can be developed."
"Through accustoming your mind to this sense of universal altruism, you develop a feeling of
responsibility for others and a wish to actively help them solve their problems. That is a true
feeling because it is based on reason not just on emotions; whether those persons act positively
or negatively, your compassionate attitude for them won't change. So long as they are human
beings, who experience pleasure and pain as we do, there is no logical basis to alter your
concern for them."
"To develop this kind of compassion is not at all easy. However, with time and patience, it is
within our power to achieve it. Fundamentally, it is our innate self-centredness, our instinctive
attachment to the feeling of an independent, self-existent 'I' which inhibits our love for others.
True, impartial love can only be experienced when this type of self-grasping is eliminated. For
the present though, we should begain by removing what hinders compassion most: anger and
hatred. Unless decreased by proper antidote, these negative emotions will plague us - with no
extra effort on their part - throughout life, impeding the happiness of a loving mind."
"Anger, as we all know, is a very powerful emotion capable of overwhelming the entire mind.
Nevertheless, through reason, it can be controlled. To begin with, it is useful to investigate
whether or not anger is of value. For example, when we a difficult situation makes us
discouraged, the arousal of anger does seem helpful. Anger appears to bring with it more
energy, confidence and determination. Is that really so? It is true that anger brings additional
energy but if we look closely at the nature of that energy properly, we will discover it is blind: we
can never be sure whether its effect will be positive or negative. Since anger eclipses the best
part of our brain - its rationality - that energy is almost always unreliable. It can cause an
immense amount of destructive, unfortunate behavior. Moreover, if anger increases to an
extreme degree, one becomes like a mad person, acting in a ways which are as damaging to
oneself as they are to others."

"Almost always, acts commited during a fit of anger are subsequently regretted and recalled
with embarrasment. It is possible, however, to develop an equally powerful but far more
controlled energy, than that of anger, with which to combat difficult situations."
"When the problem first appears, one should remain humble, mantaining a sincere attitude
concerned with a fair outcome. Of course, the other party may then try to take advantage of you.
If so, if you see that your restraint will just encourage unjust aggression, you must adopt a
strong stand. This, however, should be done with compassion. You should realize that even
though the opponent appears to be harming you, his destructive activitiy will bring harm only to
himself in the future. Checking your own selfish impulse to retaliate, your recall your desire to
practice compassion and assume the responsibility of helping to prevent the other person to
suffering the consequence of his actions. It is necessary to clearly express your own view and
take strong counter-measures; but without anger, without ill intent. Furthermore, because the
measures you employ have been calmly chosen, they may well be more effective. Retaliation
based on the blind energy of anger may or may not hit the target. A reasonably chosen
response is more accurate and forceful."
"Along with clear logic, patience and forgiveness are the two most powerful antidotes for anger.
Unfortunately, people often mijudge these qualities as signs of weakness. I believe that patience
and forgiveness are signs of strength. Those who easily lose their patience are most often
insecure and unstable. To me, the arousal of anger is a direct sign of weakness. Tolerance is a
true sign of inner strength."
"However, just thinking that patience is a good thing will not be enough to develop it. We must
wait for a difficult period to occur and then try to be patient. According to my personal
experience, a period of gaining experience is the most difficult in one's life. If things go
smoothly, if everything is all right, we get used to it and one day when problems occur we fall
into a depression and think there is no hope. In a difficult period of life we can learn, develop our
inner strength, determination and courage to face problems. Who offers us that opportunity.
That is not done by friends but by enemies. An enemy gives us the most trouble. If we truly
believe in the value of patience then the enemy should be considered an excellent teacher, the
best we can have. To a person who wants to develop compassion and love, practicing tolerance
is essential; and for that, an enemy is indispensible. If we think along those lines we should
actually feel grateful to our enemies, for they are the most productive source of a balanced
mind."
"To be happy we generally need good friends as well as a degree of wealth. However, although
these external factors contribute to contentment, true happiness can only be attained through
developing a calm mind. Tranquility, in turn, is most often disrupted by anger, jealousy and
hatred, and not the external enemy we are so often concerned about. Besides that, one's outer
enemy, whether a person or a nation, is not permanent. It often happens, in both personal and
public life, that with a change of circumstances, enemies become good friends. True enemies,
the ones who always remain enemies are anger, hatred and jealousy and these are forces we
have to confront and defeat, these are our real enemies, and not temporary opponents who
intermittently appear throughout life."
"It is natural for us all to want friends. I often joke that if you really want to be selfish you should
take good care of other people. Be concerned for others' wellfare, help them, serve them, make
more friends, make more smiles. The result will be that when you need help there will be many
helpers. If, on the other hand, you neglect the happiness of others, in the long term you yourself

will be the loser. It is quite clear that we need companionship. Is it produced through quarrels
and anger, jealousy or intense competitiveness? I don't think so. The only act which will bring us
genuine close friends is the act of affection."
"In today's materialistic world, it seems people with money and power always have many
friends. It is true that if you achieve fortune and fame many people with big smiles will suddenly
surround you. They are the friends of money, friends of power. Even if you try to push them
away they will return as long as you are influential. When you loose your fortune it will be quite
difficult to discover where all those people have gone."
"When our fortune in the world increases, we do not feel a strong need for friendship. We are
confident that we can manage by ourseleves. But when our status or health declines, we quickly
realize how much we need friends. To prepare for that, to make genuine friends who will help us
when the need arises, we opurselves must cultivate altruism."
"Sometimes people laugh at me when I tell them that I always want more friends. I love smiles.
Because of this I have a problem of how to make more friends, more smiles around me and
especially how to bring out a genuine smiles. You know, there are many kinds of smiles. Some
are sarcastic, some artificial, and others diplomatic. None of these smiles produce satisfaction.
They sometimes even cause suspicion or fear, don't they? But a genuine smile really gives us a
feeling of freshness. If we want to receive such a smile, then we ourselves must create the
basis for it to appear."
"Finally, we should bear in mind the fact that individual happiness can contribute in a profound,
effective manner to the overall improvement of our entire human community. Because we all
share an identical need for love, it is possible to feel that whomever one meets in whatever
circumstances, is a brother or sister. Outer differences - faces, clothing, behavior, have no
importance. It is foolish to pay attention to outer differences simply because in our basic nature
none exist. With all our infinite and quite fascinating varieties of culture and language, individual
likes and dislikes, ultimately humanity is one and this small planet is our single home."
"In order to protect our home, to create equality and to govern our acts with mutual humanity,
each of us needs to experience an alive, vivid sense of universal altruism. Only that feeling can
remove fear, suspicion and the self-centerede motive with which people conceal their thoughts,
deceive and misuse one another. A man with a compassionate outlook has nothing to hide.
There is no nedd to be fearful of others. If you have cincere open heart, convinced of the need
for shared responsibility, then you naturally feel self-worth and confidence. Whomever I meet, I
try to relate as an old friend. To du so, gives me a genuine feeling of happiness and freedom
from doubt."
"On the individual, family, national and international levels, the key to a happier and more
successful world is the growth of compassion. It is not necessary to become a religious person
or to believe in some ideology. What is necessary is for each of us to mantain and develop good
human qualities."
The Dalai Lama believes that despite the hardships he has come through he has reason to
consider himself a happy man: "Although my experience as a Buddhist monk is not great, based
on that humble experience I can say that I feel the benign consequences of developing love,
compassion, respect for human dignity and human values. I spent many years trying to develop
those feelings in myself and now I feel the consequences of those efforts - I am a happy person.

Yes, despite many difficult circumstances, I am happy. You see, if I had always felt sad because
of the difficulties I could not be very efficient because a sad person cannot influence reality. Still,
the accepting of unfortunate events does not mean a man should be discouraged. On the
contrary, we should try to overcome difficulties and tragedies and try to remain calm and stable."

Remembering the childhood

During my stay in Dharamsala in May 1991, I visited the Children's village in the hills near the
town. Almost a thousand children live in some fifteen well-built stone buildings, raised with the
help of governments or humanitarian agencies from across the world. Most of them are
orphans, some are children whose parents cannot take care of them and some are children
smuggled out of Tibet so they can be raised in the Tibetan spirit and environment which is
hardly possible under the Chinese occupation.
The Children's village was managed by the Dalai Lama's elder sister Tsering Dolma up to her
death in 1964.
As soon as I entered the village a boy of about four or five rushed up to me and hugged my
legs. I was very touched, he reminded me very much of my own children and he seemed like a
child wanting love. That was why I asked the Dalai Lama about that as well during our next
meeting.
BF: - Your holiness, in your books you often mention your loneliness as a child, after you were
separated from your parents at an early age. Western psychologists believe that separation can
cause serious psychological problems later on in life. In Tibet, however, that has been the usual
practice for centuries since children enter monasteries at the age of four or five. What is your
opinion of the contradictions in Western and Tibetan views?
DALAI LAMA: - On the whole, I think Tibetans have close relations with their parents. That is
very important of course. When, as was my case, a son goes to a monastery - and that happens
early in his childhood - that means a separation from the parents. However, that kind of
separation is not the consequence of negative things because both parents, I think, agree
completely to the separation. Later, they come to see their child from time to time or the child
goes to see them. That kind of separation is only physical separation but the parents and child
remain very close mentally. Therefore this is different from other kinds of separation, because of
divorce for example or something similar. In my opinion, that makes a big difference and that is
why that kind of separation, at least in Tibet, has no negative consequences. No one has done
any research in that regard but I think it is not a problem. Also, the older monks take care of the
younger ones almost like parents, as if they were their own children.
BF: - You often mentioned your mother and stressed your love for her and hers for you. To
people who have read your books it seems that you were unhappy because of the separation
with her and that you missed your mother very much. Do you feel any consequences of that
separation?
DALAI LAMA: - I would not say that. I think that in some cases, and mine was one of those,
separation can contribute to developing much stronger feelings between parents and children.
My mother and my father sometimes came to see me and because of that there was no time for
scolding but only for love.

