Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Preliminary Course
maths
maths
Margaret Grove
Contents
PREFACE
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ix
CREDITS
ix
ix
SYLLABUS MATRIX
STUDY SKILLS
xi
INTRODUCTION
REAL NUMBERS
DIRECTED NUMBERS
FRACTIONS, DECIMALS AND PERCENTAGES
POWERS AND ROOTS
ABSOLUTE VALUE
TEST YOURSELF 1
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 1
Chapter 2: Algebra and Surds
INTRODUCTION
SIMPLIFYING EXPRESSIONS
BINOMIAL PRODUCTS
FACTORISATION
COMPLETING THE SQUARE
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
SUBSTITUTION
SURDS
TEST YOURSELF 2
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 2
Chapter 3: Equations
INTRODUCTION
SIMPLE EQUATIONS
SUBSTITUTION
INEQUATIONS
EQUATIONS AND INEQUATIONS INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUES
EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
FURTHER INEQUATIONS
QUADRATIC INEQUATIONS
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
TEST YOURSELF 3
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 3
3
3
9
12
19
37
41
43
44
45
45
51
55
69
71
73
76
90
93
94
95
95
100
103
107
114
118
125
129
132
138
139
vi
Chapter 4: Geometry 1
140
INTRODUCTION
NOTATION
TYPES OF ANGLES
PARALLEL LINES
TYPES OF TRIANGLES
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
PYTHAGORAS THEOREM
TYPES OF QUADRILATERALS
POLYGONS
AREAS
TEST YOURSELF 4
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 4
141
141
142
149
153
159
163
171
177
184
188
195
197
199
204
205
205
216
224
228
234
242
246
254
260
264
277
287
288
290
291
291
299
308
318
322
336
342
347
358
362
365
367
374
385
387
vii
390
391
391
396
398
408
412
417
422
426
430
434
435
438
439
440
449
465
471
476
478
482
485
487
490
491
494
498
499
499
500
512
519
525
537
539
542
543
543
549
555
562
566
571
575
576
viii
578
579
579
587
591
610
625
627
634
643
648
652
653
655
662
663
663
667
672
681
706
713
714
716
717
717
730
740
746
747
749
756
ix
PREFACE
This book covers the Preliminary syllabus for Mathematics and Extension 1. The extension material
is easy to see as it has green headings and there is green shading next to all extension question and
answers. The syllabus is available through the NSW Board of Studies website on www.boardofstudies.
nsw.edu.au. You can also access resources, study techniques, examination technique, sample and
past examination papers through other websites such as www.math.nsw.edu.au and www.csu.edu.
au. Searching the Internet generally will pick up many websites supporting the work in this course.
Each chapter has comprehensive fully worked examples and explanations as well as ample sets
of graded exercises. The theory follows a logical order, although some topics may be learned in any
order. Each chapter contains Test Yourself and Challenge exercises, and there are several practice
assessment tasks throughout the book.
If you have trouble doing the Test Yourself exercises at the end of a chapter, you will need to
go back into the chapter and revise it before trying them again. Dont attempt to do the Challenge
exercises until you are confident that you can do the Test Yourself exercises, as these are more difficult
and are designed to test the more able students who understand the topic really well.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks go to my family, especially my husband Geoff, for supporting me in writing this book.
CREDITS
Fairfax Photos: p 327
Istockphoto: p 101, p 171
Margaret Grove: p 37, p 163, p 206, p 246, p 260, p 291, p308 (bottom), p 310, p 311, p 313, p 316,
p 391, p 499, p 543, p 591, p 717, p 719, p 726, p 729, p 730, p 739
Photolibrary: p 205
Shutterstock: p 74, p 164, p 229, p 308 (top), p 580
A syllabus matrix is included to show where each syllabus topic fits into the book. Topics are
generally arranged in a logical order. For example, arithmetic and algebra are needed in most, if not
all other topics, so these are treated at the beginning of the book.
Some teachers like to introduce particular topics before others, e.g. linear functions before more
general functions. However, part of the work on gradient requires some knowledge of trigonometry
and the topic of angles of any magnitude in trigonometry needs some knowledge of functions. So
the order of most chapters in the book have been carefully thought out. Some chapters, however,
could be covered in a different order, such as geometry which is covered in Chapter 4, and quadratic
functions and locus, which are near the end of the book.
SYLLABUS MATRIX
This matrix shows how the syllabus is organised in the chapters of this book.
Mathematics (2 Unit)
Basic arithmetic and algebra (1.1 1.4)
Chapter 6: Trigonometry
Chapter 4: Geometry 1
Extension 1
Other inequalities (1.4E)
Chapter 3: Equations
Chapter 6: Trigonometry
xi
STUDY SKILLS
You may have coasted through previous stages without needing to rely on regular study, but in this
course many of the topics are new and you will need to systematically revise in order to build up your
skills and to remember them.
The Preliminary course introduces the basics of topics such as calculus that are then applied in
the HSC course. You will struggle in the HSC if you dont set yourself up to revise the preliminary
topics as you learn new HSC topics.
Your teachers will be able to help you build up and manage good study habits. Here are a few
hints to get you started.
There is no right or wrong way to learn. Different styles of learning suit different people. There
is also no magical number of hours a week that you should study, as this will be different for every
student. But just listening in class and taking notes is not enough, especially when learning material
that is totally new.
You wouldnt go for your drivers licence after just one trip in the car, or enter a dance competition
after learning a dance routine once. These skills take a lot of practice. Studying mathematics is just
the same.
If a skill is not practised within the first 24 hours, up to 50% can be forgotten. If it is not practised
within 72 hours, up to 8590% can be forgotten! So it is really important that whatever your study
timetable, new work must be looked at soon after it is presented to you.
With a continual succession of new work to learn and retain, this is a challenge. But the good
news is that you dont have to study for hours on end!
In the classroom
In order to remember, first you need to focus on what is being said and done.
According to an ancient proverb:
If you chat to friends and just take notes without really paying attention, you arent giving yourself a
chance to remember anything and will have to study harder at home.
xii
If you have just had a fight with a friend, have been chatting about weekend activities or myriad
other conversations outside the classroom, it helps if you can check these at the door and dont keep
chatting about them once the lesson starts.
If you are unsure of something that the teacher has said, the chances are that others are also not
sure. Asking questions and clarifying things will ultimately help you gain better results, especially
in a subject like mathematics where much of the knowledge and skills depends on being able to
understand the basics.
Learning is all about knowing what you know and what you dont know. Many students feel like
they dont know anything, but its surprising just how much they know already. Picking up the main
concepts in class and not worrying too much about other less important parts can really help. The
teacher can guide you on this.
Here are some pointers to get the best out of classroom learning:
Take control and be responsible for your own learning
Clear your head of other issues in the classroom
Active, not passive, learning is more memorable
Ask questions if you dont understand something
Listen for cues from the teacher
Look out for what are the main concepts
Note taking varies from class to class, but there are some general guidelines that will help when you
come to read over your notes later on at home:
Write legibly
Use different colours to highlight important points or formulae
Make notes in textbooks (using pencil if you dont own the textbook)
Use highlighter pens to point out important points
Summarise the main points
If notes are scribbled, rewrite them at home
At home
You are responsible for your own learning and nobody else can tell you how best to study. Some
people need more revision time than others, some study better in the mornings while others do better
at night, and some can work at home while others prefer a library.
There are some general guidelines for studying at home:
Revise both new and older topics regularly
Have a realistic timetable and be flexible
Summarise the main points
Revise when you are fresh and energetic
Divide study time into smaller rather than longer chunks
xiii
xiv
And finally
Study involves knowing what you dont know, and putting in a lot of time into concentrating on
these areas. This is a positive way to learn. Rather than just saying, I cant do this, say instead, I cant
do this yet, and use your teachers, friends, textbooks and other ways of finding out.
With the parts of the course that you do know, make sure you can remember these easily under
exam pressure by putting in lots of practice.
Remember to look at new work
today
tomorrow
in a week
in a month
Some people hardly ever find time to study while others give up their outside lives to devote their
time to study. The ideal situation is to balance study with other aspects of your life, including going
out with friends, working and keeping up with sport and other activities that you enjoy.
1
Basic Arithmetic
TERMINOLOGY
Absolute value: The distance of a number from zero on
the number line. Hence it is the magnitude or value of a
number without the sign
Directed numbers: The set of integers or whole
numbers f -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, f
Exponent: Power or index of a number. For example 23
has a base number of 2 and an exponent of 3
Index: The power of a base number showing how
many times this number is multiplied by itself
e.g. 2 3 = 2 # 2 # 2. The index is 3
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER GIVES A review of basic arithmetic skills, including knowing the
correct order of operations, rounding off, and working with fractions, decimals
and percentages. Work on signicant gures, scientic notation and indices is
also included, as are the concepts of absolute values. Basic calculator skills are
also covered in this chapter.
Real Numbers
Types of numbers
Unreal or imaginary
numbers
Real numbers
Rational
numbers
Irrational
numbers
Integers
3
where a and b are integers, b ! 0. e.g. 1 , 3.7, 0. 5, - 5
4
a
Irrational numbers cannot be written in the form of a fraction (that
b
is, they are not rational) e.g. 2 , r
EXAMPLE
Which of these numbers are rational and which are irrational?
3
r
3 , 1. 3, , 9 , , - 2.65
4
5
Solution
r
are irrational as they cannot be written as fractions (r is irrational).
4
3
13
1
1. 3 = 1 , 9 = and - 2.65 = - 2
so they are all rational.
3
1
20
3 and
Order of operations
1. Brackets: do calculations inside grouping symbols rst. (For example,
a fraction line, square root sign or absolute value sign can act as a
grouping symbol.)
2. Multiply or divide from left to right.
3. Add or subtract from left to right.
EXAMPLE
Evaluate 40 - 3 ] 5 + 4 g .
Solution
40 - 3 (5 + 4) = 40 - 3# 9
= 40 - 27
= 13
BRACKETS KEYS
Use ( and ) to open and close brackets. Always use them in pairs.
For example, to evaluate 40 - 3 ] 5 + 4 g
press 40 - 3 #
( 5 + 4 ) =
= 13
5.67 - 3.49
correct to 1 decimal place
1.69 + 2.77
To evaluate
press :
( 5.67 - 3.49 )
'
( 1.69 + 2.77 )
= 0.7
correct to 1 decimal place
PROBLEM
What is wrong with this calculation?
19 - 4
1+2
Press 19 - 4 ' 1 + 2 = 19 - 4 '1 + 2
Evaluate
17
MEMORY KEYS
Use STO to store a number in memory.
There are several memories that you can use at the same timeany letter from
A to F, or X, Y and M on the keypad.
To store the number 50 in, say, A press 50 STO A
To recall this number, press ALPHA A =
To clear all memories press SHIFT CLR
X -1 KEY
Use this key to find the reciprocal of x. For example, to evaluate
1
- 7.6 # 2.1
-1
=
press ( (-) 7.6 # 2.1 ) x
= - 0.063 (correct to 3 decimal places)
Rounding off
Rounding off is often done in everyday life. A quick look at a newspaper will
give plenty of examples. For example in the sports section, a newspaper may
report that 50 000 fans attended a football match.
An accurate number is not always necessary. There may have been exactly
49 976 people at the football game, but 50 000 gives an idea of the size of the
crowd.
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 24 629 to the nearest thousand.
Solution
This number is between 24 000 and 25 000, but it is closer to 25 000.
CONTINUED
Solution
This number is exactly halfway between 800 and 900. When a number is
halfway, we round it off to the larger number.
` 850 = 900 to the nearest hundred
In this course you will need to round off decimals, especially when using
trigonometry or logarithms.
To round a number off to a certain number of decimal places, look at the
next digit to the right. If this digit is 5 or more, add 1 to the digit before it and
drop all the other digits after it. If the digit to the right is less than 5, leave the
digit before it and drop all the digits to the right.
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 0.6825371 correct to 1 decimal place.
Add 1 to the 6 as the 8 is
greater than 5.
Solution
0.6825371
#
` 0.6825371 = 0.7 correct to 1 decimal place
2. Round off 0.6825371 correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution
0.6825371
#
` 0.6825371 = 0.68 correct to 2 decimal places
3. Evaluate 3.56 ' 2.1 correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution
3.56 ' 2.1 = 1.69 #
5238095
FIX KEY
Use MODE or SET UP to fix the number of decimal places (see the
instructions for your calculator). This will cause all answers to have a fixed number
of decimal places until the calculator is turned off or switched back to normal.
EXAMPLE
Calculate 3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution
3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 = 1.889534884 # 5.97 + 7.32
= 11.28052326 + 7.32
= 18.60052326
= 18.60 correct to 2 decimal places
If the FIX key is set to 2 decimal places, then the display will show
2 decimal places at each step.
3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 = 1.89 # 5.97 + 7.32
= 11.28 + 7.32
= 18.60
If you then set the calculator back to normal, the display will show the
full answer of 18.60052326.
The calculator does not round off at each step. If it did, the answer might
not be as accurate. This is an important point, since some students round
off each step in calculations and then wonder why they do not get the same
answer as other students and the textbook.
1.1 Exercises
1.
(e) 0.34
(f)
218
(g) 2 2
1
(h)
27
(i) 17.4%
1
(j)
5
2.
3.
Evaluate
(a) 20 - 8 ' 4
(b) 3 # 7 - 2 # 5
(c) 4 # ] 27 ' 3 g ' 6
(d) 17 + 3 # - 2
(e) 1.9 - 2 # 3.1
14 ' 7
(f)
-1 + 3
3
1 2
(g) 2 - #
5
5 3
3
1
1 4
8
(h)
5
6
5
5
'
8
6
(i)
1
1
+
4
8
1
7
3 5
10
(j)
1
1
1 4
2
7.
8.
9.
0.9 + 1.4
(h)
5.2 - 3.6
5.33 + 2.87
(i)
1.23 - 3.15
(j)
4.
5.
6.
19. Evaluate
3.5 + 9.8
5.6 + 4.35
15.9 + 6.3 - 7.8
(d)
7.63 - 5.12
1
(e)
6.87 - 3.21
(c)
25. Evaluate
Directed Numbers
Many students use the calculator with work on directed numbers (numbers
that can be positive or negative). Directed numbers occur in algebra and
other topics, where you will need to remember how to use them. A good
understanding of directed numbers will make your algebra skills much better.
^ - h KEY
Use this key to enter negative numbers. For example,
press (-) 3
10
-3
-2
-1
Subtract
Add
EXAMPLES
You can also do these on a
calculator, or you may have
a different way of working
these out.
Evaluate
1. - 4 + 3
Solution
Start at - 4 and move 3 places to the right.
-4
-3
-2
-1
- 4 + 3 = -1
2. -1 - 2
Solution
Start at -1 and move 2 places to the left.
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1 - 2 = -3
Same signs = +
+ + =+
- - =+
Different signs = + - =- + =-
11
EXAMPLES
Evaluate
1. - 2 #7
Solution
Different signs (- 2 and + 7) give a negative answer.