BF: - What do you think of the Tibetan children here in the Children's village in Dharamshala.
They won't become monks but they live without parents. Can that separation have negative
consequences in the future?
DALAI LAMA: - I don't know and that is a question that should be given serious consideration.
Sometimes the love given to children by their teachers or the people who adopt them is not
enough. However, in most cases these people treat the children gently and with care, with love.
On the other hand, the Tibetan community as a whole is very cordial, it has a pleasant
atmosphere and I think there shouldn't be too many problems there.
BF: - What are your memories of your early childhood?
DALAI LAMA: - The first year after I came to Lhasa I spent with no responsibilities. I played
happily with my brother, my parents came to see me frequently. But those were the last worldly
freedoms for me. When I was eight my brother Lobsang Samten was sent to study at a private
school. Naturally, that made me sad because he was my sole contact with my family. Later I
only saw him during his school holidays at the time of full moon. When he left after each visit, I
remember standing at the window watching, my heart full of sorrow, as he disappeared into the
distance.
As a child, I was given the Great Fifth's own bedroom on the seventh (top) storey. It was pitifully
cold and ill-lit... Everything in it was ancient and decrepit, and behind the drapes that hung
across each of the four walls lay deposits of century old dust... Every day these would be
plundered by mice. I became very fond of these little creatures. They were very beautiful and
showed no fear as they helped themselves to their daily rations. At night, as I lay in bed, I would
hear these companions of mine running to and fro. Sometimes they came over to my bed. This
was the only substantial piece of furniture in my room, other than the altar, and consisted of a
large wooden box filled with cushions and surrounded by long, red curtains. The mice would
clamber over these to, their urine dripping down as I snuggled under my blankets below.
BF: - As far as I know your education started when you were about six. What kind of student
were you?
DALAI LAMA: - I was very reluctant pupil and disliked all subjects equally. Today I regret my
early idleness and always study for at least four hours a day. You know, as Dalai Lama, I had to
have not only a good grounding in Buddhist philosophy and logic but also proficiency at
debating. I therefore began to study subjects in earnest when I was ten years old.
BF: - What was your life like at that time?
DALAI LAMA: - After classes and a meal I would go down the seven flights of stairs into the
courtyard, where I was supposed to recite scripture and pray as I walked. But when I was young
and still carefree, I hardly ever did so. Instead, I would spend the time either thinking up stories
or anticipating ones that would be told to me before going to bed. Very often, these were of
supernatural nature, so it would be a very scared Dalai Lama who crept into his dark, vermininfested bedroom at nine o'clock.
The evenings during my retreats were even vorse than the days, as it was this time that young
boys of my own age would drive their cows back home to the village of Shol at the base of
Potala. I will remeber sitting quitely saying mantras during the stillness of the fading light and

hearing their songs as they returned from the pastures nearby. On a few occasions, I wished
that I could change place with them. But gradually I came to appreciate the value of making
retreats. Today I dearly wish I had more time for them.
BF: - Buddhists firmly believe in reincarnation and the thought of ending their live without
children should not be as hard to bear for them as for people who do not believe in future lives
and see children as the only way to continue their own existence. What do you think of that?
DALAI LAMA: - Catholics and the faithful of some other religions do not accept the theory of
rebirth. In India, although that belief exists, there is brahmacharia. Those people are like
Buddhists." (Brahmacharia is the vow of celibacy which Hindus take in mature years before they
withdraw into solitude and after they have raised their children - authors note)
BF: - How do you, monks, feel about not having children?
DALAI LAMA: - From a Buddhist point of view, the people who do not have children because
they do not want children are right.
BF: - But how do you continue the race without children?
DALAI LAMA: - There is no need to worry about mankind in that regard (laughs). Some are left
without children, some have children and everything is all right.
Celibacy, Liberation
BF: - Please explain the purpose of celibacy. Are monks obliged to observe celibacy because of
Buddhist doctrine which proscribes the suppressing of all desires in order to focus completely
on religious practice or is there some other reason. Also, celibacy means the suppression of
one of man's strongest urges. Do you think that can be done without harming the personality?
DALAI LAMA: - The main reason is that entire Buddhist practice is aimed at liberation. That
means eliminating all afflictive emotions: anger, attachment, jealousy... We see all those as
negative emotions. There is, for example, attachment to form, color, smell, touch... As a monk, a
Buddhist must control himself and remove these attachments.
For example, in regard to clothing, a monk can only own a certain number of pieces - just
thirteen articles of clothing. If he should have more he must create the conviction in himself that
the surplus belongs to someone else. That is a way to diminish attachment and an exercise
which leads to achieving pleasure. Of course, nothing can be achieved at once, but attachment
and desires are diminished step by step.
From a Buddhist point of view, sexual relations create the strongest attachment since those
relations include sight, smell, touch, shape, sound, taste. Therefore, discipline in controlling
sexual desire to lower that form of attachment is considered to be one of the very important
parts of Buddhist practice.
I am sometimes asked whether the celibacy of monks is truly desirable and whether it is
possible at all. It is enough to say that when we speak of celibacy it is not just a question of
suppressing sexual desire. On the contrary, we need to completely accept the existence of that

desire and transform it through strength of reason. When we succeed in that, the result can be
very positive to the mind.
The trouble with sexual desire is that it is blind desire. When we say: "I want to have sex with
that person" it is an expression of a wish which is not intellectually directed in a way in which a
desire is expressed in the statement: "I want to eradicate poverty in the world". The second
statement expresses an intellectually directed desire. Also, the fulfillment of sexual desire gives
always only a temporary pleasure. That is why the great Indian philosopher Nagarjuna said:
"When you have an itch, you scratch.
But not to itch at all
Is better than any amount of scratching."
I think the fulfillment of sexual desire gives only a certain temporary pleasure and just a limited
form of happiness, but it very often leads to a number of negative things. Even married people
cannot avoid that negative side, not to mention AIDS. Married couples also have unnecessary
problems.
For example, couples who do not have children often worry because they want children, and the
ones who do, worry more because it is not easy to provide a number of children with an
education and dowries. The parents need a lot of money for all that and some of them turn to
trickery or even violence although they would not do that in different circumstances. In any case
it is better to have a smaller number of children.
A monk is halfway free. If we think along those lines we can conclude that monks and nuns do
sacrifice some pleasure but viewed in the long term they actually gain a lot.
BF: - That seems like the price of peace in mind?
DALAI LAMA: - I have noticed that people can sometimes be very happy, excited, flooded by
pleasure, and then right away, in literally just a few moments, they fall into a depression. Rises
and falls like those are frequent in life. That seemingly makes life colorful but at the same time it
is hard. I think that is a bad state, unhappy, unstable and harmful to one's health. In a
monastery, once a man decides, life is very stable. There are not as many happy moments but
there certainly are not as many depressions.
BF: - How would you explain the part of the Tantric teaching related to sex?
DALAI LAMA: - Sexual experience or sexual practice is mentioned only or mainly in the highest
levels of Tantriana. That Tantric teaching which includes sexual practice also includes
descriptions of various levels of consciousness. In an effort to suppress or remove or finally
dilute the grosser level of consciousness, that is the mind, we must include some physical
elements - mainly sperm and blood. We usually called that - drops. That is how a new element
is created in the body, an element which has certain potential to reduce the simpler level of
consciousness or mind. In that practice the sexual organ is used as an instrument. When the
movement of energy reaches a certain nerve center - it stops completely. Then that energy
returns towards the urinal tract and then the person has a feeling of exceptional pleasure - bliss.

That helps reduce the activities of the grosser level of the mind. Then the measure of inactivity
of that level of the mind grows gradually and the subtle mind becomes more active.
That is the technique, that is the concept of using the partner - male or female, depending on
the gender of the person using it. In any case, that is not usual sexual activity.
BF: - So, that is the way to transform energy in order to suppress the activities of the simple
mind and activate the subtle?
DALAI LAMA: - That is correct. It is in the nature of this kind of body that when some elements
in it change, changes in the mind also occur. That happens when you sneeze, or yawn, at the
moment you fall asleep or finally when you have sexual intercourse. At those moments, some
elements in our body change and the activities of the simple level of the mind are suppressed
for a short time.
If you use those natural phenomena you may have a deeper experience. The most efficient in
that regard is sleep. Not sleeping as such, but the moment you fall asleep. At those moments
the activities of the grosser level of the mind are suppressed. If you are careful at those
moments, if your mind is prepared, then you can feel the activities of the subtle mind at the
moment. In fact, that is not really the subtle mind but something similar. However, that
experience enables you to recognize the activating of that type of subtle consciousness and you
can have a spiritual experience.
Whenever you recognize the subtle mind you have to be aware that that mind cannot always be
transformed into wisdom. As a first step, however, it is very important for a man to practice and
learn to recognize the moment that level of the mind is activated. If, for example, you go to sleep
with your mind ready, than gradually an opportunity is created for you to feel the activating of
the subtle mind. Once you feel that, and then meditate on it, the grosser level of mind will
reduce its functioning. That is the most efficient technique.
Ultimate Reality, Emptiness
BF: - What is the goal of those exercises?
DALAI LAMA: - When I say that the subtle mind turns into wisdom, that means the mind can
then realize the reality of emptiness, which ends afflictive emotions, wrong conceptions,
erroneous perceptions of things and tendencies based on the appearances and impressions
which are also usually wrong. To remove all that, we have to develop a right concept which will
enable us to understand reality.
In Buddhist philosophy, the ultimate reality is emptiness. Therefore, once you realize the
emptiness, that understanding represents the end of wrong conceptions. Although that
understanding of the ultimate nature of things is fairly efficient with the grosser level of the mind,
the subtle mind is more powerful in it. Negative emotions can be created only when the grosser
level of the mind is active since negative emotions belong to the category of the simpler level.
Therefore, what causes a counter reaction - an antidote - should be at the same level. The
antidote for afflictive emotions at the same level is useful but an antidote from the deeper level
is better and more powerful because its effect will also be stronger. That is the tantric
explanation.

BF: - How would you explain the nature of the emptiness?

DALAI LAMA: - From a Buddhist point of view, the conventional nature of the mind is a clear
light, and thus the defilements do not reside in the very nature of the mind; defilements are
adventitious, temporary and can be removed. From the ultimate point of view, the nature of the
mind is its emptiness in the sense that it has no inherent existence.
You see, when we examine the conventional level of truth, it is indisputable that phenomena
disappear and pass away. But if we examine the ultimate level we can conclude that there is
nothing that really exist, nothing inherently existing that is created and endures. For example,
there are terms such as cause and effect. Since cause has no inherent existence, that is it has
no true existence, its effect must also have no existence. Neither has an inherent existence and
the conclusion is that they depend on one another, i.e. they exist only in mutual
interdependence. In other words, since the nature of those phenomena is expressed in
dependence on many other things, the conclusion is that those phenomena do not have an
inherent existence, that they do not exist under their own power.
Therefore, as Nagarjuna said, phenomena truly are not created, nor do they last or disappear.
The expression "the one who sees that all phenomena do not have a true appearance or
endurance" relates to the emptiness and the one who directly, by his own perception,
understands or sees the emptiness. Because everything exisits in dependence on various
elements, everything lacks an inherent existence and since everything lacks an inherent
existence, phenomena happen exclusively depending on causes and effects.
On the other hand, the qualities that depend on the mind can be increased limitlessly. As much
as you implement and increase the antidotal attitudes that counter afflictive emotions, so much
do those unfavorable attitudes decrease, finally being extinguished altogether. Since we have a
mind that has a nature of mere luminosity and knowing, each one of us has the fundamental
substance necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood.
A basic Buddhist point is that in dependence upon the mind's
being essentially an entity of mere luminosity and knowing,
it can be shown that the mind can eventually know everything. This, from the philosophical
viewpoint, supports the position that good attitudes can be increased limitlessly.
Wishes, Appearances
BF: - The Buddha says the desire is one of the three greatest evils in the human mind and that
its roots lie in the human ego. The Buddha said that selfish desires are so strong that they can
never be suppressed and recommends the way to a solution - overcoming the ego by finding
something more pleasing for the mind. The diagnosis on the three evils is clear to me, but I do
not understand the recommendation for a solution. Would you, please, explain what can be
more pleasing to the mind and how it can be achieved.
DALAI LAMA: - This question demands a wider explanation. In general, the desire, in my
opinion, does not represent anything bad. I mean, of course, reasonable desires. Those kinds of
desires are quite all right. Now, for example, when I visit a shop where I see various beautiful

things I begin to think: I want this, I want that... That is when you should think: do I really need
those things? The answer is no!
This example shows us two levels, two categories of desire. One type of wish, the desire for
unnecessary things, luxuries, usually creates problems. The other kind of desire, for what is
truly necessary is all right. For example, if you are cold and want to protect yourself from the
cold, that is quite all right. Therefore, desires include some extreme wishes and lead to
problems or even to disaster, and others are reasonable, stemming from necessity and leading
in a right direction.
Why are negative, unreasonable desires formed? The cause is usually attachment which is
created as the result of a lack of understanding, a lack of knowledge, insufficient knowledge,
misunderstanding. That kind of desire develops on the basis of cursory impressions,
appearances. Those are cursory wishes: I want this, I want that... A deeper insight shows
clearly that those things are not necessary.
In short, the stronger the attachment and aversion are, the greater will our suffering be. The
weaker those negative feelings are, the happier we can be. Therefore, we have to think about
what we should eliminate. Look at what happens when we are jealous, for example. First, we
should bear in mind that we will all die in the end and we cannot preserve what we are jealous
about. However, because we will never be able to satisfy our jealousy completely, we can never
be happy as long as we are jealous. If, for example, you are in a restaurant and you are
tormented by jealousy of someone close by who is eating good food, ask yourself what you will
gain by it. That only causes an unpleasant feeling and it certainly won't fill your stomach. The
same is true of pride. No one remains as they are always, no one is eternally young. Whatever
we are proud about we will loose it in time. Besides, pride in itself, is a very unhappy state of
mind.
Objectively, there are real situation and appearances. Appearances are naturally different from
reality. For example, every object seems in appearance like something solid, independent. In
reality, that is not so. If we examine this tape recorder for example, if we go into detail: what
material it is made of, what color it is, what shape, we see that actually there is no recorder. Or
for example, you are seemingly a Yugoslav gentleman but if we go into detail again we see the
arm of a gentleman, his body, but where is the personality, where is the being, the human
being? Because this is the body of a human being but not the human being itself. I can
understand many things through our conversation, I can learn you thoughts, your way of
thinking, but that is your opinion and not your personality. I can see, touch your body but that is
only your body, that is not your person.
BF: - So what am I?
DALAI LAMA: - This is the question. We cannot establish that through examination. There is an
eye, for example, but it is not an independent eye. It just seems to be separate, independent.
That eye, that recorder, actually do not exist.
Therefore, reality depends on many, many elements.
Combinations of all those various elements can create a new thing. It just seems that it is
something independent, but in reality nothing is independent.

Many negative emotions are created on the basis of appearance, semblance, something that
does not exist in fact. To suppress and gradually diminish and eliminate the strength of
attachment and afflictive emotions it is very important to realize the true nature of reality. Reality
is in Tibetan nature and it is not something independent.
When desires, anger or hatred appear, that moment those negative emotions seem like
something completely independent, almost like a separate object. But once you realize that
there are many other elements and that anger cannot last long because there are very many
different situations in life. For example, if some trouble is caused by one man, it is easy to feel
hatred or anger towards him but if a million people protest over something, that is something
quite different, that is another story.
Also, when you feel something on the basis of appearance, it seems to you that it is something
special, independent and seemingly it is clear to you that because of that person or that event
you are suffering. If, however, you analyze reality, you will conclude that things and
appearances are so mutually interdependent that much depends on you as well and in that
situation it is not easy to get angry.
Overcoming the Ego
BF: - Would you explain the Buddha's recommendation on overcoming the ego and finding
something that is much more pleasing to the mind.
DALAI LAMA: - I think that all pronounced demands are negative but the ego itself does not
always have to be negative. I think that a strong feeling of individuality (I, Self) is not always
bad. With a strong feeling of your individuality, a strong 'I', you can develop a strong will, a great
decisiveness and, in my opinion, gain a sense of responsibility. If you loose that type of selfconfidence, that strong 'I', then that is very bad.
A strong feeling of your own 'I' can also be negative. There are two levels. This is the simplest
explanation: if we engage in some positive activities, if we serve or help others, in that case it is
very helpful to have a strong feeling of our own 'I' in the sense of 'I want to do that', 'I should
help', 'I have to oppose trouble'. There is, however, another type of strong 'I' which is expressed
in the thought 'I want to kill', 'I want to destroy'. That completely disregards the rights of others
and that feeling is negative.
In the first case, the 'I' thinks of the rights of others with their wellfare in mind which is all based
on healthy reasoning in which you recognize the same rights for others as you do for yourself.
With that feeling and reasoning, the desire to help others develops on the basis of: 'I can do
that, I want to do that'.
On the other side is the stand 'I don't care' or 'I want to kill, to destroy', which is not the result of
healthy reasoning but is based exclusively on negative emotions and ignorance.
The root of failure in our lives is the stand expressed in the thought: 'Oh, how weak and useless
I am'. The contrary is very important - thinking with all strength of our mind: 'I can do it!' But that
idea should not confused with pride or any kind of bad, negative emotions. Regardless of what
you are trying to do, systematic effort over a long period of time is very important. Some will fail
because they work very hard at first trying to do too much, and then give up after a short time. A

constant but moderate effort is needed. It is like meditation: you should have frequent short
seances and it is more important for them to be of good quality than to be long.
Now comes the understanding of the emptiness, that is the true feeling for the essence of
existence. The ones who understand that, even if incompletely, help themselves reduce their
own negative emotions and develop positive. Although my personal experience is very limited, I
can say that with a more complete understanding of the relativity of existence, the
interdependency of all things and the fact that everything exists in dependence of many things
and conditions, you come to the realization that man is less attached to things and beings
around himself and less frequently get angry at one single thing. By the development of that
understanding and feeling, by questioning the basis of self-confidence, that is the strong feeling
of our own individuality, one becomes able to eliminate anger and attachment. That is because
that reasoning leads to the conclusion that there simply is no single object which exists
independently of everything else and which will give you lasting pleasure.
For example, if you feel anger towards someone bear in mind that that feeling develops
because you are thinking of that person only on the basis of impressions as of someone
independent. But ask yourself: where is that being in fact? You can see his body and on the
basis of his speech you can reach some cursory conclusions on his mind, which means that
"the real thing" is truly there. But what is that being in fact, where is it? His body is there, you
can feel that his mind is there, but where and what is that personality?
If you think like that, your negative feelings towards that being will diminish and disappear
because you simply cannot locate that being, that personality.
Take Stalin, for example. There was an appearance called Stalin and that appearance easily
drew anger because it seemed that the goal, that is the object, is quite clear. But, if we ask
ourselves where Stalin was in fact, we see that he was just an appearance, an impression; his
mind existed, his speech, but where was his personality? When you ask those questions, the
object is no longer as clear as it seemed, isn't it? Stalin was actually a combination of a body,
mind, speech and activity, but those negative acts which he committed were not just his and
only his because his existence also depended on the environment.
When people ask me for an opinion on the Gulf crisis, for example, I always say that it is wrong
to blame only one person for everything. Saddam Hussein did many bad things but his actions
were conditioned by many things including the policies of some western countries.
Therefore, when we realize the interdependency which rules nature we realize that some
completely independent object or being simply does not exist. Let us take another example:
scientists who study some very specific problem. Because they are so concentrated on that one
problem, they usually are not able to see other things and elements. In their narrow field of
research, it is easy to see black and white clearly, but if you look from a wider perspective, it is
hard to see only black and white because everything is a mixture. So, in reality concepts based
only on appearance are very often wrong. And all negative emotions are developed on the basis
of appearances, impressions while the awareness of interdependency and positive qualities
depend on the understanding of reality.
That is the Buddhist view.

BF: - As far as I understand, the Buddhist doctrine demands the complete eradication of desire.
But, as you said, you accept some desires as positive.
DALAI LAMA: - The wish to eradicate desire is also a desire.
BF: - So it's a vicious circle then?
DALAI LAMA: (laughs) - It probably has something to do with language. In the Tibetan language
there is a term which is used to express the usual type of desire and another for, let us say,
effective desire. But when that is translated, part of the meaning is lost because in western
languages there is only one term - desire. Desires in themselves do not always have to be
negative.
Enlightenment, Awareness, Non-violence
BF: - According to Mahayana Buddhism, everyone can achieve enlightenment. Is that possible if
a man is not a monk and can that be achieved without a teacher?
DALAI LAMA: - First, you should bear in mind that enlightenment can not be achieved only by
living the life of a monk and reciting holy scriptures. The question is even if that activity, by itself,
can be called religious since religion has to be practiced in the mind. If you do not have the right
mental attitude you will achieve nothing, not even if you spend your entire life in a monastery
reading sacred books. Only if you are merciful, moral, kind and if you forgive, only then can you
find your own inner peace. Without that inner peace world peace is not possible.
On the other hand, enlightenment can be achieved if you are not in a monastery but without a
teacher it is very difficult. Developments in that direction can be achieved only to a certain level
but when more serious topics arise, when you need to go on to higher levels of perfecting your
personality, it becomes hard. There are some complicated issues and very delicate practice
where you can hardly achieve anything without an experienced and very qualified teacher. In
fact, I think that nothing can be achieved without the leadership and explanations of such a
teacher.
BF: - What would you recommend to people who want to implement the essence of Buddha's
teachings on transforming the ego to achieve peace in mind?
DALAI LAMA: - Compassion, Buddhahood and awareness. The last is very complicated. There
are two levels of awareness. The first stems from the holistic, comprehensive viewpoint. That
type of awareness is very useful. For example, today increasingly more people are expressing
concern for nature and ecology. That is not due to Buddhism or any other religion but mainly
due to the awareness of the danger threatening nature. Many scientists today point out the
possible consequences of the pollution of the planet. Therefore, people gain a fuller awareness
of reality.
Also, today there is much more care for respect of human rights than 40-50 years ago. That is
also the result of awareness.
In ancient times, people in one country, in a limited area, cared for their families, their
communities, and at that time villages were more or less independent economically. Today, in

modern culture, all that has passed. Even in cold regions, for example, fruit and vegetables from
other countries are always available. That is the practical expression of interdependency.
Awareness of interdependency has, I think, caused some kind of feeling for true cooperation.
Now we have joint markets, unions. Despite all obstacles and differences between individual
countries they join those communities out of necessity.
All that is the result of awareness.
On the other hand, some scientists have studied negative emotions, anger, for example, from
the point of view of health. They concluded that it is very bad for your health if you are often
angry. Therefore it is recommendable to be less angry, less upset.
You see, all that has no connection with religion but is the consequence of an awareness of
reality. I think that now people more prize the value of compassion, human feelings and have a
better understanding of the harmfulness of anger.
That is one form of awareness. The other, deeper level is the one that is firmly rooted in Tibetan
nature - the awareness of the emptiness, awareness of relativity.
Those things are vital to Buddhism.
I usually explain the essence of Buddhism by saying that it has two main principles. The first is:
do not commit violence. The exact meaning of non-violence has two levels. The first is refraining
from inflicting harm or injury to any being and that is the basic thing. The second level is - serve
others and all living beings. In other words, if you can help other beings, help them, if you
cannot at least refrain from harming them. That is the essence of Buddhism.
BF: - I know there is no shortcut in learning, but can you offer some advice to people far from
here who want to achieve peace in mind. I mean the people who have to fight every day for an
existence for themselves and their children and can't go to monasteries or to meditate.
DALAI LAMA: - I wrote of most of my thinking on Buddhism here (points to the book Universal
Responsibility) and that can help. I wrote that book for the ones who do not believe, ordinary
people.
You see, I think that of the five billion inhabitants of our planet one billion are believers. The
other four billion have no religion. They also need compassion, human understanding, a cordial
approach - as long as we are human beings we all need that. That is why we have to find a way
to send our message of compassion to those billions of human beings.
BF: - Most of them cannot come here to learn although they want to know about Buddhism. At
the same time, they want to work on their minds to decrease the suffering over unfulfilled wishes
and the chaos in their souls. Do you think they can direct their minds on the way of Buddha
using only a few books?
DALAI LAMA: - That is possible up to a point, but only the first level can be passed with books,
the rest require a teacher.