- 2 # 7 = -14
2. -12 ' - 4
Solution
Same signs (-12 and - 4) give a positive answer.
-12 ' - 4 = 3
3. -1 - - 3
Solution
The signs together are the same (both negative) so give a positive answer.
-
-1 - 3 = -1 + 3
=2
1.2 Exercises
Evaluate
1.
-2 + 3
11. 5 - 3 # 4
2.
-7 - 4
12. - 2 + 7 # - 3
3.
8 # -7
13. 4 - 3 # - 2
4.
7 - ]-3 g
14. -1 - -2
5.
28 ' -7
15. 7 + - 2
6.
- 4.9 + 3.7
16. 2 - ] -1 g
7.
- 2.14 - 5.37
17. - 2 + 15 ' 5
8.
4.8 # -7.4
18. - 2 # 6 # - 5
9.
1.7 - ] - 4.87 g
19. - 28 ' -7 # - 5
10. -
3
2
-1
5
3
20. ] - 3 g2
12
EXAMPLES
1. Write 0.45 as a fraction in its simplest form.
Solution
45
5
'
5
100
9
=
20
0.45 =
3
means 3 ' 8.
8
2. Convert
3
to a decimal.
8
Solution
0.375
8 g 3.000
3
So
= 0.375
8
3. Change 35.5% to a fraction.
Solution
35.5 2
#
100
2
71
=
200
35.5% =
Solution
Multiply by 100% to
change a fraction or
decimal to a percentage.
Solution
1 kg = 1000 g
20 g
20 g
=
1000 g
1 kg
1
=
50
13
Solution
24 100%
#
= 80%
30
1
1
= 0.33333333 f = 0. 3
3
There are different methods that can be used to change a recurring
decimal into a fraction. Here is one way of doing it. Later you will discover
another method when studying series. (See HSC Course book, Chapter 8.)
EXAMPLES
A rational number is
any number that can be
written as a fraction.
Solution
Let
n = 0.44444 f
Then
10n = 4.44444 f
(2) - (1): 9n = 4
4
n=
9
( 1)
( 2)
Solution
n = 1.3292929 f
Let
Then 100n = 132.9292929 f
(2) - (1): 99n = 131.6
131.6
10
n=
#
99
10
1316
=
990
163
=1
495
( 1)
( 2)
CONTINUED
14
Another method
Let
n = 1.3292929 f
Then
10n = 13.2929292 f
and
1000n = 1329.292929 f
(2) - (1): 990n = 1316
1316
n=
990
163
=1
495
(1 )
(2 )
1.3 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4
15
1
(d)
1000
(c) 2
6.
7.
8.
5
33
1
(g)
7
2
(h) 1
11
31
99
13 + 6
(e)
7+4
(d) 1 -
(f)
9.
(a) 0. 8
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
0. 2
1. 5
3. 7
0. 67
0. 54
0.15
(h) 0.216
(i) 0.2 19
(j) 1.074
10. Evaluate and express as a decimal.
5
(a)
3+6
(b) 8 - 3 ' 5
4+7
(c)
12 + 3
Investigation
Explore patterns in recurring decimals by dividing numbers by 3, 6, 9, 11,
and so on.
Can you predict what the recurring decimal will be if a fraction has 3 in
the denominator? What about 9 in the denominator? What about 11?
Can you predict what fraction certain recurring decimals will be? What
denominator would 1 digit recurring give? What denominator would you
have for 2 digits recurring?
15
16
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate 1
3
2
- .
5
4
Solution
1
3
3
2
7
- = 5
4
5
4
28
15
=
20
20
13
=
20
2. Evaluate 2
1
' 3.
2
Solution
2
3
5
1
'3 = '
2
2
1
5 1
= #
2 3
5
=
6
Solution
0.056 #100 = 5.6
17
Solution
0.02 # 0.3 = 0.006
5. Evaluate
8.753
.
10
Solution
Solution
1
5 % = 0.055
2
1
` 5 % of $75 = 0.055#$75
2
= $4.13
1
or 105 % of $75 = 1.055#$75
2
= $79.13
Solution
The new price is 112% (old price 100%, plus 12%)
$18.00
` 1% =
112
$18.00 100
100% =
#
112
1
= $16.07
So the old price was $16.07.
1.4 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
Evaluate
3
1
(a)
+
5
4
2
7
-2
5
10
3
2
(c) #1
5
4
3
(d) ' 4
7
3
2
(e) 1 ' 2
5
3
(b) 3
18
3
of $912.60.
5
4.
Find
5.
5
Find of 1 kg, in grams correct
7
to 1 decimal place.
6.
Trinh spends
sleeping,
1
of her day
3
7
1
at work and
24
12
8.
John grew by
9.
17
of his height
200
this year. If he was 165 cm tall
last year, what is his height now,
to the nearest cm?
Evaluate
(a) 8.9 + 3
(b) 9 - 3.7
(c) 1.9 #10
(d) 0.032 #100
(e) 0.7 # 5
(f) 0.8 # 0.3
(g) 0.02 # 0.009
(h) 5.72 #1000
8.74
(i)
100
(j) 3.76 # 0.1
19
PROBLEM
If both the hour hand and minute hand start at the same position at
12 oclock, when is the rst time, correct to a fraction of a minute, that
the two hands will be together again?
EXAMPLES
1. 4 3 = 4 # 4 # 4 = 64
2. 2 5 = 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 = 32
EXAMPLES
36 = 6 since 6 2 = 36
1.
2.
8 = 2 since 2 3 = 8
3.
64 = 2 since 2 6 = 64
(x 2 - x 1) + (y 2 - y 1)
20
Use the
Use the
Use the
Index laws
There are some general laws that simplify calculations with indices.
am # an = am + n
Proof
a m # a n = (a # a #f# a) # (a # a #f# a)
14444244443 14444244443
m times
n times
=a
#
#
f
#
a
a
14444244443
m + n times
= am + n
am ' an = am - n
Proof
am
an
a # a #f# a (m times)
=
a # a #f# a (n times)
a # a #f# a (m - n times)
=
1
= am - n
am ' an =
(a m)n = a mn
Proof
(a m) n = a m # a m # a m #f# a m
= am + m + m + f + m
= a mn
(n times)
(n times)
(ab) n = a n b n
Proof
(ab) n = ab # ab # ab #f# ab (n times)
= (a # a #f# a) # (b # b #f# b)
14444244443 14444244443
n times
n times
= an bn
a n an
c m = n
b
b
Proof
a n a a a
a
c m = # # #f#
b
b b b
b
a # a # a #f # a
=
b # b # b #f # b
an
= n
b
(n times)
(n times)
(n times)
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. m 9 # m 7 ' m 2
Solution
m9 #m7 ' m2 = m9 + 7 - 2
= m 14
2. (2y 4)3
Solution
(2y 4) 3 = 2 3 (y 4) 3
= 23 y4 # 3
= 8y 12
CONTINUED
21
22
3.
(y 6) 3 # y - 4
y5
Solution
(y 6) 3 # y - 4
y5
=
=
=
y 18 # y - 4
y5
y 18 + (- 4)
y5
y
14
y5
= y9
1.5 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
3
4
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
x2
p
y9
w6 # w7
(m)
w3
2
p #(p 3) 4
(n)
p9
6
x ' x7
(o)
x2
2
a # ( b 2) 6
(p)
a4 # b9
(x 2) - 3 #(y 3) 2
(q)
x -1 # y 4
(l) f
27
16
(d) w 2 # w 2
(e) x 6 ' x
(f) p 3 ' p - 7
y 11
(g) 5
y
(x 7) 3
(2x 5) 2
(3y - 2) 4
a3 #a5 ' a7
4.
Simplify
(a) x 5 # x 9
(b) a -1 # a - 6
m7
(c)
m3
(d) k 13 # k 6 ' k 9
(e) a - 5 # a 4 # a - 7
2
(f) x 5 # x 5
m5 # n4
(g) 4
m # n2
p2 # p2
(h)
p
(i) (3x 11) 2
(x 4) 6
(j)
x3
5.
2 6
11. Evaluate (a ) when a = c m .
3
12. Evaluate
b=
(2m 7) 3
m4
xy 3 #(xy 2) 4
(f)
xy
8 4
(2k )
(g)
(6k 3) 3
y 12
7
(h) _ 2y 5 i #
8
y=
7.
If x =
of
8.
2
1
and y = , nd the value
3
9
x3 y2
xy 5
1
1
1
, b = and c = ,
4
2
3
a2 b3
evaluate 4 as a fraction.
c
If a =
11
9.
(a) Simplify
a b
.
a8 b7
a 11 b 8
when
a8 b7
5
2
and b = as a fraction.
5
8
x5 y5
when x =
1
and
3
14. Evaluate
k-5
1
when k = .
3
k-9
15. Evaluate
a4 b6
3
when a = and
3
2 2
4
a (b )
b=
6.
x4 y7
2
.
9
-3
a3 b6
1
when a = and
2
b4
2
.
3
13. Evaluate
a6 # a4
o
a 11
3
5xy 9
x8 # y3
p5 q8 r4
4 3
(d) (7a5b)2
(j) f
as a
p4 q6 r2
7
2
fraction when p = , q = and
8
3
3
r= .
4
a 8
(b) c m
b
4a 3
(c) d 4 n
b
(i) e
p4 q6 r2
Simplify
(a) (pq 3) 5
(e)
p5 q8 r4
1
.
9
a6 # b3
as a fraction
a5 # b2
3
1
when a = and b = .
4
9
16. Evaluate
a2 b7
as a fraction in
a3 b
2 4
index form when a = c m and
5
5 3
b=c m.
8
17. Evaluate
18. Evaluate
(a 3) 2 b 4 c
as a fraction
a (b 2) 4 c 3
6
1
7
when a = , b = and c = .
7
3
9
23
24
Class Investigation
Explore zero and negative indices by looking at these questions.
For example simplify x 3 ' x 5 using (i) index laws and (ii) cancelling.
(i) x 3 ' x 5 = x - 2 by index laws
3
x# x# x
(ii) x =
5
x
x# x# x# x
#
x
1
= 2
x
1
So x - 2 = 2
x
Now simplify these questions by (i) index laws and (ii) cancelling.
(a) x 2 ' x 3
(b) x 2 ' x 4
(c) x 2 ' x 5
(d) x 3 ' x 6
(e) x 3 ' x 3
(f) x 2 ' x 2
(g) x ' x 2
(h) x 5 ' x 6
(i) x 4 ' x 7
(j) x ' x 3
Use your results to complete:
x0 =
x-n =
x0 = 1
Proof
xn ' xn = xn - n
= x0
xn
xn ' xn = n
x
=1
`
x0 = 1
x-n =
1
xn
Proof
x0 ' xn = x0 - n
= x-n
x0
x0 ' xn = n
x
1
= n
x
1
` x-n = n
x
EXAMPLES
0
1. Simplify e
ab 5 c
o .
abc 4
Solution
0
ab 5 c
o =1
abc 4
2. Evaluate 2 - 3 .
Solution
1
23
1
=
8
2-3 =
CONTINUED
25
26
Solution
1
= x-2
x2
3
(b) 5 = 3# 15
x
x
-5
= 3x
1
1 1
= #x
(c)
5x
5
1 -1
= x
5
1
1
=
(d)
x +1
(x + 1) 1
= ] x + 1 g-1
(a)
Solution
a-3 =
1
a3
1.6 Exercises
1.
2.
Evaluate
(a) 2 0
1 -4
(b) c m
2
2 -1
(c) c m
3
5 -2
(d) c m
6
x + 2y 0
p
(e) f
3x - y
1 -3
(f) c m
5
3 -1
(g) c m
4
1 -2
(h) c m
7
2 -3
(i) c m
3
1 -5
(j) c m
2
3 -1
(k) c m
7
8 0
(l) c m
9
6 -2
(m)c m
7
9 -2
(n) c m
10
6 0
(o) c m
11
1 -2
(p) c - m
4
2 -3
(q) c - m
5
2 -1
(r) c - 3 m
7
3 0
(s) c - m
8
1 -2
(t) c - 1 m
4
3.
1
m3
1
x
1
p7
1
d9
1
k5
1
x2
2
x4
3
y2
1
2z 6
3
5t 8
2
7x
5
2m 6
2
(m) 7
3y
(l)
1
(3x + 4) 2
1
(o)
( a + b) 8
1
(p)
x-2
(n)
1
(5p + 1) 3
2
(r)
(4t - 9) 5
1
(s)
4 (x + 1) 11
5
(t)
9 ( a + 3 b) 7
(q)
4.
(t) e
2w - z - 7
o
3x + y
27
28
Fractional indices
Class Investigation
Explore fractional indices by looking at these questions.
1 2
(i) ` x 2 j = x 1
=x
2
(ii) ^ x h = x
^ by index laws h
1 2
So ` x 2 j = ^ x h = x
2
x2 =
(a) ^ x 2 h 2
x2
(b)
1 3
(c) ` x 3 j
(d) ^ x 3 h 3
3
(e) ^ 3 x h
(f)
x3
1 4
4
(g) ` x j
(h) ^ x 4 h 4
4
(i) ^ 4 x h
(j)
x4
xn =
1
n
a =n a
Proof
1 n
`an j = a
^ n a hn = a
1
n
` a =n a
^ by index laws h
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate
(a) 49
1
2
1
(b) 27 3
Solution
1
2
(a) 49 = 49
=7
1
3
(b) 27 = 3 27
=3
2. Write
3x - 2 in index form.
Solution
1
3x - 2 = (3x - 2) 2
1
Solution
1
( a + b) 7 = 7 a + b
Putting the fractional and negative indices together gives this rule.
1
-n
1
a
m
n
a = n am
= (n a ) m
Proof
m
1 m
m
n
1
n
n
n
a = `a j
m
= ^n a h
a = ^ am h
= n am
29
30
a -n
b n
c m = bal
b
Proof
a -n
1
c m =
b
a n
c m
b
1
= n
a
bn
an
bn
bn
=1# n
a
bn
= n
a
b n
= bal
=1'
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate
4
(a) 8 3
(b) 125
1
3
2 -3
(c) c m
3
Solution
4
(a) 8 3 = (3 8 ) 4 (or 3 8 4 )
= 24
= 16
(b) 125
1
3
1
1
125 3
1
=3
125
1
=
5
-3
(c) c 2 m
3
3 3
=c m
2
27
=
8
3
=3
8
(a)
(b)
1
(4x - 1) 2
2
Solution
5
x5 = x 2
1
(a)
(b)
(4x - 1)
2
1
2
(4x 2 - 1) 3
-
= (4x 2 - 1)
3. Write r
3
5
2
3
Solution
r
3
5
=
=
1
3
r5
1
5
r3
31
32
1.7 Exercises
1.
Evaluate
(a) 81
3.
1
2
(a) y 3
(b) 27 3
(b) y 3
(c) 16 2
(c) x
1
2
1
(d) (2x + 5) 2
(d) 8 3
1
(e) (3x - 1)
(e) 49 2
1
1
2
(f) (6q + r) 3
(f) 1000 3
1
(g) (x + 7)
(g) 16 4
2
5
(h) 64 2
(i) 64
(j) 1
4.
1
3
(a)
1
7
(k) 81
(l) 32
t
5
x3
(c)
1
4
(d)
(e)
1
5
(m) 0 8
(f)
(n) 125
1
3
(g)
1
1
1
(r) 9
(s) 8
(i)
(t) 64
2.
(x - 2) 2
1
(j)
2 y+7
5
(k) 3
x+4
2
(l)
3 y2 - 1
3
(m)
5 4 (x 2 + 2) 3
3
2
-
1
3
-
2
3
(a) 23 4
(b) 4 45.8
(c)
(d)
(e)
5 .9 # 3 .7
8.79 - 1.4
(f)
1.24 + 4.3 2
1
12.9
3 .6 - 1 .4
1 .5 + 3 .7
(3x + 1) 5
1
(h)
(q) 256 4
9-x
4s + 1
1
2t + 3
1
(5x - y) 3
(o) 343 3
(p) 128 7
5.
6.
7.
(a) ( x + x) 2
(b) (3 a + 3 b ) (3 a - 3 b )
1 2
(c) f p +
p
p
1 2
)
x
x ( x 2 - 3x + 1 )
(d) ( x +
(e)
x3
33
1
3
2
3
4
7
2
9
(c) 4 (6a + 1)
( x + y)
(d)
3
5
4
6 (3 x + 8 )
(e)
7
EXAMPLES
1. Write 320 000 000 in scientic notation.
Solution
320 000 000 = 3.2 #10 8
Solution
7.1#10
-5
= 7.1 ' 10
= 0.000 071
5
Count 5 places to
the left.
34
15.4 # 10
-6
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The concept of signicant gures is related to rounding off. When we look
at very large (or very small) numbers, some of the smaller digits are not
signicant.
For example, in a football crowd of 49 976, the 6 people are not really
signicant in terms of a crowd of about 50 000! Even the 76 people are not
signicant.
When a company makes a prot of $5 012 342.87, the amount of
87 cents is not exactly a signicant sum! Nor is the sum of $342.87.
To round off to a certain number of signicant gures, we count from the
rst non-zero digit.
In any number, non-zero digits are always signicant. Zeros are not
signicant, except between two non-zero digits or at the end of a decimal
number.
Even though zeros may not be signicant, they are still necessary. For
example 31, 310, 3100, 31 000 and 310 000 all have 2 signicant gures but
are very different numbers!
Scientic notation uses the signicant gures in a number.
EXAMPLES
12 000 = 1.2 #10 4
0.000 043 5 = 4.35#10 - 5
0.020 7 = 2.07 #10 - 2
(2 significant figures)
(3 significant figures)
(3 significant figures)
When rounding off to signicant gures, use the usual rules for rounding off.
35
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 4 592 170 to 3 signicant gures.
Solution
4 592 170 = 4 590 000 to 3 signicant gures
2. Round off 0.248 391 to 2 signicant gures.
Solution
0.248 391 = 0.25 to 2 signicant gures
3. Round off 1.396 794 to 3 signicant gures.
Solution
1.396 794 = 1.40 to 3 signicant gures
1.8 Exercises
1.
3.
2.
4.
Remember to put
the 0s in!
36
5.
6.
7.
Calculate
8.72 #10 - 3
and write
1.34 #10 7
your answer in standard form
correct to 3 signicant gures.
Investigation
A logarithm is an index. It is a way of nding the power (or index) to
which a base number is raised. For example, when solving 3 x = 9, the
solution is x = 2.
The 3 is called the base number and the x is the index or power.
You will learn about logarithms in the HSC course.
The a is called the base
number and the x is the
index or power.
If a x = y then log a y = x
37
Absolute Value
Negative numbers are used in maths and science, to show opposite directions.
For example, temperatures can be positive or negative.
x =)
x when x $ 0
- x when x 1 0
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate 4 .
Solution
4 = 4 since 4 $ 0
CONTINUED
38
2. Evaluate - 3 .
Solution
-3 = - ] - 3 g since - 3 1 0
=3
| ab | = | a |#| b |
e.g. | 2 # - 3 | = | 2 |#| - 3 | = 6
|a | = a
e.g. | - 3 | 2 = ] - 3 g2 = 9
a2 = | a |
|- a | = | a |
|a - b | = | b - a |
| a + b |#| a | + | b |
e.g. 5 2 = | 5 | = 5
e.g. | -7 | = | 7 | = 7
e.g. | 2 - 3 | = | 3 - 2 | = 1
e.g. | 2 + 3 | = | 2 | + | 3 | but | - 3 + 4 | 1 | - 3 | + | 4 |
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate 2 - -1 + - 3 2.
Solution
2 - -1 + - 3 2 = 2 - 1 + 3 2
=2 -1 + 9
= 10
2. Show that a + b # a + b when a = - 2 and b = 3.
Solution
LHS means Left Hand Side.
LHS = a + b
= -2 + 3
= 1
=1
RHS = a + b
= -2 + 3
= 2+3
=5
Since 11 5
a+b # a + b
3. Write expressions for 2x - 4 without the absolute value signs.
Solution
2x - 4 = 2x - 4 when 2x - 4 $ 0
i.e.
2x $ 4
x$2
2x - 4 = - ] 2x - 4 g when 2x - 4 1 0
= - 2x + 4 i.e.
2x 1 4
x12
Class Discussion
Are these statements true? If so, are there some values for which the
expression is undefined (values of x or y that the expression cannot
have)?
2.
x
=1
x
2x = 2x
3.
2x = 2 x
4.
x + y = x+y
5.
2
x = x2
6.
7.
3
x = x3
x +1 = x +1
1.
3x - 2
=1
3x - 2
x
9.
=1
x2
10. x $ 0
8.
39
40
1.9 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
Evaluate
(a) 7
(b) - 5
(c) - 6
(d) 0
(e) 2
(f) -11
(g) - 2 3
(h) 3 - 8
2
(i) - 5
(j) - 5 3
Evaluate
(a) 3 + - 2
(b) - 3 - 4
(c) - 5 + 3
(d) 2 #-7
(e) - 3 + -1
2
(f) 5 - - 2 # 6
(g) - 2 + 5# -1
(h) 3 - 4
(i) 2 - 3 - 3 - 4
(j) 5 - 7 + 4 - 2
(i)
(j)
Show that a + b # a + b
when
(a) a = 2 and b = 4
(b) a = -1 and b = - 2
(c) a = - 2 and b = 3
(d) a = - 4 and b = 5
(e) a = -7 and b = - 3.
6.
7.
8.
9.
n
Simplify n where n ! 0.
a = 5 and b = 2
a = -1 and b = 2
a = - 2 and b = - 3
a = 4 and b = 7
a = -1 and b = - 2.
a when a 1 0
a when a = 0
3a when a 2 0
3a when a 1 0
3a when a = 0
a + 1 when a 2 -1
x - 2 when x 2 2
x - 2 when x 1 2.
5.
Evaluate a - b if
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
4.
(h) a + 1 when a 1 -1
x-2
and state which
x-2
value x cannot be.
10. Simplify
Test Yourself 1
1.
2.
Convert
(a) 0.45 to a fraction
(b) 14% to a decimal
5
(c)
to a decimal
8
(d) 78.5% to a fraction
(e) 0.012 to a percentage
11
(f)
to a percentage
15
6.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(a) 7 - 2
(b) 5 -1
3.
7.
1
2
(b) 36 2
(c) - 5 2 - 2 3
(d) 4 - 3 as fraction
4.5 2 + 7.6 2
(e) 6
4.
5.
(e) 8 3
(f) - 2 - 1
1.3#10 9
3.8 #10 6
-
(g) 49
2
3
1
2
as a fraction
1
4
Evaluate
(a) |-3 | -| 2 |
(b) | 4 - 5 |
(c) 7 + 4 # 8
(d) [(3 + 2)#(5 - 1) - 4] ' 8
(e) - 4 + 3 - 9
(f) - 2 - -1
(g) - 24 ' - 6
(h) 16
(i) ] -3 g0
(j) 4 - 7 2 - -2 - 3
8.
(a) x 5 # x 7 ' x 3
(b) (5y 3) 2
(a 5) 4 b 7
(c)
a9 b
3
2x 6 n
(d) d
3
0
ab 4
o
a5 b6
Simplify
(a) a 14 ' a 9
6
(b) _ x 5 y 3 i
(c) p 6 # p 5 ' p 2
4
(d) ^ 2b 9h
(2x 7) 3 y 2
(e)
x 10 y
Simplify
(e) e
Evaluate
(a) - 4
1
3
7
5
8
6
2
#3
7
3
3
9'
4
2
1
+2
5
10
5
15#
6
(a) 1
Evaluate as a fraction.
(c) 9
Evaluate
9.
n
1
(b) 5
x
1
(c)
x+y
(d)
x +1
41
42
(e)
a+b
2
(f) x
1
(g)
2x 3
(h)
x4
(i)
(5x + 3) 9
1
m3
(j)
(b) n 4
1
(c) (x + 1) 2
(d) (x - y) -1
(e) (4t - 7) - 4
1
(f) (a + b) 5
(g) x
(i) (2x + 3)
-
1
3
(h) b 4
(j) x
4
3
3
2
(c)
(e)
y7
3
1 4
13. If a = c m and b = , evaluate ab 3 as a
4
3
fraction.
14. Increase 650 mL by 6%.
1
of his 24-hour day
3
1
sleeping and at work.
4
(a) How many hours does Johan spend
at work?
(b) What fraction of his day is spent at
work or sleeping?
(a) 0. 7
(b) 0.124
22. Write without the negative index.
(a) x - 3
(b) (2a + 5)- 1
a -5
(c) c m
b
23. The number of people attending a
football match increased by 4% from last
week. If there were 15 080 people at the
match this week, how many attended
last week?
24. Show that | a + b | # a + b when
a = - 2 and b = - 5.
Challenge Exercise 1
3
2
2
7
+ 3 m ' c4 - 1 m.
4
5
3
8
1.
Simplify c 8
2.
3
5
149
7
Simplify +
+
.
5
12
180
30
3.
4.
2
3
5.
Write 64
6.
7.
as a rational number.
3 2
2 4
1 3
a = c m , b = c - m and c = c m .
5
5
3
13. Which of the following are rational
3
numbers: 3 , - 0.34, 2, 3r, 1. 5, 0, ?
7
14. The percentage of salt in 1 L of water is
10%. If 500 mL of water is added to this
mixture, what percentage of salt is there
now?
15. Simplify
25
1
out of 20 for a maths
2
1
test, 19 out of 23 for English and 55
2
out of 70 for physics. Find his average
score as a percentage, to the nearest
whole percentage.
Vinh scored 17
a
in index form if
b3 c2
|x + 1 |
x2 - 1
for x ! !1.
16. Evaluate 6
8.
19. Evaluate
9.
8.3# 4.1
correct to
0.2 + 5.4 ' 1.3
3 signicant gures.
10. Evaluate 3
43
2
Algebra and
Surds
TERMINOLOGY
Binomial: A mathematical expression consisting of
two terms such as x + 3 or 3x - 1
Binomial product: The product of two binomial
expressions such as (x + 3) (2x - 4)
Expression: A mathematical statement involving numbers,
pronumerals and symbols e.g. 2x - 3
Factorise: The process of writing an expression as a
product of its factors. It is the reverse operation of
expanding brackets i.e. take out the highest common
factor in an expression and place the rest in brackets
e.g. 2y - 8 = 2 (y - 4)
Pronumeral: A letter or symbol that stands for a number
45
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER REVIEWS ALGEBRA skills, including simplifying expressions,
removing grouping symbols, factorising, completing the square and
simplifying algebraic fractions. Operations with surds, including rationalising
the denominator, are also studied in this chapter.
Simplifying Expressions
Addition and subtraction
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. 7x - x
Solution
Here x is called a
pronumeral.
7x - x = 7x - 1 x
= 6x
2. 4x 2 - 3x 2 + 6x 2
Solution
4x 2 - 3x 2 + 6x 2 = x 2 + 6 x 2
= 7x 2
CONTINUED
46
3. x 3 - 3x - 5x + 4
Only add or subtract like
terms. These have the
same pronumeral (for
example, 3x and 5x).
Solution
x 3 - 3 x - 5x + 4 = x 3 - 8 x + 4
4. 3a - 4b - 5a - b
Solution
3a - 4b - 5a - b = 3a - 5a - 4b - b
= - 2a - 5b
2.1 Exercises
Simplify
1.
2x + 5x
16. 7b + b - 3b
2.
9a - 6a
17. 3b - 5b + 4b + 9b
3.
5z - 4z
18. - 5x + 3x - x - 7x
4.
5a + a
19. 6x - 5y - y
5.
4b - b
20. 8a + b - 4b - 7a
6.
2r - 5r
21. xy + 2y + 3xy
7.
- 4y + 3y
8.
- 2x - 3x
23. m 2 - 5m - m + 12
9.
2a - 2a
24. p 2 - 7p + 5p - 6
10. - 4k + 7k
25. 3x + 7y + 5x - 4y
11. 3t + 4t + 2t
26. ab + 2b - 3ab + 8b
12. 8w - w + 3w
27. ab + bc - ab - ac + bc
13. 4m - 3m - 2m
28. a 5 - 7x 3 + a 5 - 2x 3 + 1
14. x + 3x - 5x
29. x 3 - 3xy 2 + 4x 2 y - x 2 y + xy 2 + 2y 3
15. 8h - h - 7h
30. 3x 3 - 4x 2 - 3x + 5x 2 - 4x - 6
47
Multiplication
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. - 5x # 3y # 2x
Solution
- 5x # 3y # 2x = - 30xyx
= - 30x 2 y
2. - 3x 3 y 2 # - 4xy 5
Solution
- 3x 3 y 2 # - 4xy 5 = 12x 4 y 7
2.2 Exercises
Simplify
1.
5 # 2b
5
11. ^ 2x 2h
2.
2x # 4y
12. 2ab 3 # 3a
3.
5p # 2p
13. 5a 2 b # - 2ab
4.
- 3z # 2w
14. 7pq 2 # 3p 2 q 2
5.
- 5a # - 3b
15. 5ab # a 2 b 2
6.
x # 2y # 7z
16. 4h 3 # - 2h 7
7.
8ab # 6c
17. k 3 p # p 2
8.
4d # 3d
4
18. ^ - 3t 3 h
9.
3a # 4a # a
19. 7m 6 # - 2m 5
10. ^ - 3y h3
20. - 2x 2 # 3x 3 y # - 4xy 2
48
Division
Use cancelling or index laws to simplify divisions.