BF: - Which books would you recommend?

DALAI LAMA: - For example Dharmapada is a very good book. The original was written long
ago in the Pali language in Sri Lanka. I will give you some books but there must be others I do
not know about.
Secret Doctrines
BF: - You are probably not allowed to speak about the secret teachings but could you tell me
why they are secret and what they relate to in fact?
DALAI LAMA (picks up a Tibetan medicine, chews on it and sips tea from a tin cup): - The
teaching of Tantra includes some techniques for the use of negative emotions such as anger
and desire, including sexual desire. The images of some deities are terrifying, they are armed
with swords and spears. Some of those Gods are portrayed together performing sexual acts.
Those teachings are secret because when you use the energy of negative emotions you are
exposed to danger if you are not fully prepared and without a healthy basis for that undertaking.
These are dangerous things and it is possible that you could harm yourself instead of
succeeding. Also there are some exercises during which anger develops and that can be
harmful to your health and very dangerous for mental stability. However, by performing those
exercises correctly it is possible to use those emotions in a positive sense, transforming the
energy of anger into positive energy. Since those things are very delicate, you have to be well
trained and capable of transforming that negative energy into positive.
The delicacy of those operations is one reason why those teachings are part of the secret
doctrines. On the other hand, the public would get the wrong impression about the entire
teaching on the basis of some of those exercises and that is another reason why they are kept
secret.
In one of those exercises you visualize an image of male and female deities uniting in a way
that seems to represent sexual union. If you do not understand what is actually happening there
could be a negative effect. Also, the tantric teaching of the highest level includes some methods
to reduce the activities of the grosser level of mind by suppressing the simple, coarse
consciousness, that is the simple, coarse energy to express a subtle energy and more subtle
consciousness. That subtle consciousness is finally transformed into wisdom which we call the
clear light. When a man dies all the functions of the brain and heart stop and the simple form of
consciousness disappears completely. All that is left is the finest energy and subtle
consciousness which are transformed into wisdom.
One of those exercises is performed by pressing the two main veins on the base of the neck to
cause the heart to stop and, in a limited form, create the feeling man experiences when dying.
There is a serious danger of death in that exercise if an experienced teacher is not present.
Those exercises, as you see, are very delicate and for all those reasons, including the sexual
aspects, that teaching remains secret.
BF: - Do the secret teachings enable Buddhists to cut their lives short if they want?

DALAI LAMA: - That depends of the level of self-perfection that has been achieved but, on the
whole, our exercises enable us to do that. In the past 10 years since the Chinese began
executions in Tibet there were cases of lamas being taken away for execution who died on the
way.
Buddhism, Truths
BF: - How would you express the basic Buddhist doctrine?
DALAI LAMA: - There are several different ways to express the basic structure of Buddhist
doctrine. According to one of the most significant, the bases are: two truths - conventional and
ultimate; the roads to them are method and wisdom and the fruits at the end of those roads are
Buddha's two bodies: the Form Body - the physical manifestation of a Buddha - whose purpose
is to help others, and The Truth Body - the exalted mind of a Buddha - which is the imprint of the
wisdom consciousness realizing emptiness, the ultimate truth, and represents the final
achievement of man's wellfare. In Buddhism there is no particular Buddha who was always a
Buddha, who has been beginninglesssly enlightened. Buddhas are people who, like ourselves,
originally had minds acompanied by defilement and stage by stage removed those defilements
to the point where they transformed themselves into beings who had attained all good attributes
and removed all faults. The root of their ability to do this is the fact that the nature of mind is
mere luminosity and knowledge.
BF: - What are the most important qualities of a true Buddhist?
DALAI LAMA: - The first and most important is that he finds refuge in the Three Jewels. Those
Three Jewels are Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. Buddha is the teacher and the goal of the
Buddhist is to achieve the level of consciousness that Buddha has achieved. Dharma is the
road that should be taken, and Sangha is the community of monks and others who advanced on
the Buddha's road. Entry into that sanctuary must be based on a clear and deep understanding
of the significance of the Three Jewels.
It is not enough to call yourself a Buddhist, you must live in harmony with the karmic law of
cause and effect. Man must make an effort to cleanse his mind of all negative traits and develop
positive qualities like love, compassion, non-attachment and wisdom. It is necessary to
understand that only we are responsible for our spiritual life and that no one else can save us if
we are not capable of helping ourselves.
BF: - Would you comment the fact that in India, the land where Buddha was born, there are
almost no Buddhists left. Does that mean that this noble philosophy has been defeated in the
country of its origin?
DALAI LAMA: - An Indian scientist says three things led to the disappearance of Buddhism in
India. First, the competition with the other religions, then the fact that influential people, such as
kings, accepted and supported those other religions, and finally, the Buddhists themselves did
not behave accordingly. They lived in luxury, especially the monks in monasteries, exploited
other people, misused the gifts from the faithful. Luxury became their way of life and there was
no discipline. That is why they lost the respect of the people.
The scientist I mentioned listed those facts which I believe are very important. This reminds me
of Buddha's words that the greatest damage to his teaching can be done by internal destruction.

Buddha quoted the example of the lion who is very powerful and most other animals cannot
endanger him but he usually dies because of his own greed.
BF: - Let me tell you my impression: To me it seems the Buddhists were always somehow
outside this world. Their absolute respect for life made them incapable of defending themselves
in India during invasions and in Tibet when the Chinese attacked your country. My impression is
that Buddhists are like some strange condemned tribe that was meant to disappear from this
world because it did not belong to it. In fact, throughout history, everyone fought and killed each
other for some god or ideology. I know your stand about love as the overpowering quality of
human nature but despite that it seems to me that killing is the true mark of our epoch which
truly seems to represent the age of Kali-yuga. Is it possible that Buddhists are a seed for the
future of mankind?
DALAI LAMA: - A very difficult question. I think that recent events in Buddhist countries like
Tibet, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Mongolia and even China, show that their fate is affected by
many things, especially economic factors. But, the past is the past. As for the future, I see
interest in Buddhism growing in the scientific world, among atheists who are usually skeptical,
but Buddhism is becoming familiar to them. On several occasions I talked to scientists about
Buddhist ideas. Many of them, although not believers, said that if they had to choose a religion it
would undoubtedly be Buddhism. That shows that those people, although non-believers, are
truly concerned about mankind, human values, nature, and Buddhism is close to them for that
reason.
I usually say that there is one group of people on this planet, a minority, which is against any
religion. Among them are the Communists, for example, who destroy all religion, all faith. The
second group, which is much larger, is made up of the faithful of different religions, and the
third, which is the largest, are all the people who are neutral.
Among the Communists are many who are radical materialists and as such they deny every
religion claiming that they accept only the reasoning which can be proved by experiment. To
them Buddhism is a form of religion because of its spirituality and they fight Buddhism.
On the other hand, to religious groups which believe in the One God, Buddhism is like paganism
since there is no God in Buddhism. Therefore, Buddhism is not for the radical materialists or the
monotheistic religious groups. Buddhism lies somewhere in between. In any case, that is the
advantage that allows Buddhism to be a kind of bridge between those two groups.
BF: - Do you think that Buddhism is more attractive to the large group of neutral people?
DALAI LAMA: - That is correct, but you should also bear in mind that Buddhism, as a bridge,
offers the possibility of a rapprochement between the scientific view of the world and spirituality,
that is it can contribute to bringing together religious values and scientific achievements.
In essence, the Buddhist stand, especially in Mahayana Buddhism, is skepticism. That is very
important and means that everyone has to investigate oneself to establish the truth. If the
conclusion of that investigation does not agree with Buddhist teaching then we have to accept
reality, not the word of Buddhists. We have the freedom not to accept teachings just out of
respect for the teacher and not to become dependent on a personality. For a teaching and nice
words are not that important but their meaning is. When we speak of meaning we do not mean

the cursory impressions but deep reality. And in that we should rely more on experience than on
intellectual reasoning.
In any case, Buddha advised his followers to check out all his teaching before they accept it. He
said that if his teaching cannot be verified by reason and logic it should be rejected or changed.
Buddha did not claim that everything he said is the final word on that topic nor that his followers
should blindly accept everything he tells them. Buddha predicted the coming of Nagarjuna and
Asanga who would analyze his teaching. He gave us the right to analyze all his teachings and
accept or reject them in accord with our personal intellectual level and abilities and with the
social and scientific trends of our times.

Armies, Human Rights

BF: - There are people who have neither the wish nor the ability to harm others, even if forced to
do so. It seems to me that they, as Buddhists, are slightly outside this world. How can they solve
their very serious problem of adapting to this ruthless society if they feel that in some way they
do not belong to it?
DALAI LAMA: - I firmly believe that love and kindness are the fundaments of human nature.
However, our surroundings and to some degree our education and ideology, which are human
creations, have a negative effect on man's mind. Preserving the good, positive qualities of
human nature includes many elements.
Education and family are among the most important. Then comes the environment, including
television and other media. And, of course, the political and economic situation also influence
us.
I am sure much would be achieved with a reform of the entire system, with the introduction of a
good, humanist education and correct guidance through the media. This can also be done in a
negative context, for the purpose of brainwashing, but there is a positive possibility to act so that
mankind turns against violence and bad behavior. I think a change in that direction is possible
but there will always be a few bad individuals.
It is impossible for all mankind to achieve that level of development but I think that majority can
become better, more positive.
I wrote in a brochure that the final goal must be the demilitarization of the entire planet so that
there are no more armies, nations, but only a collective world force under United Nations
control. During my travels I said it is time to seriously think about decreasing the amount of
weapons in the world, especially to stop selling arms. And that is possible.
On the other hand, the greatest source of violence in our world, besides wars, are the existence
of of large military establishments. Whether for defensive or offensive purposes, these vast
powerful organization have no other function than to kill human beings.
We should think carefully about the reality of war. Most of us has been conditioned to see
military action as something exciting and glamorous - an opportunity for men to prove their
competence and courage. Because armies are legal, we all feel that war is acceptable. Nobody