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. 6v 2 y ' 2vy
Solution
By cancelling,
6v 2 y ' 2vy =
=
6v 2 y
2vy
63 # v # v1 # y1
21 # v # y1
= 3v
Using index laws,
6v 2 y ' 2vy = 3v 2 - 1 y 1 - 1
= 3v 1 y 0
= 3v
2.
5a 3 b
15ab 2
Solution
5a 3 b
= 1 a3 -1 b1- 2
3
15ab 2
= 1 a 2 b -1
3
a2
=
3b
2.3 Exercises
Simplify
1.
30x ' 5
2.
2y ' y
2
3.
8a
2
4.
8a 2
a
5.
8a 2
2a
6.
xy
2x
7.
12p 3 ' 4p 2
8.
3a 2 b 2
6ab
9.
20x
15xy
10.
- 9x 7
3x 4
2ab
6a 2 b 3
13.
- 8p
4pqs
16.
7pq 3
18.
42p 5 q 4
-1
4a - 9 ^ b 2 h
2xy 2 z 3
4x 3 y 2 z
a ] b + c g = ab + ac
EXAMPLE
7 # (9 + 11) = 7 # 20
= 140
Using the distributive law,
7 # (9 + 11) = 7 # 9 + 7 # 11
= 63 + 77
= 140
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify.
1. 2 ] a + 3 g
Solution
2 (a + 3) = 2 # a + 2 # 3
= 2a + 6
CONTINUED
49
50
2. - ] 2x - 5 g
Solution
-(2x - 5) = -1 (2x - 5)
= -1 # 2x - 1 # - 5
= - 2x + 5
3. 5a 2]4 + 3ab - c g
Solution
5a 2 (4 + 3ab - c) = 5a 2 # 4 + 5a 2 # 3ab - 5a 2 # c
= 20a 2 + 15a 3 b - 5a 2 c
4. 5 - 2 ^ y + 3 h
Solution
5 - 2 (y + 3 ) = 5 - 2 # y - 2 # 3
= 5 - 2y - 6
= - 2y - 1
5. 2 ] b - 5 g - ] b + 1 g
Solution
2 (b - 5) - (b + 1) = 2 # b + 2 # - 5 - 1 # b -1 # 1
= 2b - 10 - b - 1
= b - 11
2.4 Exercises
Expand and simplify
1.
2]x - 4 g
7.
ab ] 2a + b g
2.
3 ] 2h + 3 g
8.
5n ] n - 4 g
3.
-5 ] a - 2 g
9.
3x 2 y _ xy + 2y 2 i
4.
x ^ 2y + 3 h
10. 3 + 4 ] k + 1 g
5.
x]x - 2 g
11. 2 ] t - 7 g - 3
6.
2a ] 3a - 8b g
12. y ^ 4y + 3 h + 8y
13. 9 - 5 ] b + 3 g
20. 2ab ] 3 - a g - b ] 4a - 1 g
14. 3 - ] 2x - 5 g
21. 5x - ] x - 2 g - 3
15. 5] 3 - 2m g + 7 ] m - 2 g
22. 8 - 4 ^ 2y + 1 h + y
16. 2 ] h + 4 g + 3 ] 2h - 9 g
23. ] a + b g - ] a - b g
17. 3 ] 2d - 3 g - ] 5d - 3 g
24. 2 ] 3t - 4 g - ] t + 1 g + 3
18. a ] 2a + 1 g - ^ a 2 + 3a - 4 h
25. 4 + 3 ] a + 5 g - ] a - 7 g
51
19. x ] 3x - 4 g - 5 ] x + 1 g
Binomial Products
A binomial expression consists of two numbers, for example x + 3.
A set of two binomial expressions multiplied together is called a binomial
product.
Example: ] x + 3 g ] x - 2 g.
Each term in the first bracket is multiplied by each term in the second
bracket.
] a + b g ^ x + y h = ax + ay + bx + by
Proof
]a + bg]c + d g = a ]c + d g + b ]c + d g
= ac + ad + bc + bd
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify
1. ^ p + 3h^ q - 4h
Solution
^ p + 3 h ^ q - 4 h = pq - 4p + 3q - 12
2. ]a + 5g2
Solution
] a + 5 g2 = (a + 5)(a + 5)
= a 2 + 5a + 5a + 25
= a 2 + 10a + 25
52
The rule below is not a binomial product (one expression is a trinomial), but it
works the same way.
] a + b g ^ x + y + z h = ax + ay + az + bx + by + bz
EXAMPLE
Expand and simplify ] x + 4 g ^ 2x - 3y - 1 h .
Solution
(x + 4) (2x - 3y - 1) = 2x 2 - 3xy - x + 8x - 12y - 4
= 2x 2 - 3xy + 7x - 12y - 4
2.5 Exercises
Expand and simplify
1.
]a + 5g]a + 2g
2.
]x + 3g]x - 1g
18. ^ 3x - 4y h^ 3x + 4y h
3.
^ 2y - 3h^ y + 5h
19. ]x + 3g]x - 3g
4.
]m - 4g]m - 2g
20. ^ y - 6h^ y + 6h
5.
]x + 4g]x + 3g
21. ] 3a + 1 g ] 3a - 1 g
6.
^ y + 2h^ y - 5h
7.
]2x - 3g]x + 2g
23. ]x + 9g^ x - 2y + 2h
8.
]h - 7g]h - 3g
24. ] b - 3 g ] 2a + 2b - 1 g
9.
]x + 5g]x - 5g
25. ]x + 2g^ x 2 - 2x + 4h
10. ] 5a - 4 g ] 3a - 1 g
26. ]a - 3g^ a 2 + 3a + 9h
11. ^ 2y + 3h^ 4y - 3h
27. ]a + 9g2
12. ]x - 4g^ y + 7h
28. ]k - 4g2
13. ^ x 2 + 3h]x - 2g
29. ]x + 2g2
14. ]n + 2g]n - 2g
30. ^ y - 7h2
16. ^ 4 - 7y h^ 4 + 7y h
37. ] a + b g2
34. ^ x - 5y h2
38. ] a - b g2
39. ] a + b g ^ a 2 - ab + b 2 h
36. ] a - b g ] a + b g
40. ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h
Some binomial products have special results and can be simplified quickly
using their special properties. Binomial products involving perfect squares
and the difference of two squares occur in many topics in mathematics. Their
expansions are given below.
Difference of 2 squares
] a + b g ] a - b g = a2 - b2
Proof
(a + b) (a - b) = a 2 - ab + ab - b 2
= a2 - b2
Perfect squares
] a + b g2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
Proof
] a + b g2 = (a + b) (a + b)
= a 2 + ab + ab + b 2
= a 2 + 2ab + b 2
]a - bg2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2
Proof
] a - b g2 = (a - b) (a - b)
= a 2 - ab - ab + b 2
= a 2 - 2ab + b 2
53
54
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify
1. ]2x - 3g2
Solution
] 2x - 3 g2 = ] 2x g2 - 2 (2x) 3 + 3 2
= 4x 2 - 12x + 9
2. ^ 3y - 4h^ 3y + 4h
Solution
(3y - 4) (3y + 4) = ^ 3y h2 - 4 2
= 9y 2 - 16
2.6 Exercises
Expand and simplify
1.
]t + 4g2
16. ^ p + 1 h ^ p - 1 h
2.
]z - 6g2
17. ]r + 6g]r - 6g
3.
] x - 1 g2
18. ] x - 10 g ] x + 10 g
4.
^ y + 8h2
5.
^ q + 3h2
20. ^ x - 5y h^ x + 5y h
6.
]k - 7g2
21. ] 4a + 1 g ] 4a - 1 g
7.
] n + 1 g2
8.
]2b + 5g2
23. ^ x 2 + 2h^ x 2 - 2h
9.
]3 - xg2
2
24. ^ x 2 + 5h
10. ^ 3y - 1 h2
11. ^ x + y h2
2 2
26. b x + x l
12. ] 3a - b g2
13. ]4d + 5eg2
1
1
27. b a - a lb a + a l
14. ]t + 4g]t - 4g
28. _ x + 6 y - 2 @ i _ x - 6 y - 2 @ i
15. ] x - 3 g ] x + 3 g
29. 6]a + bg + c @2
30. 7 ] x + 1 g - y A
36. ] x - 4 g3
55
Expand (x - 4) (x - 4) 2 .
31. ] a + 3 g2 - ] a - 3 g2
1 2
1 2
37. b x - x l - b x l + 2
32. 16 - ]z - 4g]z + 4g
38. _ x 2 + y 2 i - 4x 2 y 2
34. ^ x + y h2 - x ^ 2 - y h
40. ] 2x - 1 g ] 2x + 1 g ] x + 2 g2
35. ] 4n - 3 g ] 4n + 3 g - 2n 2 + 5
PROBLEM
Find values of all pronumerals that make this true.
a b
d
f e
i i i h
i i c c
c
e
b
g
b
Try c = 9.
Factorisation
Simple factors
Factors are numbers that exactly divide or go into an equal or larger number,
without leaving a remainder.
EXAMPLES
The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 are all the factors of 24.
Factors of 5x are 1, 5, x and 5x.
ax + bx = x ] a + b g
56
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 3x + 12
Solution
Divide each term by 3 to
find the terms inside the
brackets.
Solution
Check answers by
expanding brackets.
Solution
x and x2 are both common factors. We take out the highest common
factor which is x2.
x 3 - 2x 2 = x 2 ] x - 2 g
4. 5] x + 3 g + 2y ] x + 3 g
Solution
The highest common factor is x + 3.
5 ] x + 3 g + 2y ] x + 3 g = ] x + 3 g ^ 5 + 2 y h
5. 8a 3 b 2 - 2ab 3
Solution
There are several common factors here. The highest common
factor is 2ab2.
8a 3 b 2 - 2ab 3 = 2ab 2 ^ 4a 2 - bh
2.7 Exercises
Factorise
1.
2y + 6
19. x ] m + 5 g + 7 ] m + 5 g
2.
5x - 10
20. 2 ^ y - 1 h - y ^ y - 1 h
3.
3m - 9
21. 4^ 7 + y h - 3x ^ 7 + y h
4.
8x + 2
22. 6x ]a - 2g + 5]a - 2g
5.
24 - 18y
23. x ] 2t + 1 g - y ] 2t + 1 g
6.
x 2 + 2x
7.
m 2 - 3m
24. a ] 3x - 2 g + 2b ] 3x - 2 g
- 3c ] 3x - 2 g
8.
2y 2 + 4y
9.
15a - 3a 2
25. 6x 3 + 9x 2
26. 3pq 5 - 6q 3
27. 15a 4 b 3 + 3ab
10. ab 2 + ab
28. 4x 3 - 24x 2
11. 4x 2 y - 2xy
13. 8x 2 z - 2xz 2
14. 6ab + 3a - 2a
15. 5x 2 - 2x + xy
33. y 2 ]x + 4g + 2]x + 4g
16. 3q 5 - 2q 2
34. a ] a + 1 g - ] a + 1 g2
17. 5b 3 + 15b 2
35. 4ab ^ a 2 + 1 h - 3 ^ a 2 + 1 h
18. 6a 2 b 3 - 3a 3 b 2
Grouping in pairs
If an expression has 4 terms, it may be factorised in pairs.
ax + bx + ay + by = x(a + b) + y (a + b)
= ( a + b) ( x + y)
57
58
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. x 2 - 2x + 3x - 6
Solution
x 2 - 2x + 3x - 6 = x (x - 2) + 3 (x - 2)
= (x - 2) (x + 3)
2. 2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy
Solution
2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy = 2 (x - 2) + 3y (2 - x)
= 2 ( x - 2) - 3y ( x - 2 )
= (x - 2) (2 - 3y)
or 2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy = 2 (x - 2) - 3y (- 2 + x)
= 2 ( x - 2) - 3y ( x - 2 )
= (x - 2) (2 - 3y)
2.8 Exercises
Factorise
1.
2x + 8 + bx + 4b
12. m - 2 + 4y - 2my
2.
ay - 3a + by - 3b
3.
x 2 + 5x + 2x + 10
14. a 2 b + ab 3 - 4a - 4b 2
4.
m 2 - 2m + 3m - 6
15. 5x - x 2 - 3x + 15
5.
ad - ac + bd - bc
16. x 4 + 7x 3 - 4x - 28
6.
x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 3
17. 7x - 21 - xy + 3y
7.
5ab - 3b + 10a - 6
18. 4d + 12 - de - 3e
8.
2xy - x 2 + 2y 2 - xy
19. 3x - 12 + xy - 4y
9.
ay + a + y + 1
20. 2a + 6 - ab - 3b
10. x 2 + 5x - x - 5
21. x 3 - 3x 2 + 6x - 18
11. y + 3 + ay + 3a
22. pq - 3p + q 2 - 3q
23. 3x 3 - 6x 2 - 5x + 10
27. 4x 3 - 6x 2 + 8x - 12
25. xy + 7x - 4y - 28
26. x 4 - 4x 3 - 5x + 20
30. rr 2 + 2rr - 3r - 6
59
Trinomials
A trinomial is an expression with three terms, for example x 2 - 4x + 3.
Factorising a trinomial usually gives a binomial product.
x 2 + ] a + b g x + ab = ] x + a g ] x + b g
Proof
x 2 + (a + b) x + ab = x 2 + ax + bx + ab
= x(x + a) + b(x + a)
= (x + a) (x + b)
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. m 2 - 5m + 6
Solution
a + b = - 5 and ab = + 6
-2
+6 '
-3
-5
Numbers with sum - 5 and product + 6 are - 2 and - 3.
` m 2 - 5m + 6 = [m + ] - 2 g] [m + ] - 3 g]
= ]m - 2g]m - 3g
2. y 2 + y - 2
Solution
a + b = + 1 and ab = - 2
+2
-2 '
-1
+1
Two numbers with sum + 1 and product - 2 are + 2 and -1.
` y2 + y - 2 = ^ y + 2 h ^ y - 1 h
60
2.9 Exercises
Factorise
1.
x 2 + 4x + 3
14. a 2 - 4a + 4
2.
y 2 + 7y + 12
15. x 2 + 14x - 32
3.
m 2 + 2m + 1
16. y 2 - 5y - 36
4.
t 2 + 8t + 16
17. n 2 - 10n + 24
5.
z2 + z - 6
18. x 2 - 10x + 25
6.
x 2 - 5x - 6
19. p 2 + 8p - 9
7.
v 2 - 8v + 15
20. k 2 - 7k + 10
8.
t 2 - 6t + 9
21. x 2 + x - 12
9.
x 2 + 9x - 10
22. m 2 - 6m - 7
10. y 2 - 10y + 21
23. q 2 + 12q + 20
11. m 2 - 9m + 18
24. d 2 - 4d - 5
12. y 2 + 9y - 36
25. l 2 - 11l + 18
13. x 2 - 5x - 24
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 5y 2 - 13y + 6
Solutioncross method
Factors of 5y 2 are 5y and y.
Factors of 6 are -1 and - 6 or - 2 and - 3.