feels that war is criminal; no one thinks that acceptance of war is itself a criminal attitude. In fact,
we have been brainwashed. War is not glamorous or attractive. It is monstrous.
I believe that war is like a fire in the human community; a fire where fuel consists of live human
beings. Actually, modern warfare is primarily waged with different forms of fire, but we are so
conditioned to see it as thrilling that we talk about this or that marvellous weapon as a
remarkable piece of technology without thinking that, if it works, its actual result will be to burn
people. When a war starts, it really does resemble a fire. If the fire grows weak in one area or
another, the commanding general will order an additional division of men to that sector, to
renew it. That, in fact, is putting live men on the fire.
At that time, however, because of indoctrination, nobody thinks about the suffering of the
individual soldiers. None of them wants to die or be wounded. If they are struck down or
maimed for life, at least five to ten other people - all those close to them - will suffer as well. If
we were not confused, we would all be horrified by this tragedy.
Military establishments are not just destructive during war. By their very design, they are the
single greatest violators of human rights. Those that suffer most consistently from their abuse
are actually the soldiers themselves. After the officers in command give a beautiful explanations
about the importance of the army, its discipline, and the need to conquer the enemy, the rights
of the great mass of soldiers are almost entirely taken away.
They are compelled to forefeit their individual will and, in the end, to sacrifice their lives.
Moreover, once an army becomes a powerful force there is every risk that it can destroy the
happiness of its own country. Every society contains people with destructive intentions. Gaining
command of an organization capable of implementing their desire, become an overwhelming
temptations to such individuals. Now matter how bad the large number of quite murderous
dictators who have oppressed various nations and are currently causing international problems
are, it is obvious that without a military organization to utilize - one accepted and condoned by
society - they could not ruin countless human lives. As long as there is a powerful army, there is
always the danger of dictatorship. If we really believe that dictatorship is despicable and
destructive form of government, then we must recognize that one of the primary causes giving
rise to it is the existence of a powerful military establishment.
The Power of the Individual, Universal Responsibility
BF: - I know that you firmly believe that the good side of human natures wins. If that were not so
there would certainly be more murders than babies. But, in many countries power is in the
hands of corrupt tricksters, mad fanatics or dictators who usually try to hide their crimes with
constant talks of religion, freedom or ideology. The world has been in that situation for
thousands of years and ordinary people cannot do anything against those monstrousities. Some
pessimists have concluded that the only way out for an honest man in this world without hope is
suicide. What is your view of that?
DALAI LAMA: - I think it is wrong to believe the individual can do nothing. The community of
humans is a collective made up of individuals and initiative must always come from the
individual. I think it is the duty of every individual to contribute to directing our global family in the
right direction. Only good wishes are not enough; we have to take responsibility.

Finally, mankind's great movements are created as the consequence of individual initiative. If
we think in advance that we cannot achieve a significant result, if the other individual thinks the
same, a great opportunity is lost. On the other hand, simply working at developing our own
altruistic motives can inspire others.
BF: - Yes, but in many political systems that simply is not possible. Take Stalin's Soviet Union,
for example, or the eastern European "popular democracies" or dictatorships.
DALAI LAMA: - Those systems are decreasing now. I think the advance of the ideas of
democracy and freedom is impressive. In essence, authoritarian systems based on intimidation
are contrary to human nature. They cannot function because they are opposed to mankind.
I also think that the situation in the world, especially the economic situation, has changed very
much.
Interdependency is increasingly becoming an element of cohesion and is growing so much
stronger that individual nations, even if they wanted to remain isolated, have to establish closer
relations with their neighbouring countries. At the same time, they want to preserve their system
of political dictatorship. Those two things are contradictory. Sooner or later, the desire of the
people for prosperity becomes so strong, because it is right, that no force can stop it. Therefore,
political limitations cannot last long. Those systems are already declining and falling into ruin.
Sometimes a negative figure, like Saddam Hussein, for example, becomes a dictator. That is
truly possible but I think that those possibilities are gradually dying out.
I see the reasons for that in the fact that one of the most destructive forces of this century,
Communism with its extremely rigid system, has disappeared. Communism was born in this
century and is dying in it. I think that in the next ten years Communism will disappear
completely.
Then there is the increasing concern for nature, for respect of human rights in the entire world.
At the level of governments things are also different to what they were before. I think that now
international organizations and the international public are much more aware of the need to
prevent violations of human rights. That is a very healthy attitude. At the same time, the people
of the European continent, for example, are less interested in individual sovereignty and more in
communal wellbeing. Obviously people of good will are rallying.
After the disappearance of the repressive regimes of the Communist world, a new type of
dissatisfaction is being expressed. The interests of various ethnic groups are being expressed in your country as well as others - which were under fierce repression for decades which caused
them much suffering. However, now the most important thing is to think about long-term
wellbeing, long-term interests not insignificant divisions into Us and Them.
All in all, I think that things are developing in a good direction and that is a reason for optimism.
The initiative of individuals is the decisive thing for changes in society. It is wrong to believe that
the opportunities of the individual are limited, that the individual should not think about the
problems of the world. It is not important if that initiative fails, it is important for the individual to
have done his duty. If man makes an effort, if he speaks of problems and tries to contribute to
resolving them in accord with his abilities there is no reason to regret not having achieved much

and he can be satisfied that he took on his share of the responsibility for the fate of the world. I
believe that mankind must develop a feeling of universal responsibility.
Each of us must learn to work not only for ourselves, our families or our nations, but for the
good of all mankind. Universal responsibility is the key to the survival of the human race. That is
also the best foundation for peace in the world, an equal share of natural resources and correct
care for nature, which is an expression of care for future generations.
BF: - How do we achieve that?
DALAI LAMA: - Today's world requires us to accept the oneness of humanity. In the past,
isolated communities could afford to think of one another as fundamentally separate. Some
could even exist in total isolation. But nowadays, whatever happens in one region of the world
will eventually affect, through a chain reaction, peoples and places far away. Therefore, it is
essential to treat each major problem, right from its inception, as a global concern. It is no
longer possible to emphasize, without destructive repercussions, the national, racial or
ideological barriers which differentiate us. Within the context of our new interdependence, selfinterest clearly lies in considering the interests of others.
I view this fact as a source of hope. The necessity for cooperation can only strengthen mankind.
It will help us to recognize that the most secure foundation upon which to build a new world
order is not merely one of more comprehensive political or economic alliances, but that of each
individual's belief in any genuine practice of love and compassion. For the future of mankind, for
a better, happier, more stable and civilized world, we must all develop a sincere, warm-hearthed
feeling of brotherhood and sisterhood.
BF: - That sounds slightly idealistic, doesn't it?
DALAI LAMA: - In Tibetan we have a saying: many illnesses can be cured by one medicine love and compassion. You see, love and compassion are the ultimate sources of human
happiness. Our need for them lies in the very core of our identity. Unfortunately, however, those
feelings have, for too long, been omitted from many spheres of social interaction. Most often
confined to family and home, their practice in public life is thought of as impracticable, even
naive. This is tragic. In my view, the practice of compassion is not a symptom of unrealistic
idealism. It is the most effective means to pursue one's own interest as well as that of others. To
the extent that one is dependent on others, the maintenance of their wellbeing is naturally in
one's own interest as well.
The most effective way to pursue harmony is not just through recognizing one's own need for it.
The real source of compromise and cooperation lies in the practice of altruism. A mind
commited to compassion is like an ever-full reservoir, a constant resource of energy,
determination and kindness. It is like a seed, which cultivated, gives rise to many other good
qualities, such as forgiveness, tolerance, inner strength and the confidence to overcome fear
and insecurity. Expressions of compassion and love should not be limited to one's friends and
family.
Take the example of bees. Nature's law dictates that, in order to survive, they must work
together. As a result, they instinctively possess a sense of social responsibility. They have no
constitution, no laws, no police, no religion or moral training, but because of their nature they
labour faithfully together. We, the human beings, have constitutions, laws, police, we have

religions, remarkable intelligence and a hearth with a great capacity to love. We have many
extraordinary qualities, but in actual practice, I think we are behind those small insects. In some
regards, I feel that we are poorer than the bees.
For instance, millions of people live together, all over the world in large cities. Despite such
proximity, many are lonely. Some, lacking even a single human being with whom to share their
deepest feelings, live in a perpetual state of agitation. This is very sad. People are not like
solitary animals who only associate in order to mate. If that was our character, why would we
have built those huge cities? Unfortunately, though we are social animals compelled to live
together, we very much lack a sense of responsibility for our fellow human beings.
BF: - How can we develop that responsibility?
DALAI LAMA: - I would like to say that I do not believe in creating movements or espousing
ideologies. The acceptance of the stand on universal responsibility is, in essence, a personal
thing, an individual issue. I do not like the practice of establishing an organization to promote an
idea. Doing so implies that only one group of people have responsibility for the achievement of
the goal - the rest are exempt. But in the present circumstances no one can afford to assume
that someone else will solve our problems.
Each of us must really take on our own share of universal responsibility. If so, then ten, one
hundred, one thousand or even hundreds of thousands of such concerned people will greatly
improve the overall atmosphere. Positive changes cannot come quickly. We need an ongoing
effort. If we become discouraged, even simple goals may not be achieved, whereas constant,
determined application can accomplish even the most difficult objectives.
Today when there are so many misconceptions in the world and when people are so full of
wishes and hate, I think there is a very precious possibility to introduce the teachings of
Buddhism on compassion and love. Although there is so much treasure in the world, there is no
treasure that can buy release from death, old age and other serious problems. Since suffering
comes from the mind, outside circumstances like wealth cannot remove mental suffering and it
is very important to follow religious or spiritual methods.
The most important thing is to have a completely pure motivation. That is why we have to
examine our mind and motivation in everything we do. We have to try to remove our
misconceptions and avoid negative action. The best way to achieve that is to develop a feeling
that everyone else is important and that we ourselves are not important. Doing good deeds,
truly loving all living beings - that is the essence of Mahayana Buddhism.
BF: - What is you stand on suicide?
DALAI LAMA: - It is very bad, very sad and very negative. From a Buddhist point of view,
suicide is a form of murder. However, it is all very complicated. Take the example of someone
who is very sick or subjected to torture which will bring death or cause serious injuries. In those
situations it is possible to use special forms of meditation to achieve what we call the separation
of the body and the subtle mind. That is allowed only in cases when death is inevitable or
because of serious illness or torture.

If someone commits suicide because of negative emotions like anger or the desire to compete that is negative. On the whole, suicide is a very negative act since we Buddhists consider life
very precious.
BF: - What do you think of the ritual suicide of the Japanese Samurai?
DALAI LAMA: - As I said, meditation...
BF: - Excuse me, but this is not a question of meditation but a knife in the stomach. I am asking
you this question because the Japanese are mainly Buddhists.
DALAI LAMA (laughs): - A lot depends on motivation. For example, if someone wants to kill you
let him do it, but he will get a very negative karma. To save him from that karma, you can cut
your own life short through meditation. In that way you save yourself from suffering and save the
potential killer from himself, that is from committing a very bad act and getting a very negative
karma. The motivation in this case is compassion.

*******************
During the last few minutes of our conversation, the very loud chirping of a bird came through
the window. That caused the Dalai Lama to tell this story:
"A few days ago, that bird committed a kind of invasion against a very pretty birds' nest which a
couple of parrots have been using every spring for the past 10 years to raise their young. They
always have beautiful little birds. But, this time the bird invaded their nest and I acted a
Westerner would, as an ally of the United Nations (laughs), and intervened to save the nest for
the parrots. Of course, I did not harm the bird, I just scared it."

**********************
Collective and Individual Karma
BF: - You see a difference between individual and collective karma. Would you explain the
issue?
DALAI LAMA: - The physical body and man's talents depend on individual karma, but the
surroundings and atmosphere you share with other people, climate and similar, are the product
of collective karma. For example, this planet is the result of the karma of over five billion human
beings and countless other living beings - animals, insects... Also, six million Tibetans have a
collective karma and the situation they are in now is the result of that karma.
In a family, what is common to everyone (housing, furniture, common pleasures) are the result
of collective karma. The body of an individual, his illnesses, his attitude towards life depend on
individual karma.
Karma is a Sanskrit word which means action. Pleasure and pain come from your own recent or
distant actions.