Possible combinations that give a middle term of -13y are
5y
-2
5y
-3
5y
-1
5y
-6
-3
-2
-6
-1
-2
y # - 3 = - 3y
-13y
` 5y 2 - 13y + 6 = ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h
SolutionPSF method
P: Product of first and last terms
S: Sum or middle term
F: Factors of P that give S
- 3y
30y 2 )
-10y
-13y
30y 2
-13y
- 3y, -10y
` 5y 2 - 13y + 6 = 5y 2 - 3y - 10y + 6
= y ^ 5y - 3 h - 2 ^ 5 y - 3 h
= ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h
CONTINUED
61
62
2. 4y 2 + 4y - 3
Solutioncross method
Factors of 4y 2 are 4y and y or 2y and 2y.
Factors of 3 are -1 and 3 or - 3 and 1.
Trying combinations of these factors gives
3
2y
2y # - 1 = - 2 y
2y
-1
2y # 3 =
6y
4y
` 4y 2 + 4y - 3 = ^ 2 y + 3 h ^ 2 y - 1 h
SolutionPSF method
P: Product of first and last terms
-12y 2
S: Sum or middle term
4y
F: Factors of P that give S
+ 6y, - 2y
2 + 6y
-12y )
-2y
+ 4y
` 4y 2 + 4y - 3 = 4 y 2 + 6 y - 2 y - 3
= 2y ^ 2y + 3 h - 1 ^ 2 y + 3 h
= ^ 2y + 3 h ^ 2y - 1 h
2.10
Exercises
Factorise
1.
2a 2 + 11a + 5
16. 4n 2 - 11n + 6
2.
5y 2 + 7y + 2
17. 8t 2 + 18t - 5
3.
3x 2 + 10x + 7
4.
3x 2 + 8x + 4
19. 8r 2 + 22r - 6
5.
2b 2 - 5b + 3
20. 4x 2 - 4x - 15
6.
7x 2 - 9x + 2
21. 6y 2 - 13y + 2
7.
3y 2 + 5y - 2
22. 6p 2 - 5p - 6
8.
2x 2 + 11x + 12
23. 8x 2 + 31x + 21
9.
5p 2 + 13p - 6
10. 6x 2 + 13x + 5
25. 6x 2 - 53x - 9
11. 2y 2 - 11y - 6
26. 9x 2 + 30x + 25
12. 10x 2 + 3x - 1
13. 8t 2 - 14t + 3
14. 6x 2 - x - 12
15. 6y 2 + 47y - 8
Perfect squares
You have looked at some special binomial products, including
]a + bg2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 and ]a - bg2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2 .
When factorising, use these results the other way around.
a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = ] a + b g2
a 2 - 2ab + b 2 = ] a - b g2
63
64
EXAMPLES
In a perfect square, the
constant term is always a
square number.
Factorise
1. x 2 - 8x + 16
Solution
x 2 - 8x + 16 = x 2 - 2 (4) x + 4 2
= ] x - 4 g2
2. 4a 2 + 20a + 25
Solution
4a 2 + 20a + 25 = ] 2a g2 + 2 (2a) (5) + 5 2
= ] 2a + 5 g2
2.11
Exercises
Factorise
1.
y 2 - 2y + 1
2.
x 2 + 6x + 9
3.
m 2 + 10m + 25
4.
t 2 - 4t + 4
5.
x 2 - 12x + 36
16. t 2 + t +
6.
4x 2 + 12x + 9
7.
16b 2 - 8b + 1
8.
9a 2 + 12a + 4
4x
4
+
3
9
6y
1
18. 9y 2 +
+
5
25
9.
25x 2 - 40x + 16
19. x 2 + 2 +
1
4
17. x 2 -
1
x2
20. 25k 2 - 20 +
4
k2
Difference of 2 squares
A special case of binomial products is ] a + b g ] a - b g = a 2 - b 2.
a2 - b2 = ] a + b g ] a - b g
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. d 2 - 36
Solution
d 2 - 36 = d 2 - 6 2
= ]d + 6 g]d - 6 g
2. 9b 2 - 1
Solution
9b 2 - 1 = ] 3b g2 - 1 2
= ( 3 b + 1) ( 3 b - 1 )
3. (a + 3) 2 - (b - 1) 2
Solution
] a + 3 g2 - ] b - 1 g2 = [(a + 3) + (b - 1)] [(a + 3) - (b - 1)]
= (a + 3 + b - 1) ( a + 3 - b + 1)
= ( a + b + 2 ) (a - b + 4 )
2.12
Exercises
Factorise
1.
a2 - 4
7.
1 - 4z 2
2.
x2 - 9
8.
25t 2 - 1
3.
y2 - 1
9.
9t 2 - 4
4.
x 2 - 25
10. 9 - 16x 2
5.
4x 2 - 49
11. x 2 - 4y 2
6.
16y 2 - 9
12. 36x 2 - y 2
65
66
13. 4a 2 - 9b 2
20.
14. x 2 - 100y 2
15. 4a - 81b
2
21. ] x + 2 g2 - ^ 2y + 1 h2
22. x 4 - 1
16. ]x + 2g2 - y 2
17. ] a - 1 g - ] b - 2 g
2
18. z - ] 1 + w g
2
19. x 2 -
y2
-1
9
1
4
23. 9x 6 - 4y 2
24. x 4 - 16y 4
25. a 8 - 1
a 3 + b 3 = ] a + b g ^ a 2 - ab + b 2 h
Proof
(a + b) (a 2 - ab + b 2) = a 3 - a 2 b + ab 2 + a 2 b - ab 2 + b 3
= a3 + b3
a 3 - b 3 = ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h
Proof
(a - b) (a 2 + ab + b 2) = a 3 + a 2 b + ab 2 - a 2 b - ab 2 - b 3
= a3 - b3
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 8x 3 + 1
Solution
8x 3 + 1 = ] 2x g3 + 1 3
= (2x + 1) [] 2x g2 - (2x) (1) + 1 2]
= (2x + 1 ) (4 x 2 - 2 x + 1 )
2. 27a 3 - 64b 3
Solution
27a 3 - 64b 3 = ] 3a g3 - ] 4b g3
= (3a - 4b) [] 3a g2 + (3a) (4b) + ] 4b g2]
= (3a - 4b) (9a 2 + 12ab + 16b 2)
2.13
Exercises
Factorise
1.
b3 - 8
2.
x 3 + 27
3.
t3 + 1
4.
a 3 - 64
14. ] x + 1 g3 - y 3
5.
1 - x3
6.
8 + 27y 3
7.
y 3 + 8z 3
8.
x 3 - 125y 3
9.
8x 3 + 27y 3
10. a 3 b 3 - 1
11. 1000 + 8t 3
12.
x3
- 27
8
13.
1000
1
+ 3
3
a
b
17. 1 -
x3
27
18. y 3 + ]3 + xg3
19. ] x + 1 g3 + ^ y - 2 h3
20. 8]a + 3g3 - b 3
Mixed factors
Sometimes more than one method of factorising is needed to completely
factorise an expression.
EXAMPLE
Factorise 5x 2 - 45.
Solution
5x 2 - 45 = 5 (x 2 - 9)
= 5 (x + 3) (x - 3)
67
68
2.14
Exercises
Factorise
1.
2x 2 - 18
16. x 3 - 3x 2 - 10x
2.
3p 2 - 3p - 36
17. x 3 - 3x 2 - 9x + 27
3.
5y 3 - 5
18. 4x 2 y 3 - y
4.
4a 3 b + 8a 2 b 2 - 4ab 2 - 2a 2 b
19. 24 - 3b 3
5.
5a 2 - 10a + 5
6.
- 2x 2 + 11x - 12
21. 3x 2 - 6x + 3
7.
3z 3 + 27z 2 + 60z
22. x 3 + 2x 2 - 25x - 50
8.
9ab - 4a 3 b 3
23. z 3 + 6z 2 + 9z
9.
x3 - x
24. 4x 4 - 13x 2 + 9
10. 6x 2 + 8x - 8
25. 2x 5 + 2x 2 y 3 - 8x 3 - 8y 3
11. 3m - 15 - 5n + mn
26. 4a 3 - 36a
12. ] x - 3 g2 - ] x + 4 g2
27. 40x - 5x 4
13. y 2 ^ y + 5 h - 16 ^ y + 5 h
28. a 4 - 13a 2 + 36
14. x 4 - x 3 + 8x - 8
15. x 6 - 1
30. 3x 3 + 9x 2 - 3x - 9
x3
x2
x 2 + 4x
x2
x
5x - 5
5x - 5
0
So the other factor of x 3 + 4x - 5 is x 2 + x + 5
` x 3 + 4x - 5 = (x - 1) (x 2 + x + 5)
69
EXAMPLES
1. Complete the square on x 2 + 6x.
Solution
Using a 2 + 2ab + b 2:
a=x
2ab = 6x
Substituting a = x:
2xb = 6x
b=3
Solution
Using a 2 - 2ab + b 2:
a=n
2ab = 10x
Substituting a = n:
2nb = 10n
b=5
70
EXAMPLES
1. Complete the square on x 2 + 12x.
Solution
Divide 12 by 2 and square it:
x 2 + 12x + c
12 2
m = x 2 + 12x + 6 2
2
= x 2 + 12x + 36
= ]x + 6g2
Solution
Divide 2 by 2 and square it:
2 2
y 2 - 2y + c m = y 2 - 2 y + 1 2
2
= y 2 - 2y + 1
= ^ y - 1 h2
2.15
Exercises
x 2 + 4x
12. y 2 + 3y
2.
b 2 - 6b
13. x 2 - 7x
3.
x 2 - 10x
14. a 2 + a
4.
y 2 + 8y
15. x 2 + 9x
5.
m 2 - 14m
16. y 2 -
6.
q 2 + 18q
5y
2
7.
x 2 + 2x
17. k 2 -
11k
2
8.
t 2 - 16t
18. x 2 + 6xy
9.
x 2 - 20x
19. a 2 - 4ab
10. w 2 + 44w
11. x 2 - 32x
20. p 2 - 8pq
71
Algebraic Fractions
Simplifying fractions
EXAMPLES
Simplify
4x + 2
2
1.
Solution
2 ] 2x + 1 g
4x + 2
=
2
2
= 2x + 1
2x 2 - 3x - 2
x3 - 8
2.
Solution
] 2x + 1 g ] x - 2 g
2x 2 - 3x - 2
=
3
] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 2x + 4 h
x -8
2x + 1
= 2
x + 2x + 4
2.16
Exercises
Simplify
1.
5a + 10
5
9.
b3 - 1
b2 - 1
2.
6t - 3
3
10.
3.
8y + 2
6
2p 2 + 7p - 15
6p - 9
11.
a2 - 1
a + 2a - 3
4.
5.
6.
8
4d - 2
2
x
5x 2 - 2x
y-4
12.
13.
y - 8y + 16
3 ]x - 2g + y ]x - 2g
x3 - 8
x 3 + 3x 2 - 9x - 27
x 2 + 6x + 9
7.
2ab - 4a 2
a 2 - 3a
8.
s2 + s - 2
s 2 + 5s + 6
14.
15.
2p 2 - 3p - 2
8p 3 + 1
ay - ax + by - bx
2ay - by - 2ax + bx
72
x+3
x-1
5
4
Solution
Do algebraic fractions
the same way as ordinary
fractions.
4 ]x - 1 g - 5 ]x + 3 g
x -1 x +3
=
5
4
20
4x - 4 - 5x - 15
=
20
- x - 19
=
20
2.
2a 2 b + 10ab
a 2 - 25
'
3
4b + 12
b + 27
Solution
2a 2 b + 10ab
a 2 - 25
2a 2 b + 10ab 4b + 12
'
=
# 2
4b + 12
b 3 + 27
b 3 + 27
a - 25
2ab ] a + 5 g
4 ]b + 3 g
=
#
2
]
a + 5 g]a - 5 g
] b + 3 g ^ b - 3b + 9 h
8ab
=
] a - 5 g ^ b 2 - 3b + 9 h
3.
2
1
+
x-5 x+2
Solution
2 ]x + 2g + 1 ]x - 5g
2
1
+
=
x-5 x+2
]x - 5g]x + 2g
2x + 4 + x - 5
=
]x - 5g]x + 2g
3x - 1
=
]x - 5g]x + 2g
2.17
1.
2.
Exercises
Simplify
x 3x
(a) +
4
2
y + 1 2y
(b)
+
5
3
a+2 a
(c)
4
3
p-3 p+2
(d)
+
6
2
x-5 x-1
(e)
2
3
4.
Simplify
3
b 2 + 2b
#
(a)
b + 2 6a - 3
1
1
+
x+1 x-3
(g)
3
2
x
2
+
x -4
(h)
1
1
+
a 2 + 2a + 1 a + 1
(i)
5
2
1
+
y+2 y+3 y-1
(j)
2
7
x 2 - 16 x 2 - x - 12
Simplify
(a)
y2 - 9
3x 2
x 2 - 2x - 8
#
#
4y - 12 6x - 24
y 3 + 27
q3 + 1
(b) 2
#
q + 2q + 1 p + 2
(b)
2
a 2 - 5a
3a - 15 y - y - 2
'
#
5ay
y 2 - 4y + 4
y2 - 4
3ab 2
12ab - 6a
(c)
' 2
5xy
x y + 2xy 2
(c)
3
x 2 + 3x
2x + 8
+ 2
#
x-3
4x - 16
x -9
(d)
5b
b2
b
' 2
2b + 6
b
1
+
b +b-6
(e)
x 2 - 8x + 15
x 2 - 9 x 2 + 5x + 6
'
#
2
2x - 10
5x + 10x
10x 2
p2 - 4
(d)
ax - ay + bx - by
x2 - y2
x3 + y3
ab 2 + a 2 b
x 2 - 6x + 9
x 2 - 5x + 6
(e)
'
x 2 - 25
x 2 + 4x - 5
3.
(f)
5.
Simplify
2 3
(a) x + x
Simplify
(a)
1
2
4
+
x 2 - 7x + 10 x 2 - 2x - 15 x 2 + x - 6
1
2
x-1 x
(b)
3
5
2
+
2
2
x
x
x -4
(c) 1 +
3
a+b
(c)
3
2
+
p 2 + pq pq - q 2
(d) x -
x2
x+2
(d)
a
b
1
+
a + b a - b a2 - b2
(b)
(e) p - q +
1
p+q
x+y
y
x
(e) x - y + y - x - 2
y - x2
Substitution
Algebra is used in writing general formulae or rules. For example, the formula
A = lb is used to find the area of a rectangle with length l and breadth b. We
can substitute any values for l and b to find the area of different rectangles.
73
74
EXAMPLES
1. P = 2l + 2b is the formula for finding the perimeter of a rectangle
with length l and breadth b. Find P when l = 1.3 and b = 3.2.