Karma is easily explained in one short sentence: if you do good you will be well, if you do bad
you will do badly. I think the meaning of karma will be clearer in this example: to spread some
new idea we take certain actions. That action brings some result tomorrow. Therefore, what
happens tomorrow depends completely on today's action. What will happen next year depends
entirely on this years actions. That is the way to understand karma.
Actions can be physical, verbal, mental, good, bad or neutral. For example, I am now speaking
and performing verbal action and accumulating karma which happens all the time. Whether that
action is good or bad depends on my motivation. If I speak with respect and love for others my
action is good. If I speak because of pride or hate the action is bad. When someone speaks with
a good motivation the result is there immediately, a friendly atmosphere is created, the action
leaves an impression on the mind and gives pleasure in the future. If you speak with bad
intentions, a heavy atmosphere is created immediately and the speaker will have some trouble
in the future.
There are three levels of action. First, mental action - that is motivation. Then, action of speech,
physical action and persistence. You see, people usually have only one, this life in view. But
since Buddhists believe in continued life, in the theory of rebirth, then there is much more time
for action. If the action is performed in this life, the result can appear in the next. In some cases,
individual actions you undertake in the early years of your life can have a result later in the
same life. In other cases that will happen in the next life.
On the whole, everything that happens, happens because of action, conscious or unconscious.
Some events are the consequence of collective action such as war which is the collective action
of many people. Something like war can happen because of individual action only in exceptional
cases.
BF: - Is it possible for an individual to be spared in a community which has a bad karma, that is
can he have a good karma because of past good deeds?
DALAI LAMA: - That is possible. It is possible that in a country where everyone is suffering, one
or a few will be spared of the suffering. But the reverse is also possible: for a community to
enjoy positive experience and for an individual to miss out on it because he dies just before the
turn for the better and misses the positive results.
Godmen, Mental Energy
BF: - What do you think of Indian and other godmen such as Osho Rajnish or Maharishi
Mahesh Yogi?
DALAI LAMA: - I believe that every religion has the potential to contribute to the good of
mankind. Those individuals, the godmen or spiritual masters, do good with their teachings to at
least some of their followers. That is all right.
Once, one of the followers of Osho Rajnish asked my opinion of their commune. I told him the
same as I told you.
BF: - Perhaps you have heard that the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi published an advertisement in
international newspapers offering to solve the problems of the world including the Gulf crisis if

he finds 7,000 people capable of concentrating their mental energy on finding solutions. Is that
possible?
DALAI LAMA: - From a Buddhist point of view, that is very difficult.
BF: - Do you believe that the mental energy of the enlightened being can truly produce some
visible effect for the good of mankind and, if so, why was not there such an effect to date?
DALAI LAMA: - It is hard to say that the influence of the energy of a group of people, or even
the energy of enlightened beings really can be of help to a limited part or group that action is
focused on. It is also very hard to say that this is the way to solve world problems. I think that is
impossible.
BF: - So there would no use in gathering the 7,000 people?
DALAI LAMA (laughs): - It would certainly be good for those 7,000 people to gather and pray
together. But, it is wrong to expect that such a praying can eliminate all the negative experience
on this planet, because that is impossible. Also, bear in mind that the effect of the energy of one
man is very limited. Action is much more important. I think it is very important to cultivate
determination and enthusiasm through action. In that way some changes can truly be
introduced.
The Soul, The Subtle Mind
BF: - How would you describe the soul?
DALAI LAMA: - The soul means something constant. The concept of the soul in some religions,
ideologies or traditions means that apart from this human body and mind there is also some
kind of independent entity. Buddhists do not accept that view.
BF: - But Buddhists accept the subtle mind. Is not that the same?
DALAI LAMA: - That is complicated and slightly confusing. When we say: human being, human
personality, that is just a pure description of the human body and mind. The human mind is
energy produced by the human brain. Therefore, without the human body there would be no
human personality. There is no sense in accepting the soul as an entity separate from this body.
In Buddhist philosophy there is no place for the theory of the soul.
BF: - But what do you offer instead? The subtle mind?
DALAI LAMA: - The subtle mind is another thing. The human body is no more after death. Prior
to conception there is also no body. The time of the human body is limited, but we believe in
unlimited life and also in the personality, or I, or being which has no beginning. When we speak
of that being, personality or I, without a beginning, that relates mainly to the mind. There are
various levels of the mind. Usually, when we say human mind that means the mind in the
human body, that is the brain. Because it is inside the body and is protected by it we call that
mind the human mind.

However, the essential nature of that mind, the grosser or simpler level of the mind, is its
capability to gather knowledge, power to learn, to have the feeling of knowledge from
experience. That nature of the mind is not the product of the physical body. That nature comes
from the awareness stimulated by the senses, from an understanding of the conditions of a
similar nature. On the basis of that, Buddhists believe in continuity with the previous mind.
Before the beginning of human life, at the time just before conception, the new body gains a
mind thanks to continuity with the previous mind. When we die, all physical functions of the
human body cease, the brain also stops functioning. But the finest essence of the mind is still
there. We call that the inner most subtle mind. That mind represents the connection between
the previous and next life in the new human body, that is between the previous and new human
or animal body. At the moment of death, the subtle mind produces a certain energy, an energy
which is hard to analyze or define, a very fine highly sensitive energy. At that time, the simple
level of the mind, consciousness, does not function any longer, nor does the physical body
function, but the subtle mind and subtle body are still there. That combination of the two subtle
entities we still call a being, not a human being, not an animal being, but just a being.
Therefore, the dilemma on whether Buddhists accept the theory of the soul or not depends most
on the meaning given to the term. The same is with God. If you interpret God as the Creator as
the Allmighty, Buddhists cannot accept that.
But God in the sense of altruism, unlimited ultimate love and ultimate knowledge are acceptable
to Buddhists.

Retreat Into Solitude

BF: - In your life you did not get an opportunity for the usual three year retreat into solitude
which is obligatory for monks. Would you explain what is the role of such a retreat and what is
your feeling about not having been able to do it?
DALAI LAMA: - It is not obligatory.
BF: - But does not every monk do it?
DALAI LAMA: - Serious believers consider it obligatory.
BF: - But should not the Dalai Lama be a serious believer!?
DALAI LAMA (laughs): - Oh yes, yes. You know, for a serious believer there is no difference
between the time of retreat and other times. He practically remains in the same state of retreat
his entire life. On the other hand, for people who cannot isolate themselves entirely and
withdraw from the world, limited periods of solitude are very useful. When I meet people, my
mind is divided in a way: one part is devoted to the usual activities and the other part of my mind
remains in meditation. For people like that solitude is not necessary. All their lives, 24 hours a
day, people like that are in some kind of retreat although they function seemingly normally but
their minds perform deeper exercises.
There is a story of a famous lama who lived at the end of the eighteenth and start of the
nineteenth century. He would recite some mantras occasionally while he talked to people,

sometimes he would clap his hands or interrupt the conversation for a short time. That was how
he showed that his mind was divided, one part dealing with everyday life, talking to people, and
the other concentrated on some exercise, meditation. People who are not capable of functioning
in that way need limited periods of retreat which are very useful.
According to the tradition, the previous, Thirteenth Dalai Lama, also spent three years in retreat.
After that his life was pleasant and successful. Older Tibetan officials who knew the Thirteenth
Dalai Lama believed that I should also withdraw for three years. However, that was not possible
so far. If I had the opportunity I would do it gladly.
You see, I am inspired by a comment by the First Dalai Lama. He wrote that in his youth he
lived in a distant region called Khamden as a hermit. He stayed there for several years and had
some exceptional visions. I think that he gained exceptional spiritual experience there. Later he
completely devoted himself to constructing the big monastery Tashilhunpo. He devoted part of
his time to teaching young monks. He would often tell his students: "If I had remained a hermit I
would have achieved enlightenment by now. But because of you I sacrificed spiritual perfection
so I could serve you, to help you. If you remain stupid it will be very sad."
I also sacrificed myself, I did not have the time for a long retreat, but my everyday life is filled
with meetings with people who need comforting and advice. I am often visited by refugees from
Tibet. They usually start crying when they see me. I act as a parent then, as a mother towards
her children. Sometimes I cry on those occasions. I think that is also spiritual practice. Finally,
the purpose of spiritual practice is the wellfare of all living beings.
When I was in my early thirties, I had a strong wish to achieve a very high level of spiritual
experience in this life. Now I am 55 and physically that is the time of weakening strength. For
some exercises the physical energy of youth is very important. For me that time has passed.

Levels of Existence, Spirits, Illnesses

BF: - Your people believe in spirits and they are often mentioned in Tibetan medicine which
sees them as the causes of various illnesses. How do you explain that belief?
DALAI LAMA: - According to Buddhist teaching, there are three levels of existence: the level of
beings without shape, the level of beings which have shape and the level where beings, besides
shape, have bodies and that is the level of desire. In this sense, desire means attachment to
physical comfort and sexual contact.
We consider beings without shape in the first level to be some kind of Gods and Goddesses.
Those beings are positive. The meaning of the term God here is not creator but simply a being
with certain powers, especially powers to heal illnesses. They are also seers and like beings in
our world they can feel. Beings at that level are divided into four separate categories.
At the level of beings with shape are also Gods and Goddesses and they are separated into
seventeen various categories.
At the level of desire there are two categories. The first are pure, higher beings such as Gods
and Goddesses and the other are human beings. So again we have Gods and Goddesses at
the level of beings with desires. They are separated into six categories.

Besides that, there is the animal world. Then we have the sacred spirits and hell beings.
All in all, a variety of different worlds some of which include the physical component while others
do not. There is also a world with miraculous power and a world without such power.
Because of all that, the fate of a human being which is to be born again is highly uncertain. It
can be reincarnated at the level of being without form, as a God but also in the world of hell
beings.
On this planet, in regard to human conceptions, there is a world of beings with shape and a
world of shapeless beings. Spirits usually do not have a form. Some of them are positive, others
are negative. Some will help us in times of trouble, others will only harm us, just like human
beings who sometimes cause problems and sometimes do not.
As for illnesses, those spirits can protect us without our knowledge but they can also cause
sicknesses. It is like the KGB in the Communist world or the FBI in America: you never know
who is spying on you and why. Just as spies will protect you once and endanger you another
time, you never know with spirits. In fact, everything depends on karma, on previous lives, on
karmic connections. Sometimes, a man can be very successful in everyday business with little
effort. Then we usually say: he is lucky. But, sometimes, despite preparations and great efforts
which should guarantee success, that man fails. Then we say: oh, misfortune. However, it is not
enough to say luck or misfortune. There are other elements behind it all.
According to the Tibetan medical system, there are three levels or categories of ilnesses. The
first are ailments which are the result of an imbalance of physical elements. Those ailments are
easily cured.
The second category are illnesses caused by evil spirits. In those cases medical treatment
alone is not enough. Other methods are needed, combinations of medicines and some rituals
which will cure the illness. Those are illnesses characterized by the failure of medicines to bring
an improvement. Some ritual needs to be performed, some offering has to be made to the
spirits and after that the medicines become effective.
The third category are illnesses whose causes are an unavoidable karmic sequence. For them
there is no cure.
When doctors examine their patients they usually find that the causes of the ailment have
nothing to do with either luck or sin.

*****
During my stay in Dharamshala I discussed evil spirits as the cause of ailments with the Dalai
Lama's personal doctor Choedak Tenzing. He is one of the most prominent living Tibetan
doctors who often travels across the world to lecture on the Tibetan medicine. Dr. Choedak
does not speak English but his young assistant translated the old doctors explanation of evil
spirits: "Our people are fairly primitive and we have to explain things so that they will understand
easily. You should consider evil spirits as energy fields."

******
Meditation
BF: - Meditation in Buddhism is one of the fundamental ways of perfecting the mind. Please
explain what meditation is?
DALAI LAMA: - Meditation is a familiarization of the mind with an object of meditation. There are
many types of meditation. In one type, the mind is generated into the entity of a particular type
of consciousness, as in meditating compassion or meditating wisdom. In such meditation you
are seeking to generate your own mind into a compassionate consciousness or a wisdom
consciousness - compassion and wisdom not being the object on which you are meditating, but
that entity into which you are seeking to transform your consciousness through a process of
familiarization.
However, when you meditate about impermanence or on selflessness, then impermanence or
selflessness are taken as the objects of the mode of apprehension of the mind and you are
meditatting on them. In another type of meditation, if you meditate about the good qualities of a
Buddha wishing to attain them, those qualities are object of wishing; this is called meditation in
the manner of wishing. Then, another type of meditation is one in which you cause levels of the
path to appear to the mind in the sense of taking to mind that there are such and such levels of
realization; this is called reflective meditation.
Our mind, as it is now, is completely scattered to external objects, due to which is powerless.
Our thoughts are like water running in every direction. But just as water, when channelized,
becomes powerful, so it is with our mind.
Channeling the mind is achieved through meditation. Buddhist scriptures describe various
techniques in order to set mind steadily on an object of observation. Of course, it is necessary
initially to identify an object of observation. Buddha described four types: objects for purifying
behavior, skillful objects, objects for purifying afflictions, and pervasive objects. For example,
with regard to objects for purifying behavior, no matter what afflictive emotion we predominantly
engaged in earlier, its force remains with our mind now, and thus it is necessary to choose an
object for meditation which will counter the force of that particular afflitive emotion. For someone
who predominantly engaged in desire, the object of meditation is ugliness. Here, "ugliness"
does not necessarily refer to distorted forms; the very nature of our body - composed of blood,
flesh, bones and so forth - might seem superficially to be very beautiful with a good color, solid
and yet soft to touch, but when it is investigated, you see that its essence are things like bones,
veins and flesh. Thus, meditation on "ugliness" means to investigate the nature of our physical
body.
For someone who has predominantly engaged in hatred, the object of meditation is love. For
someone who was predominantly sunk in obscuration, the meditation is on the twelve links of
the dependent-arising of cyclic existence. For someone whose predominant afflictive emotion is
pride, the meditation should be on the divisions of the constituents because, when meditating on
the many divisions, you get to the point where you realize that there are many things you do not
know, thereby lessening pride.

Emptiness could also be the object of observation. You could also take even a flower, and so
forth as the object. Still another is to take your own mind as the object of observation. Also, a
Buddhist could meditate on Buddha's body; a Christians could meditate on Jesus or the cross.
No matter what the object is, this is not a case of meditating within looking at an external object
with your eyes but of causing an image of it to appear in the mental consciousness. This image
is called a "reflection", and it is the object of observation.
BF: - How important is the position of the body during meditation?
DALAI LAMA: - The mind and the body depend on each other. The state of one affects the state
of the other and sitting correctly is very important in meditation. The best recommended way to
achieve calm and clarity of the mind is the position practiced for centuries by experienced
meditators.
Attention must be paid to the position of the body. If possible, you should sit in the lotus position
with the left foot on the right leg and the right foot on the left leg with the feet turned upwards. If
you can't, place your legs in the most comfortable position. The back should be straight as an
arrow, as if the backbone were made of coins piled one on the other. The hands should be in
the position of meditative equipoise, four fingers widths below the navel with the left hand on the
bottom, and the right hand over it and the thumbs touching to form a triangle. This position of
the hands has connection with the place in the body where inner heat is generated.
The neck should be bent slightly, the mouth and teeth as usual and the tongue touching the
upper mouth near the upper teeth. The eyes should look down; there is no need to look at your
own nose, look at the floor in front of you - it is more natural. Do not open your eyes too much
but also do not close them completely. Sometimes they will close by themselves and that is all
right. Even when your eyes are open, when your mental stability becomes constantly
concentrated on the object, whatever reaches your awareness will not disturb you.
BF: - Why is it better to meditate in the mornings?
DALAI LAMA: - In the early morning - once you get used to it - all the nerve centers are
refreshed and that is good. If you slept well, you feel fresh and rested in the morning. At night
you are in a state when you cannot think properly about any one thing; but, after a good sleep
and early awakening that thing you could not think about clearly yesterday automatically
becomes clear. That shows that mental strength is much stronger in the morning.
BF: - How would you describe the process of meditation itself?
DALAI LAMA: - If you choose, as your object of meditation, the body of Buddha, or the cross or
something else that suits you, then try to mentally visualize that object at about one meter in
front of you at the height of your eyes. The object you imagine should be about five centimeters
tall and emanating light. Try to create a feeling for its weight because that will prevent
exitement. Its brilliance will prevent laxity. While concentrating on it you have to bear two things
in mind; first, the object of observation must be clear and second, it must be steady.
If what you see with your eyes diverts your attention, close them, but if you see a redness when
you close your eyes or if you are bothered by what you see while your eyes are open, that

means you are too involved with the eye consciousness and thus should try to withraw your
attention from the eye consciousness and put it with the mental consciousness.
That which interferes with the steadiness of the object of observation and causes it to fluctuate
is exitement or, in a more general way, scattering. To stop that, withraw your mind more
strongly inside so that the intensity of the mode of apprehension begins to lower. To withraw the
mind, it helps to think about something that makes you more sober, a little bit sad.
It is not sufficient just to achieve stability of the object of your meditation. Clarity is also
necessary. That which prevents clarity is laxity, and what causes laxity is an over-withdrawal or
an excessive declination of the mind. First of all, the mind becomes lax; this can lead to lethargy
in which, losing the object of observation, you have a feeling as if fallen into darkness. When
this occurs, think of something you like, something that makes you joyous.
Briefly, that is how to sustain meditation with an external object of observation. Another type of
meditation involves looking at the mind itself. This is how that is done: Try to leave your mind
vividly in a natural state, without thinking of what happened in the past or what you are planing
for the future, without generating any conceptuality. Think about where does it seem that your
consciousness actually is. Is it with the eyes or where is it? Most probably you will have a sanse
that it is associated with the eyes since we derive most of our awarness of the world through the
vision. This is due to having relied too much on our sense consciousness. However, the
existence of a separate mental consciousness can be ascertained; for example, when a sound
attracts your attention you do not register what appears before your eyes. This indicates that a
separate mental consciousness is paying more attention to sound heard by the ear
consciousness than to the perceptions of the eye consciousness.
With persistent practice, consciousness may eventually be perceived or felt as an entity of mere
luminosity and knowing, to which anything is capable of appearing and which, when appropriate
conditions arise, can be generated in the image of whatsoever object. As long as the mind does
not encounter the external circumstance of conceptuality, it will abide empty without anything
appearing in it, like clear water. Its very entity is that of mere experience. In realising this nature
of the mind, we have for the first time located the object of observation of this internal type of
meditation. The best time for this kind of meditation is in the morning, in a quiet place, when the
mind is very clear and alert.

Phenomena and The I

BF: - How one can meditate about the ultimate nature of phenomena?
DALAI LAMA: - There is a special type of meditation which enables a man to understand the
ultimate nature of phenomena. Phenomena are generally divided into mental and physical
aggregates - or phenomena that are used by I - and the I that uses them. To establish the
nature of that I let us take an example. When we say: John is coming that means there is some
person who is the one, designated by the name John. Is this name designated to his body?
Obviously not! Is it designated to his mind? If it were designated to his mind, we could not speak
of John's mind since the mind and body are things used by the person. It almost seems that
there is an I that is separate from the body and mind. For example, when we think "Oh, my
lousy body!" or "Oh, my lousy mind!", to our own innate mode of appearance the mind itself is

not the I, right? Now, what John is there who is not his mind or body? You should also apply this
to yourself, to your own sense of I - where is this I in terms of mind and body?
When my body is sick, though my body is not I, due to the body's being sick it can be posited
that I am sick. In fact, for the sake of the well-being and pleasure of the I, it sometimes even
becomes necessary to cut off part of the body. Although the body is not the I, there is a
relationship between the two; the pain of the body can serve as the pain of the I. Similarly, when
the eye consciosness sees something, it appears to the mind that the I perceives it.
What is the nature of the I? How does it appear to you? When you do not fabricate or create any
artificial concept in your mind, does it seem that your I has an indentity separate from your mind
and body? But if you search for it, can you find it? For instance, someone accuses you, 'You
stole this', or 'You ruined such and such', and you feel 'I didn't do that!'. At that time, how does
the I appear? Does it appear as if solid? Does some solid, steady and strong thing appear to
your mind when you think or say, 'I didn't do that!"
This simingly solid, concrete, independent, self-instituting I under its own power that appears at
such a time actually does not exist at all, and this specific non-existence is what is meant by
selflesness. Because the I is dependently designated, there cannot be an independent I under
its own power. This non-existence of an indepentent I under its own power is called the
selflesness of the I. In the absence of analyses and investigation, a mere I as in , 'I want such
and such', or 'I am going to do such and such', is asserted as valid, but the non-existence of an
independent or self-powered I constitutes the selflesness of the person. This selflesness is what
is found when one searches analytically to try to find the I.
Such non-inherent existence of the I is an ultimate truth, a final truth. The I that appears to a
non-analytical conventional awareness is the dependently arisen I that serves as the basis of
the conventions of action, agent, and so forth; it is a conventional truth. In analyzing the mode of
subsistence or the status of the I, it is clear that although it appears to exist inherently, it does
not, much like an illusion.
That is how the ultimate nature of the I - emptiness - is analyzed. Just as the I has this nature,
so all other phenomena that are used by the I are empty of inherent existence. When analyzed,
they cannot be found at all, but without analysis and investigation, they do exist. Their nature is
the same as the I.
The conventional existence of the I, as well as of pleasure and pain, makes it necessary to
generate compassion and altruism, and because the ultimate nature of all phenomena is this
emptiness of inherent existence, it is also necessary to cultivate wisdom. When these two
aspects - compassion and wisdom - are practiced in union, wisdom grows more profound, and
the sense of duality dimnishes. Due to the mind's dwelling in the meaning of emptiness,
dualistic appearance becomes lighter, and at the same time the mind itself becomes more
subtle. As the mind grows even more subtle, reaching the most subtle level, it is eventually
transformed into the most basic mind, the fundamental innate mind of clear light, which at once
realizes and is of one taste with emptiness in meditative equipoise without any dualistic
appearance at all, mixed with the emptiness.
BF: - In what ways the I can be expressed?