Solution
P = 2 l + 2b
= 2 ] 1 . 3 g + 2 ] 3 .2 g
= 2 .6 + 6 . 4
=9
2. V = rr 2 h is the formula for finding the volume of a cylinder with
radius r and height h. Find V (correct to 1 decimal place) when r = 2.1
and h = 8.7.
Solution
V = rr 2 h
= r ] 2.1 g2 (8.7)
= 120.5 correct to 1 decimal place
9C
+ 32 is the formula for changing degrees Celsius ] C g into
5
degrees Fahrenheit ] F g find F when C = 25.
3. If F =
Solution
9C
+ 32
5
9 ] 25 g
=
+ 32
5
225
=
+ 32
5
225 + 160
=
5
385
=
5
= 77
This means that 25C is the same as 77F.
F=
2.18
1.
Exercises
a-b
(g) - b 2
2.
T = a + ] n - 1 g d is the formula
for finding the term of an
arithmetic series. Find T when
a = - 4, n = 18 and d = 3.
3.
4.
5.
6.
If y = 2 x + 3 is the equation of
a function, find y when x = 1.3,
correct to 1 decimal place.
7.
8.
9.
n-1
Given u n = ar
is the nth term
of a geometric series, find u n if
a = 5, r = - 2 and n = 4.
75
76
r n
m is the formula
100
20. If S =
a ^rn - 1h
is the sum of
r -1
a3 b2
if
c2
2
3
1 4
a = c 3 m , b = c 2 m and c = c m .
4
3
2
Surds
An irrational number is a number that cannot be written as a ratio or fraction
(rational). Surds are special types of irrational numbers, such as 2, 3 and 5 .
Some surds give rational values: for example, 9 = 3. Others, like 2 , do
not have an exact decimal value. If a question involving surds asks for an exact
answer, then leave it as a surd rather than giving a decimal approximation.
Simplifying surds
Class Investigations
1. Is there an exact decimal equivalent for 2 ?
2. Can you draw a line of length exactly 2 ?
3. Do these calculations give the same results?
(a) 9 # 4 and 9 # 4
(b)
and
4
9
(c)
9
9 + 4 and
9 +
(d)
9 - 4 and
9 -
a# b =
ab
a' b =
^ x h2 =
x2 = x
a
b
77
EXAMPLES
1. Express in simplest surd form
45 .
45 also equals
3 # 15 but this will
not simplify. We look
for a number that is a
perfect square.
Solution
45 = 9 # 5
= 9 # 5
=3# 5
=3 5
2. Simplify 3 40 .
Solution
3 40 = 3 4 # 10
= 3 # 4 # 10
= 3 # 2 # 10
= 6 10
3. Write 5 2 as a single surd.
Solution
5 2 =
=
2.19
1.
25 # 2
50
Exercises
(k)
112
(l)
300
(a)
12
(b)
63
(c)
24
(d)
50
(e)
72
(f)
200
(g)
48
(h)
75
(i)
32
(a) 2 27
(j)
54
(b) 5 80
(m) 128
2.
(n)
243
(o)
245
(p)
108
(q)
99
(r)
125
Simplify
78
(c) 4 98
(g) 3 13
(d) 2 28
(h) 7 2
(e) 8 20
(i) 11 3
(f) 4 56
(j) 12 7
(g) 8 405
4.
(h) 15 8
(a)
(i) 7 40
x =3 5
(b) 2 3 =
(c) 3 7 =
(d) 5 2 =
(a) 3 2
(e) 2 11 =
(b) 2 5
(f)
(c) 4 11
(g) 4 19 =
(d) 8 2
(h)
(e) 5 3
(i) 5 31 =
(f) 4 10
(j)
(j) 8 45
3.
Evaluate x if
x =7 3
x
x = 6 23
x
x = 8 15
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify 3 2 + 4 2 .
Solution
3 2+4 2 =7 2
2. Simplify
3 - 12 .
Solution
First, change into like surds.
3 - 12 = 3 - 4 # 3
= 3 -2 3
=- 3
3. Simplify 2 2 - 2 + 3 .
Solution
2 2- 2+ 3=
2+ 3
2.20
79
Exercises
Simplify
1.
5 +2 5
14.
50 -
32
2.
3 2 -2 2
15.
28 +
63
3.
3 +5 3
16. 2 8 -
18
4.
7 3 -4 3
5.
5 -4 5
6.
4 6 -
17. 3 54 + 2 24
18.
90 - 5 40 - 2 10
19. 4 48 + 3 147 + 5 12
7.
2 -8 2
20. 3 2 + 8 - 12
8.
5 +4 5 +3 5
21.
63 - 28 - 50
9.
2 -2 2 -3 2
22.
12 - 45 - 48 - 5
10.
5 +
45
23.
150 + 45 + 24
11.
8 -
24.
32 - 243 - 50 + 147
12.
3 +
48
25.
80 - 3 245 + 2 50
13.
12 -
27
a # b = ab
a b # c d = ac bd
a# a =
a
b
a2 = a
a
b
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. 2 2 #- 5 7
Solution
2 2 #- 5 7 = -10 14
CONTINUED
80
2. 4 2 # 5 18
Solution
4 2 # 5 18 = 20 36
= 20 # 6
= 120
3.
2 14
4 2
Solution
2 14
4 2
2 2 #
7
2
4.
4 2
3 10
15 2
Solution
3 10
15 2
3# 5 # 2
15 2
5
=
5
5. d
10 n
3
Solution
2
^ 10 h
10 n
=
3
^ 3 h2
10
=
3
=31
3
2.21
Exercises
Simplify
1.
7 #
2.
3# 5
3.
2 #3 3
4.
5 7 #2 2
5.
-3 3 #2 2
6.
5 3 #2 3
7.
- 4 5 # 3 11
8.
2 7# 7
9.
2 3 # 5 12
10.
6# 2
11.
8 #2 6
23.
5 8
10 2
24.
16 2
25.
10 30
26.
2 2
27.
28.
2 12
5 10
6 20
4 2
8 10
3
3 15
29.
30.
3 15
12. 3 2 # 5 14
13.
10 # 2 2
14. 2 6 #-7 6
15. ^ 2 h
2
16. ^ 2 7 h
17.
31.
5 12
32.
15 18
33.
15
5 8
10 10
3# 5# 2
18. 2 3 # 7 #- 5
19.
6 10
2 # 6 #3 3
2 6
2n
3
35. d
5n
7
20. 2 5 # - 3 2 # - 5 5
21.
4 12
22.
12 18
2 2
34. d
3 6
Expanding brackets
The same rules for expanding brackets and binomial products that you use in
algebra also apply to surds.
81
82
a^ b + ch=
ab + ac
Proof
a^ b + ch =
=
a# b +
ab + ac
a# c
Binomial product:
^ a + b h^ c + d h =
ac +
ad +
bc +
bd
Proof
^ a + b h^ c + d h = a # c + a # d + b # c + b # d
= ac + ad + bc + bd
Perfect squares:
^ a + b h2 = a + 2 ab + b
Proof
^ a + b h2 = ^ a + b h ^ a + b h
= a 2 + ab + ab + b 2
= a + 2 ab + b
^ a - b h2 = a - 2 ab + b
Proof
^ a - b h2 = ^ a - b h ^ a - b h
= a 2 - ab - ab + b 2
= a - 2 ab + b
Difference of two squares:
^ a + b h^ a - b h = a - b
Proof
^ a + b h ^ a - b h = a 2 - ab + ab - b 2
=a-b
83
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify
1. 2 ^ 5 + 2 h
Solution
2( 5 +
2) =
=
=
2# 5 +
10 + 4
10 + 2
2# 2
2. 3 7 ^ 2 3 - 3 2 h
Solution
3 7 (2 3 - 3 2 ) = 3 7 # 2 3 - 3 7 # 3 2
= 6 21 - 9 14
3. ^ 2 + 3 5 h ^ 3 -
2h
Solution
( 2 + 3 5)( 3 -
2) =
=
2# 3 - 2# 2 +3 5# 3 -3 5# 2
6 - 2 + 3 15 - 3 10
4. ^ 5 + 2 3 h ^ 5 - 2 3 h
Solution
( 5 + 2 3 ) ( 5 - 2 3 ) = 5 # 5 - 5 #2 3 + 2 3 # 5 - 2 3 #2 3
= 5 - 2 15 + 2 15 - 4#3
= 5 - 12
= -7
Another way to do this question is by using the difference of two squares.
2
2
( 5 + 2 3)( 5 - 2 3) = ^ 5 h - ^2 3 h
= 5 - 4#3
= -7
84
2.22
1.
Exercises
(m)^ 2 11 + 5 2 h^ 2 11 - 5 2 h
2^ 5 + 3h
(b)
3 ^2 2 - 5 h
(n) ^ 5 + 2 h
2
(o) ^ 2 2 - 3 h
(c) 4 3 ^ 3 + 2 5 h
(d)
2
(p) ^ 3 2 + 7 h
7 ^5 2 - 2 3 h
2
(q) ^ 2 3 + 3 5 h
(e) - 3 ^ 2 - 4 6 h
(f)
2
(r) ^ 7 - 2 5 h
3 ^ 5 11 + 3 7 h
2
(s) ^ 2 8 - 3 5 h
(g) - 3 2 ^ 2 + 4 3 h
(h)
5^ 5 - 5 3h
(i)
3 ^ 12 + 10 h
2
(t) ^ 3 5 + 2 2 h
3.
If a = 3 2 , simplify
(a) a2
(b) 2a3
(c) (2a)3
(d) ]a + 1g2
(e) ] a + 3 g ] a 3 g
4.
Evaluate a and b if
2
(a) ^ 2 5 + 1h = a + b
(j) 2 3 ^ 18 + 3 h
(k) - 4 2 ^ 2 - 3 6 h
(l) - 7 5 ^ - 3 20 + 2 3 h
(m) 10 3 ^ 2 - 2 12 h
(n) - 2 ^ 5 + 2 h
(o) 2 3 ^ 2 - 12 h
2.
(b) ^ 2 2 - 5 h ^ 2 - 3 5 h
= a + b 10
5.
6.
Evaluate k if
^ 2 7 - 3 h ^ 2 7 + 3 h = k.
7.
Simplify _ 2 x + y i _ x - 3 y i .
8.
If ^ 2 3 - 5 h = a - b , evaluate
a and b.
9.
Evaluate a and b if
^ 7 2 - 3 h2 = a + b 2 .
(c) ^ 2 + 5 3 h^ 2 5 - 3 2 h
(d) ^ 3 10 - 2 5 h^ 4 2 + 6 6 h
(e) ^ 2 5 - 7 2 h^ 5 - 3 2 h
(f) ^ 5 + 6 2 h^ 3 5 - 3 h
(g) ^ 7 + 3 h^ 7 - 3 h
(h) ^ 2 - 3 h^ 2 + 3 h
(i) ^ 6 + 3 2 h^ 6 - 3 2 h
(j) ^ 3 5 + 2 h^ 3 5 - 2 h
(k) ^ 8 - 5 h^ 8 + 5 h
(l) ^ 2 + 9 3 h^ 2 - 9 3 h
85
5
5
This is hard to do
without a calculator.
= 3 # 2.236 ' 5
Multiplying by
b
a b
a
#
=
b
b
b
b
is the same as
multiplying by 1.
Proof
b
a b
a
#
=
b
b
b2
a b
=
b
EXAMPLES
1. Rationalise the denominator of
Solution
3
.
5
5
3 5
3
#
=
5
5
5
2. Rationalise the denominator of
Solution
2
5 3
.
Dont multiply by
5
2
5 3
3
3
2 3
5 9
2 3
=
5# 3
2 3
=
15
as it takes
5 3
longer to simplify.
86
a+ b
c+ d
, multiply by
Proof
a+ b
c+ d
^ a + b h^ c - d h
c- d
^ c + d h^ c - d h
^ a + b h^ c - d h
=
^ c h2 - ^ d h2
^ a + b h^ c - d h
=
c-d
c- d
EXAMPLES
1. Write with a rational denominator
5
2 -3
Multiply by the conjugate
surd 2 + 3.
Solution
5
2 -3
2 +3
2 +3
5 ^ 2 + 3h
^ 2 h2 - 3 2
10 + 3 5
=
2-9
10 + 3 5
=
-7
10 + 3 5
=7
Solution
2 3 +
3 +4 2
3 -4 2
3 -4 2
^2 3 + 5 h^ 3 - 4 2 h
^ 3 h2 - ^ 4 2 h2
2 # 3 - 8 6 + 15 - 4 10
=
3 - 16 # 2
c- d
c- d
6 - 8 6 + 15 - 4 10
- 29
- 6 + 8 6 - 15 + 4 10
=
29
=
3. Evaluate a and b if
3 3
3- 2
= a + b.
Solution
3 3
3- 2
3+ 2
3+ 2
3 3^ 3 + 2h
^ 3 - 2 h^ 3 + 2 h
3 9+3 6
=
^ 3 h2 - ^ 2 h2
3#3+3 6
3-2
9+3 6
=
1
=9+3 6
=
=9+ 9# 6
= 9 + 54
So a = 9 and b = 54.
4. Evaluate as a fraction with rational denominator
2
+
3+2
5
3-2
Solution
2
+
3+2
5
3 -2
2^ 3 - 2h + 5 ^ 3 + 2h
^ 3 + 2h ^ 3 - 2h
2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5
=
^ 3 h2 - 2 2
2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5
3-4
2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5
=
-1
= - 2 3 + 4 - 15 - 2 5
=
87
88
2.23
1.
2.
Exercises
3.
1
7
(a)
(b)
2 2
2 3
(c)
5
6 7
(d)
5 2
1+
2
3
6 -5
(g)
5 +2 2
8+3 2
(j)
4 3 -2 2
(f)
1
5 +
2 -
2 +
2 +3
4 5
(j)
7 5
(k)
4
3 +
(l)
2
4.
3
2 -7
5 +2 6
3 -4
3 +4
3 3 3 +
(b)
(c)
2 +5
2
2
2 5 +3 2
3
2 +
3
3 2 -
6 -
2
3
2 +3
5
6 +2
2 +7
4+
2 3 +
3 -2
6 +
1
3
3 -
(d)
(e)
2 5
3
4 2
2 -1
5 -
3
5 3
2
4-
2+
3 +1
Find a and b if
(a)
2 3
1
where z = 1 +
z2
(h)
(i)
1
2 -1
1
where t =
t
3 2 +4
2 7
(e)
(g)
(i)
(d)
2 -
3 2 -4
(c)
(f) z 2 -
(h)
(b)
1
+
2 +1
(e) t +
(f)
(a)
a
b
a 6
b
2
=a+b 5
5 +1
2 7
7 -4
2 +3
2 -1
=a+b 7
=a+
2
-
2
6 -1
5.
2 -1
Show that
2 +1
4
is
2
7.
If x =
(b) x 2 +
8.
1
x2
1
5 -
3 + 2, simplify
1
(a) x + x
2
5 +
5 +1
rational.
6.
Write
Show that
8
2
+
is
3+2 2
2
rational.