DALAI LAMA: - There are many various ways for the I to appear. One is that it appears as
unconnected to the mind and body, as if it were permanent, unitary, and under its own power; in
this mode of appearance the I seems to be a separate entity from mind and body with the
person as the user or enjoyer and mind and body as what is used or enjoyed. In another mode
of appearance the I seems to have its own substantially existent or self-sufficient entity but to be
the same character as mind and body. Another is the appearance of the I as if it exists
inherently; our innate misconception of I is a consciousness which views the I in this way as
concretely existent in accordance with this appearance.
What is the I in fact? We have seen that it cannot be found when it is sought analytically.
Neither mental nor physical elements, nor their continuum, nor their unity can be taken as
something that can truly be designated as the I. When a coil of rope seems like a snake in the
dark because you do not see it well, then neither the parts of that rope taken as a whole, nor the
continuum of those parts in time can be taken as a snake. That snake is created only by the
power of the mind of a frightened person; as for the rope, there is nothing in it which could be
taken for a snake.
As in this example, nothing among the mental and physical components which are the basis for
the I, neither separately nor together, nor as a continuum in time, cannot be situated in
something that is the I. Also, it is completely impossible to find the I as something separate from
the mind and body. However, if you start thinking now that you do not exist at all because of that
I you will be in conflict with the conventional system of values.
Viewed conventionally, the fact that the I exists is evident. The existence of the I is confirmed by
experience, the understanding of values, but it is impossible to find among the bases from which
that name comes. Therefore, the I exists only in the sense of meaning, only as the name that
stems from that conceptuality, that is the power of the subjective will. On what does it nominally
depend? Its pure nominal existence is based only on the bases from which that name comes.
In regard to the mental and physical bases which are the foundation of its name, there exists a
number of simpler and subtler levels; the most subtle is the consciousness without beginning
which goes through all lives. That is why we say that the I is the name created by the power of
the word depending on the begginingless and endless continuum of consciousness which is the
main basis for terms. The I exists purely nominally and it is named in dependence on this
continuum of awareness. The conclusion is that except for the I which exists only through the
power of nominality, that I does not exist, or is not defined by its own traits. The lack of definition
for the object through itself is the meaning of selflessness.
Buddha said all phenomena are nominal, just names and that nominality itself is also nominal.
The emptiness is empty in itself. Even Buddha lacks an inherent existence. The emptiness
avoids the materializing of existence but thanks to the fact that things are not completely
inconsistent but their appearance is dependent-arising on many things, the extreme of complete
non-existence was avoided.

The Clear Light of Death

BF: - One of the basic principles of Buddhist teaching is the principle of change, impermanence.
The greatest change in life seems to be death which Buddhists interpret in a specific way.
Would you explain that?

DALAI LAMA: - As for impermanence, there are two types: coarse impermanence and subtle
impermanence. The second relates to something that scientists who investigate particles can
describe because they do not just take for granted the appearance of a seemingly solid object,
but look at the changes within the smaller elements that compose objects.
Those changes are reflected in the constant disintegration of particles which make up an object.
Similarly, the internal consciousness which observe those external objects also disintegrate
moment by moment. This momentary disintegration is subtle impermanence. Coarse
impermanence is the destruction of an object, for example. In terms of people, it is a person's
death.
There are great benefits to being mindful of death. Namely, if suffering is recognized, if you are
aware of it, its causes can be examined and, above all, it can be faced, confronted. Death will
come sooner or later and can happen at any moment and when it does nothing but Dharma can
help us. If, when we face death, we do not do something for our future lives, no one will do it for
us. Also, the more we think about death in this way, the more our obsession with this one life
will decrease. We do not want death, but once we are under influence of contaminated actions
and afflictive emotions, it will definitely come. If right from the beginning you think about death
and prepare fully, such preparations will be of help when death actually come. This is the
purpose of becoming mindful of death.
If you believe just in this life and do not accept its continuation, it does not matter muche
whether you are mindful of death or not. Meditation on death and impermanence is based on
the theory of the continuation of a consciousness in rebirth. Once there is another lifetime - a
continuation of consciousness in rebirth - it can only be helpful to prepare for death since, if
prepared, you will most likely not be anxious and frightened by the process of dying, not
complicating the situation with your own thought.
If there are future lifetimes, the quality of the next lifetime depends upon this lifetime. If you
conduct your life now in a good manner, this will bi beneficial for the next one. Anger,
attachment, and so forth cause us not to conduct our lives in a favorable manner, leading to
harmful results in the future, and a cause of generating these unfavorable states of mind is the
conception of permanence.
There are other causes such as the conception of the inherent existence of objects, but when
you are able now to desrease the degree of the conception of permanence, attachment to this
lifetime becomes weaker. Also, when you are able to keep impermanence in mind - seeing that
the very nature of things is that they disintegrate - most likely you will not be greatly shocked by
death when it actually comes.
To overcome death entirely, it is necessary to end your own afflictive emotions. For, by
overcoming those emotions, birth ceases, and death ceases also. To do this, it is necessary to
make effort, and to generate that exertion it helps to reflect on death and impermanence. From
thinking on death and impermanence, you generate an attitude of not wanting such, this in turn
drawing you into investigating techniques to overcoming death.
If you spend your life overly concerned with just the temporary affairs of this lifetime, and make
no preparation for the death, then on the day when it comes you will be unable to think about
anything exept your own mental suffering and fear and will have no opportunity to practice
anything else. This can produce a sense of regret. However, if you have reflected frequently on

death and impermanence, you know that such will come, and you will make preparation at an
easy pace with plenty of time. Then when death actually comes, it will be easier.
Since the mind at the time od dying is a proximate cause of the continuation into the next
lifetime, it is important to use the mind near the time of death in practice. No matter what has
happened in terms of good and bad within this particular lifetime, what happens right around the
time of death is particularly powerful.
Much was written about preparations for death in ancient Buddhist scriptures. For example,
Vasubandhu in the Treasury of Knowledge says that the life serves as the basis of warmth and
consciousness, while death is the end of that function. Thus, while this temporary, coarse body
and consciousness are together, one is alive, and when they separate, that is death. It is
necessary to distinguish between coarse, subtle, and very subtle body and mind; death is the
seperation of consciousness from the coarse body as there is no way for the most subtle
consciousness to separate from the most subtle physical level, the later being just the wind or
inner energy on which that consciousness is mounted. A vague indication appears near the time
of death as to what kind of rebirth you will be taking. This is seen in how warmth gathers within
the body. For some people the warmth begins gathering, or withdrawing, from the upper part of
the body, and for others it starts to withdraw first from the bottom part. It is worse for the warmth
to start gathering from the top down and better for it to gather from the bottom up.
Some people die peacfully; others die within great fright. To the person who is dying, various
appearances, pleasant and unpleasant, dawn to the mind.
In general, beings die similarly in the sense that the process is culminated by the downing of the
c l e a r l i g h t o f d e a t h.
When the mind of radiant black near-attainment dissolves together with the wind that serves as
its mount, the most subtle of all minds appearas - the clear light of death, actual death... The
mind of clear light is called the fundamental mind because it is the root of all minds; in relation to
it, all other minds are just adventitious. It is this mind that exists beginninglessly and
continuously in each individual through each lifetime and into Buddhahood.
A person who dies naturally within physical well-being and without much physical deterioration
will remain in the state of this subtlest mind, the mind of clear light, for about three days. During
this time the subtles consciousness still resides in the old body. Some exeptional people, who
through practice during their lifetime have been able to identify the nature of mind and have
engaged in practice concerned with channels, winds and drops, are able to recognize the
process of death such that the clear lights dawns within mantaining full awarness. Due to their
control, they can remain in this state for a week or even a month according to their own wish.
About ten instances of this have occured about Tibetans since our arrival in India in 1959. Even
in the hot season in India preople have remained in the clear light for two weeks like someone
asleep - no longer breathing, like a corps but, unlike the corpse, not smelling.
There are cases of coarse body and mind separating due to familiarization with such a practices
in the former lifetimes whereby it appears to be a "gift" in this life, and there are also cases due
to practice in this lifetime. Specifically, a s p e c i a l d r e a m b o d y is not just an appearance
of the mind but an actual subtle body that can separate from the usual body an can experience
external facts just as we normaly do. I cannot say in detail whether the usual body keeps
breathing or passes into state like that of deep meditation in which the coarse breath ceases. In

any case, the subtle body can go anywhere. Also, since without coars physical body you are not
restricted by distance, you can go into deep space, can reach everywhere. Then, you can return
to the old body according to your wish. This can occur in near-death experience as well as at
the time of severe illness.

******
So spoke the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, the only absolute ruler in this world who has no police or
army but whose authority is not questioned by any of his subjects or Buddhist faithful throughout
the world.
Whether you believe he is the divine incarnation of the Bodhisattva of Compassion or not, the
fact remains that this kind but determined monk devoted his life to his people and that he won't
willingly abandon that responsibility. Whether you believe in prophets or not, visions seen in
holy lakes and mystic cloud formations, the fact remains that seekers for the incarnation of the
Thirteenth Dalai Lama found who they were looking for in a village cottage in the snow covered
mountains of Amdo: that child, now the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, is the worldly manifestation of
Chenrezi, the God protector of Tibet. The Tibetans and most other Buddhists have no doubts
about that.
Just part of the radical Tibetan youth is against his willingness to make concessions to China.
Those young men wanted an armed fight for freedom, which is characteristic of their age. They
refuse to understand that a fight against China would be suicidal.
Many of his followers feel the Dalai Lama's behavior is not practical, some so-called
independent observers even laugh at him and his personal friends and others who wish only
good for Tibet feel that his conciliatory nature will achieve no great result. Despite everything,
the Dalai Lama still firmly believes in his philosophy of peace and non-violence.
"If I am not able to control the situation or if the Tibetan freedom movement becomes violent,"
the Dalai Lama says in reference to the youths who want to fight, "the only thing I can do is to
withdraw. Non-violence is the only way."
But, the results of the Dalai Lama's policies are astounding. Not only has the entire world,
whose majority did not even know where Tibet was before the Chinese occupation, accepted
the institution of the Dalai Lama as the symbol of the Tibetan nation's identity but the Fourteenth
Dalai Lama is also recognized as the only negotiator for the colonized Tibet. It is also interesting
that indirect recognition came from the Chinese government which was surprised by the widespread international support for the Tibetan leader.
The conciliatory nature which draws criticism of their leader from the Tibetans is based on a
realistic assessment of the balance of powers and is the only way to save the remaining
Tibetans from quick and total physical extermination. The only real hope that Tibet will become
autonomous, if not free, are changes in China's imperialist policy and the understanding of the
democratic world that the Tibetans do need support at least as much as the Palestinians and
South Africans did.

The noble serbian traveler and writer Stevan Pesic wrote that "everything in Tibet ends with a
miracle or laughter". It will truly take a miracle for that country to become free once again and
then there will be no end to the catching laughter of the Tibetans...
End of Part four

******************
Appendix
The Dalai Lamas
1. Gedun Truppa (1391-1475)
2. Gedun Gyatso (1475-1542)
3. Sonam Gyatso (1543-1588)
4. Yonten Gyatso (1589-1617)
5. Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (1617-1682)
6. Tsanyang Gyatso (1683-1706)
7. Kesang Gyatso (1708-1757)
8. Jampel Gyatso (1758-1804)
9. Luntok Gyatso (1806-1815)
10. Tsultrim Gyatso (1816-1837)
11. Khendrup Gyatso (1838-1856)
12. Trinley Gyatso (1856-1875)
13. Thupten Gyatso (1876-1933)
14. Tenzin Gyatso (1935- )

**************
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*****
THE END