2
1
(c) b x + x l
9.
1
If 2 + x = 3 , where x ! 0,
find x as a surd with rational
denominator.
89
90
Test Yourself 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
Simplify
(a) 5y - 7y
3a + 12
(b)
3
(c) - 2k 3 # 3k 2
y
x
(d) +
5
3
(e) 4a - 3b - a - 5b
(f) 8 + 32
(g) 3 5 - 20 + 45
Factorise
(a) x 2 - 36
(b) a 2 + 2a - 3
(c) 4ab 2 - 8ab
(d) 5y - 15 + xy - 3x
(e) 4n - 2p + 6
(f) 8 - x 3
Expand and simplify
(a) b + 3 ] b - 2 g
(b) ] 2x - 1 g ] x + 3 g
(c) 5 ] m + 3 g - ] m - 2 g
(d) ]4x - 3g2
(e) ^ p - 5h^ p + 5h
(f) 7 - 2 ] a + 4 g - 5a
(g) 3 ^ 2 2 - 5 h
(h) ^ 3 + 7 h^ 3 - 2h
Simplify
4a - 12
10b
(a)
# 3
5b 3
a - 27
(b)
5.
5m + 10
m2 - 4
'
2
m - m - 2 3m + 3
6.
7.
Simplify
8.
9.
Simplify
3 12
(a)
6 15
(b)
3
1
2
+
- 2
.
x-2
x+3
x +x-6
4 32
2 2
1+ 3
2
14. Simplify
3x 4 y
(a)
9xy 5
(b)
5
15x - 5
15. Simplify
2
(a) ^ 3 11 h
3
(b) ^ 2 3 h
16. Expand and simplify
(a) ] a + b g ] a - b g
(b) ] a + b g 2
(c) ] a - b g 2
17. Factorise
(a) a 2 - 2ab + b 2
(b) a 3 - b 3
1
18. If x = 3 + 1, simplify x + x and
give your answer with a rational
denominator.
19. Simplify
4 3
(a) a +
b
(b)
x-3 x-2
5
2
20. Simplify
2
3
, writing
5+2 2 2-1
5 3
2
(c)
5 -1
(d)
(e)
2 2
3 2+ 3
5+ 2
4 5-3 3
24. Simplify
3x
x-2
(a)
5
2
a+2
2a - 3
(b)
+
7
3
1
2
(c) 2
1
x
+
x -1
4
1
(d) 2
+
k + 2k - 3 k + 3
(e)
3
2+ 5
5
3- 2
25. Evaluate n if
(a) 108 - 12 =
(b)
112 + 7 =
n
n
8 6
(c) 2 8 + 200 =
2 18
(d) 4 147 + 3 75 = n
180
(e) 2 245 +
= n
2
(e) 5a # - 3b # - 2a
(f)
2m 3 n
6m 2 n 5
(g) 3x - 2y - x - y
91
92
26. Evaluate x 2 +
1+2 3
1
if x =
2
x
1-2 3
2 7
(there may be more than one answer).
21
(a)
28
2 21
(b)
28
21
(c)
14
21
(d)
7
x-3
x +1
.
5
4
-]x + 7 g
20
x+7
20
x + 17
20
- ] x + 17 g
20
28. Simplify
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3
2
1
+
.
x-2
x+2
x2 - 4
x+5
]x + 2g]x - 2g
x+1
]x + 2g]x - 2g
x+9
]x + 2g]x - 2g
x-3
]x + 2g]x - 2g
31. Simplify
(d)
80
.
27
4 5
3 3
4 5
9 3
8 5
9 3
8 5
3 3
Challenge Exercise 2
1.
2.
11. Simplify
2x + y
x-y
3x + 2y
.
+
- 2
x-3
x+3
x +x-6
5 3
3.
Simplify
4.
b
Complete the square on x 2 + a x.
5.
Factorise
(a) (x + 4)2 + 5 (x + 4)
(b) x 4 - x 2 y - 6y 2
(c) 125x 3 + 343
(d) a 2 b - 2a 2 - 4b + 8
16. If x =
6.
7.
8.
9.
7 6 - 54
denominator
Simplify
d=
4x 2 - 16x + 12
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
Simplify
10. Factorise
^a + 1h
a3 + 1
a2
4
- 2.
2
x
b
lx 1 + kx 2
a2 + b2
the perpendicular distance from a
point to a line. Find the exact value
of d with a rational denominator if
a = 2, b = -1, c = 3, x 1 = - 4 and y 1 = 5.
3
2 -1
3 +4
3 -4
2+3 3
=a+b 3
93
3
Equations
TERMINOLOGY
Absolute value: the distance of a number from zero on a
number line.
Chapter 3 Equations
95
INTRODUCTION
EQUATIONS ARE FOUND IN most branches of mathematics. They are also
PROBLEM
The age of Diophantus at his death can be calculated from this epitaph:
Diophantus passed one-sixth of his life in childhood, one-twelfth in youth, and
one-seventh more as a bachelor; ve years after his marriage a son was born
who died four years before his father at half his fathers nal age. How old
was Diophantus?
Simple Equations
Here are the four rules for changing numbers or pronumerals from one side of
an equation to the other.
ch3.indd 95
8/11/09 10:59:40 AM
96
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. 3x + 5 = 17
Solution
3x + 5 = 17
3x + 5 - 5 = 17 - 5
3x = 12
3x
12
=
3
3
x=4
You can check the solution by substituting the value into the equation.
LHS = 3x + 5
= 3 ( 4) + 5
= 12 + 5
= 17
= RHS
Since LHS = RHS, x = 4 is the correct solution.
2. 4y - 3 = 8y + 21
Solution
4y - 3
4 y - 4y - 3
-3
- 3 - 21
- 24
= 8y + 21
= 8y - 4y + 21
= 4y + 21
= 4y + 21 - 21
= 4y
4y
- 24
=
4
4
-6 = y
y = -6
3. 2 ] 3x + 7 g = 6 - ] x - 1 g
Check these solutions
by substituting them
into the equation.
Solution
2 (3 x + 7 ) = 6 - ( x - 1 )
6x + 14 = 6 - x + 1
=7-x
6x + x + 14 = 7 - x + x
7x + 14 = 7
Chapter 3 Equations
7x + 14 - 14
7x
7x
7
x
= 7 - 14
= -7
-7
7
= -1
=
3.1 Exercises
Solve
1.
t + 4 = -1
2.
z + 1.7 = -3.9
3.
y - 3 = -2
4.
w - 2 .6 = 4 .1
18. 3x + 5 = 17
5.
5 = x -7
19. 4a + 7 = - 21
6.
1.5x = 6
20. 7y - 1 = 20
7.
5y = 1
3
8.
b
=5
7
9.
-2 =
10.
r
2
=
6
3
16.
x
-3 =7
2
17.
m
+ 7 = 11
5
21. 8b - 4 = - 36
22. 3 (x + 2) = 15
23. -2 (3a + 1) = 8
n
8
11. 2y + 1 = 19
12. 33 = 4k + 9
13. 7d - 2 = 12
14. -2 = 5x - 27
y
15.
+4=9
3
24. 7t + 4 = 3t - 12
25. x - 3 = 6x - 9
26. 2 (a - 2) = 4 - 3a
27. 5b + 2 = - 3(b - 1)
28. 3 (t + 7) = 2 (2t - 9)
29. 2 + 5( p - 1) = 5p - ( p - 2)
30. 3.7x + 1.2 = 5.4x - 6.3
A S TA R T L I N G FA C T !
Half full = half empty
`
full = empty
97
98
EXAMPLES
Solve
m
1
1.
-4=
3
2
Solution
Multiply by
the common
denominator, 6.
m
1
-4 =
3
2
m
m - 6 (4) = 6 c 1 m
2
3
2m - 24 = 3
2m - 24 + 24 = 3 + 24
2m = 27
2m
27
=
2
2
27
m=
2
= 13 1
2
6c
2.
x+1
x
+ =5
4
3
Solution
The common
denominator of
3 and 4 is 12.
x +1 x
+ =5
4
3
x +1
x
m + 12 c m = 12 (5)
12 c
4
3
4 (x + 1) + 3x = 60
4x + 4 + 3x = 60
7x + 4 = 60
7x + 4 - 4 = 60 - 4
7x = 56
7x
56
=
7
7
x=8
Chapter 3 Equations
3.
99
y +1
y-2
5
=
5
3
6
Solution
y +1
y-2
5
=
5
3
6
y +1
y-2
o - 30 e
o = 30 c 5 m
30 e
5
3
6
6 (y + 1) - 10 (y - 2) = 25
6y + 6 - 10y + 20 = 25
- 4y + 26 = 25
- 4y + 26 - 26 = 25 - 26
- 4y = -1
- 4y
-1
=
-4
-4
y=1
4
When there is a fraction on either side of the equation, multiplying by
the common denominator is the same as cross multiplying.
EXAMPLES
5
8
1. Solve x =
(x ! 0 )
3
Solution
5
8
x =3
8x = 15
8x
15
=
8
8
7
x=1
8
2. Solve
3
8
^n ! 0h
=
5
2n
Solution
3
8
=
5
2n
16n = 15
16n
15
=
16
16
15
n=
16
The common
denominator of 5, 3
and 6 is 30.
100
3.2 Exercises
Solve
1.
b
2
=
5
3
14.
3
x
x
- =
5
2
10
2.
7
1
x = 5 (x ! 0 )
15.
x+4 x
+ =1
3
2
3.
9
4
y = 10 (y ! 0)
16.
p-3
2p
+
=2
2
3
4.
5x
11
=
4
7
17.
t +3 t -1
+
=4
7
3
5.
9
4
=
( k ! 0)
5
2k
18.
x+5
x+2
=1
5
9
6.
x
-4=8
3
19.
q-1
q-2
=2
4
3
7.
3
5t
=
4
4
20.
x+3
x +7
+2=
5
2
8.
5+x
2
=
7
7
21.
3b
1
b
- =
4
5
2
9.
y
3
=5
2
22.
a
3
5
+ =
4
3
8
10.
x
2
- =7
9
3
23.
3
5
=x
x+2
^ x ! 0, -2 h
11.
w-3
=5
2
24.
1
1
=
y +1
3y - 1
c y ! -1,
12.
2t
t
- =2
5
3
25.
2
1
+
= 0 ^ t ! 3, - 4 h
t-3 t+4
13.
x
1
+ =4
4
2
1
m
3
Substitution
Sometimes substituting values into a formula involves solving an equation.
Investigation
Body mass index (BMI) is a formula that is used to measure body fatness
and is used by health professionals to screen for weight categories that
may lead to health problems.
Chapter 3 Equations
This is not the only measure that is used when looking for health
problems, however. For example, there are other factors in cardiac (heart)
disease. Research these to nd out what other things doctors look for.
The BMI is used in a different way with children and teens, and is taken
in relation to the childs age.
w
The formula for BMI is BMI = 2 where w is weight in kg and h is height
h
in metres.
For adults over 20, a BMI under
18.5 means that the person
is underweight and over 25 is
overweight. Over 30 is obese.
The BMI may not always be
reliable in measuring body fat. Can
you think of some reasons?
Is it important where the body fat
is stored? Does it make a difference if it is on the hips or the stomach?
Research these questions and nd out more about BMI generally.
EXAMPLES
1. The formula for the surface area of a rectangular prism is given by
S = 2 (lb + bh + lh) . Find the value of b when S = 180, l = 9 and h = 6.
Solution
S = 2 (lb + bh + lh)
180 = 2 (9b + 6b + 9 # 6)
= 2 (15b + 54)
= 30b + 108
180 - 108 = 30b + 108 - 108
72 = 30b
30b
72
=
30
30
2. 4 = b
CONTINUED
101
102
Solution
V = rr 2 h
350 = rr 2 (6.5)
r r 2 ( 6 .5 )
350
=
6 .5 r
6.5r
350
= r2
6 .5 r
350
= r2
6 .5 r
350
=r
6 .5 r
4.14 = r
3.3 Exercises
1.
7.
2.
8.
3.
9.
4.
5.
6.
Find y 1 when m = - 5 ,
6
y 2 = 7, x 2 = - 3 and x 1 = 1.
10. The surface area of a cylinder
is given by the formula
S = 2rr ] r + h g . Evaluate h
correct to 1 decimal place if
S = 232 and r = 4.5.
Chapter 3 Equations
18. If y =
Inequations
In order to solve inequations, we need to see what effect one operation applied
to both sides has on the inequality sign.
103
104
1
1
If a 2 b then a 1 for all positive numbers a and b
b
1
1
1 .
3
2
Chapter 3 Equations
105
EXAMPLES
Solve and show the solutions on a number line
1. 5x + 7 $ 17
Solution
5x + 7 $ 17
5x + 7 - 7 $ 17 - 7
5x $ 10
5x
10
$
5
5
x$2
-4
-3
-2
-1
2. 3t - 2 2 5t + 4
Solution
3t - 2 2 5t +
3t - 3t - 2 2 5t -2 2 2t +
- 2 - 4 2 2t +
-6 2 2t
2t
-6
2
2
2
-3 2 t
4
3t + 4
4
4-4
or
3t - 2
3t - 5t - 2
-2t - 2
- 2t - 2 + 2
-2t
-2t
-2
t
-4
2 5t + 4
2 5t - 5t + 4
24
24+2
26
6
2
-2
1 -3
-3
-2
Remember to change
the inequality sign when
dividing by -2.
-1
CONTINUED
106
3. Solve 1 1 2z + 7 # 11.
Solution
Method 1: Separate into two separate questions.
1 1 2z + 7
(i)
1 - 7 1 2z + 7 - 7
- 6 1 2z
-6
2z
1
2
2
-3 1 z
(ii)
2z + 7 # 11
2z + 7 - 7 # 11 - 7
2z # 4
2z
4
#
2
2
z #2
-4
-3
-2
-1
3.4 Exercises
1.
2.
Solve
(a) 5t 2 35
(b) 3x - 7 $ 2
(c) 2 (p + 5) 2 8
(d) 4 - (x - 1) # 7
(e) 3y + 5 2 2y - 4
(f) 2a - 6 # 5a - 3
(g) 3 + 4y $ - 2 (1 - y)
(h) 2x + 9 1 1 - 4 (x + 1)
a
(i) # - 3
2
2y
(j) 8 2
3
b
(k) + 5 1 - 4
2
x
(l) - 4 2 6
3
x
1
(m) + # 1
4
5
(n)
m
2
-3 2
4
3
Chapter 3 Equations
2b 1
- $6
5
2
r-3
(p)
# -6
2
z+1
(q)
+223
9
w
2w + 5
(r)
+
14
6
3
(o)
(s)
x+1
x-2
$7
2
3
(t)
t+3
t+2
#2
7
2
(u)
q-2
3q
12+
4
3
3.
(v)
2x
x -1
2
2
3
2
9
(w)
2b - 5
b+6
+3#
8
12
PROBLEM
Find a solution for this sum. Is it a unique solution?
CR OS S
+RO A DS
DANGE R
EXAMPLES
Plot on a number line and evaluate x
1. x = 2
Solution
x = 2 means the distance of x from zero is 2 (in either direction).
2
-4
-3
-2
-1
x = !2
CONTINUED
107
108
2. x # 2
Solution
x # 2 means the distance of x from zero is less than or equal to 2 (in
either direction).
2
-4
The solution of
| x | 1 2 would be
- 2 1 x 1 2.
-3
-1
-2
Notice that there is one region on the number line. We can write this as
the single statement - 2 # x # 2.
3. x 2 2
Solution
x 2 2 means the distance of x from zero is greater than 2 (in either
direction).
2
-4
The solution of
| x | $ 2 would be
x # - 2, x $ 2.
-3
-1
-2
There are two regions on the number line, so we write two separate
inequalities x 1 - 2, x 2 2.
x = a means x = ! a
x 1 a means -a 1 x 1 a
x 2 a means x 2 a, x 1 -a
Class Discussion
What does a - b mean as a distance along the number line?
Select different values of a and b to help with this discussion.
Chapter 3 Equations
109
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x + 4 = 7
Solution
This means that the distance from x + 4 to zero is 7 in either direction.
So x + 4 = ! 7.
x+4 =7
x+4=7
or
x + 4 = -7
x+4-4=7-4
x + 4 - 4 = -7 - 4
x=3
x = -11
2. 2y - 1 1 5
Solution
This means that the distance from 2y - 1 to zero is less than 5 in either
direction. So it means - 5 1 2y - 1 1 5.
- 5 1 2y - 1 1 5
- 5 + 1 1 2y - 1 + 1 1 5 + 1
2y
6
-4
1
1
2
2
2
-2 1 y 1 3
3. 5b - 7 $ 3
Solution
5b - 7 $ 3 means that the distance from 5b - 7 to zero is greater than
or equal to 3 in either direction.
5b - 7 # - 3
5b - 7 $ 3
5b - 7 + 7 # -3 + 7
5b # 4
5b
4
#
5
5
4
b #
5
4
So b # , b $ 2.
5
5b - 7 + 7 $ 3 + 7
5b $ 10
5b
10
$
5
5
b$2
110
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. 2x + 1 = 3x - 2
Solution
2x + 1 = 3x - 2 means that 2x + 1 is at a distance of 3x - 2 from zero.
2x + 1 = ! ] 3x - 2 g
This question is impossible if 3x - 2 is negative. Can you see why? If
2x + 1 is equal to a negative number, this is impossible as the absolute
value is always positive.
Case (i)
2x + 1 = 3x - 2
2 x - 2 x + 1 = 3x - 2 x - 2
1=x-2
1+2=x-2+2
3=x
Check solution is possible:
Substitute x = 3 into 2x + 1 = 3x - 2.
LHS = 2 # 3 + 1
= 7
=7
RHS = 3 # 3 - 2
=9-2
=7
Since LHS = RHS, x = 3 is a solution.
Case (ii)
2 x + 1 = - ( 3x - 2 )
= - 3x + 2
2 x + 3x + 1 = - 3 x + 3x + 2
5x + 1 = 2
5x + 1 - 1 = 2 - 1
5x = 1
5x
1
=
5
5
1
x=
5
Chapter 3 Equations
Check:
1
Substitute x = into 2x + 1 = 3x - 2.
5
1
LHS = 2 # + 1
5
2
= 1
5
2
=1
5
1
RHS = 3 # - 2
5
3
= -2
5
2
= -1
5
1
Since LHS ! RHS, x = is not a solution.
5
So the only solution is x = 3.
2. 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9
Solution
In this question it is difficult to use distances on the number line, so we
use the definition of absolute value.
2x - 3
2x - 3 = ' - (2
x - 3)
+1
x + 1 = ' -(xx +
1)
when 2x - 3 $ 0
when 2x - 3 1 0
when x + 1 $ 0
when x + 1 1 0
111
2
into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9.
3
CONTINUED
112
2
2
-3 + 3 +1
3
3
1
2
= 4 + 4
3
3
1
2
=4 +4
3
3
=9
= RHS
2
So x = 3 is a solution.
3
Case (ii)
( 2 x - 3 ) - (x + 1 ) = 9
2x - 3 - x - 1 = 9
x-4=9
x-4+4=9+4
x = 13
Check by substituting x = 13 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9.
LHS = 2 # 13 - 3 + 13 + 1
= 23 + 14
= 23 + 14
= 37
! RHS
So x = 13 is not a solution.
Case (iii)
-(2x - 3) + (x + 1) = 9
- 2x + 3 + x + 1 = 9
-x + 4 = 9
-x + 4 - 4 = 9 - 4
-x = 5
-x
5
=
-1
-1
x = -5
LHS = 2 # 3
Chapter 3 Equations
113
- 3x
7
=
-3
-3
1
3
1
Check by substituting x = - 2 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9.
3
1
1
LHS = 2 # - 2 - 3 + - 2 + 1
3
3
2
1
= -7 + -1
3
3
2
1
= 7 +1
3
3
=9
= RHS
1
So x = - 2 is a solution.
3
2
1
So solutions are x = 3 , - 2 .
3
3
x = -2
While you should always check solutions, you can see that there are some
cases where this is really important.
3.5 Exercises
1.
Solve
3.
Solve
(a) x + 2 = 5x - 3
(b) 2a - 1 = a + 2
(c) b - 3 = 2b - 4
(d) 3k - 2 = k - 4
(e) 6y + 23 = y - 7
(f) 4x + 3 = 5x - 4
(g) 2m - 5 = m
(h) 3d + 1 = d + 6
(i) 5 - y = 4y + 1
(j) 2t - 7 = 3 - t
4.
Solve
(a) x = 5
(b) y = 8
(c) a 1 4
(d) k $ 1
(e) x 2 6
(f) p # 10
(g) x = 0
(h) a 2 14
(i) y 1 12
(j) b $ 20
2.
Solve
(a) x + 3 = 3x - 1
(a) x + 2 = 7
(b) 2y - 5 = y - 2
(c) 3a + 1 = 2a - 9
(b) n - 1 = 3
(d) 2x + 5 + x = 17
(c) 2a 2 4
(e) 3d - 2 + d + 4 = 18
(d) x - 5 # 1
(e) 9 = 2x + 3
(f) 7x - 1 = 34
(g) 4y + 3 1 11
(h) 2x - 3 $ 15
x
(i)
=4
3
a
(j)
-3 #2
2
5.
114
Exponential Equations
An exponential equation involves an unknown index or power e.g. 2 x = 8.
We can also solve other equations involving indices. In order to solve
these, you need to understand their relationship. For example, squares and
square roots are the reverse of each other (we call them inverse operations).
Similarly cubes and cube roots are inverses, and this extends to all indices.
To solve equations, use inverse operations:
For squares, take the square root
For cubes, take the cube root
For square roots, take the square
For cube roots, take the cube
You have previously used these rules when substituting into formulae
involving squares and cubes.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x 2 = 9
There are two possible
solutions for x one
positive and one
negative since 3 2 = 9
and (- 3) 2 = 9.
Solution
x2 = 9
x2 = ! 9
` x= !3
2. 5n 3 = 40
Solution
5n 3 = 40
5n 3
40
=
5
5
3
n =8
3
n3 = 3 8
n=2
Chapter 3 Equations
3. a 3 = 4
Solution
2
3
3
2
3
2
2
3
a3 = 4
2
3
3
2
`a j = 4 2
3
a= 42
3
a = ^ 4h
= 23
=8
Investigation
Investigate equations of the type x n = k where k is a constant, for
example, x n = 9.
Look at these questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. 3 x = 81
Solution
3 x = 81
Equating indices:
3x = 34
`x=4
CONTINUED
115
116
2. 5 2k - 1 = 25
Solution
5 2k - 1 = 25
5 2k - 1 = 5 2
` 2k - 1 = 2
2k - 1 + 1 = 2 + 1
2k = 3
3
2k
=
2
2
1
k=1
2
3. 8 n = 4
Solution
It is hard to write 8 as a power of 4 or 4 as a power of 8, but both can be
written as powers of 2.
8n = 4
(2 ) = 2 2
2 3n = 2 2
` 3n = 2
3n
2
=
3
3
2
n=
3
3 n
3.6 Exercises
1.
Solve
(a) x 3 = 27
(b) y 2 = 64
(c) n 4 = 16
(d) x 2 = 20 (give the exact answer)
(e) p 3 = 1000
(f) 2x 2 = 50
(g) 6y 4 = 486
(h) w 3 + 7 = 15
(i) 6n 2 - 4 = 92
(j) 3q 3 + 20 = - 4
2.
Chapter 3 Equations
3.
Solve
6.
Solve
(a) 2 n = 16
(b) 3 y = 243
(c) 2 m = 512
(d) 10 x = 100 000
(e) 6 m = 1
(f) 4 x = 64
(g) 4 x + 3 = 19
(h) 5 (3 x ) = 45
(i) 4 x = 4
6k
(j)
= 18
2
7.
Solve
(a) 3 2x = 81
(b) 2 5x - 1 = 16
(c) 4 x + 3 = 4
(d) 3 n - 2 = 1
(e) 7 2x + 1 = 7
(f) 3 x - 3 = 27
(g) 5 3y + 2 = 125
(h) 7 3x - 4 = 49
(i) 2 4x = 256
(j) 9 3a + 1 = 9
8.
Solve
(a) 4 m = 2
(b) 27 x = 3
(c) 125 x = 5
2
3
(a) n = 9
3
(b) t 4 = 8
2
(c) x 5 = 4
4
(d) t 3 = 16
3
(e) p 5 = 27
3
(f) 2m 4 = 250
2
(g) b 3 + 3 = 39
4
(h) 5y 3 = 405
2
(i) 3a 7 - 2 = 10
3
4
(j)
4.
5.
t
=9
3
1 k
m =7
49
1 k
m = 100
(e) c
1000
(f) 16 n = 8
(g) 25 x = 125
(h) 64 n = 16
(d) c
1
3
3
2
1
4
3
4
(b) x
(c) a
(d) k
(e) 3x
3
2
=8
=
8
125
=3
= 125
2
3
= 12
1
8
2
1
3
(g) y =
4
2
4
(h) n 5 =
9
(f) x
(i) b
(j) m
5
3
2
3
1 3k
(i) c m = 2
4
(j) 8 x - 1 = 4
=
=
1
32
36
49
9.
Solve
(a) 2 4x + 1 = 8 x
(b) 3 5x = 9 x - 2
(c) 7 2k + 3 = 7 k - 1
(d) 4 3n = 8 n + 3
(e) 6 x - 5 = 216 x
(f) 16 2x - 1 = 4 x - 4
(g) 27 x + 3 = 3 x
1 x
1 2x + 3
m
(h) c m = c
2
64
117
118
3 x
27 2x - 3
m
(i) c m = c
4
64
1 x-9
m
(j) ] 5 g- x = c
25
10. Solve
(a) 4 m =
9 k+3
m
(b) c
=
25
1
(c)
= 4 2x - 5
2
3
5
(d) 3 k = 3 3
(e) c
3
1 3n + 1
m
=
27
81
5 -n
2 3n + 1
(f) c m
=c m
5
2
1
(g) 32 - x =
16
(h) 9 2b + 5 = 3 b 3
(i) 81 x + 1 =
3x
1 3m - 5
(j) 25 - m = c m
5
PUZZLE
Test your logical thinking and that of your friends.
1. How many months have 28 days?
2. If I have 128 sheep and take away all but 10, how many
do I have left?
3. A bottle and its cork cost $1.10 to make. If the bottle costs $1 more
than the cork, how much does each cost?
4. What do you get if you add 1 to 15 four times?
5. On what day of the week does Good Friday fall in 2016?
Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation is an equation involving a square. For example, x 2 - 4 = 0.
Solving by factorisation
When solving quadratic equations by factorising, we use a property of zero.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x 2 + x - 6 = 0
Solution
x2 + x - 6 = 0
(x + 3) (x - 2) = 0
Chapter 3 Equations
x+3=0
or
x-2=0
x+3-3=0-3
x-2+2 =0 +2
x = -3
or
x= 2
So the solution is x = - 3 or 2.
2. y 2 - 7y = 0
Solution
y 2 - 7y = 0
y ( y - 7) = 0
`
y=0
or
y-7=0
y-7+7=0+7
y=7
So the solution is y = 0 or 7.
3. 3a 2 - 14a = - 8
Solution
3a 2 - 14a = - 8
3a 2 - 14a + 8 = - 8 + 8
3a 2 - 14a + 8 = 0
(3a - 2) (a - 4) = 0
`
3a - 2 = 0
or
3a - 2 + 2 = 0
or
3a = 2
3a
2
=
3
3
2
a=
3
2
So the solution is a = or 4.
3
a-4 =0
a-4+4 =0+4
a=4
3.7 Exercises
Solve
1.
y2 + y = 0
4.
t 2 - 5t = 0
2.
b2 - b - 2 = 0
5.
x 2 + 9x + 14 = 0
3.
p 2 + 2p - 15 = 0
6.
q2 - 9 = 0
119
120
7.
x2 - 1 = 0
17. 5x - x 2 = 0
8.
a 2 + 3a = 0
18. y 2 = y + 2
9.
2x 2 + 8x = 0
19. 8n = n 2 + 15
10. 4x 2 - 1 = 0
20. 12 = 7x - x 2
11. 3x 2 + 7x + 4 = 0
21. m 2 = 6 - 5m
12. 2y 2 + y - 3 = 0
22. x (x + 1) (x + 2) = 0
13. 8b 2 - 10b + 3 = 0
23. (y - 1) (y + 5) (y + 2) = 0
14. x 2 - 3x = 10
24. (x + 3) (x - 1) = 32
15. 3x 2 = 2x
25. (m - 3) (m - 4) = 20
16. 2x 2 = 7x - 5
Application
1 2
at where u is the
2
initial velocity and a is the acceleration. Find the time when the displacement will
be zero, given u = - 12 and a = 10.
A formula for displacement s at time t is given by s = ut +
2
s = ut + 1 at
2
2
0 = -12t + 1 (10) t
2
= -12t + 5t
= t (-12 + 5t )
` t = 0 or
-12 + 5t = 0
-12 + 12 + 5t = 0 + 12
5t = 12
5t
12
=
5
5
t = 2.4
So displacement will be zero when t = 0 or 2.4.
Chapter 3 Equations
121
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x 2 = 7
Solution
x2 = 7
x=! 7
= ! 2.6
2. ] x + 3 g2 = 11
Solution
] x + 3 g2 = 11
x + 3 = ! 11
x + 3 - 3 = ! 11 - 3
x = ! 11 - 3
= 0.3, - 6.3
3. ^ y - 2 h2 = 7
Solution
^ y - 2 h2 = 7
y-2=! 7
y-2+2=! 7+2
y=! 7+2
= 4.6, - 0.6
EXAMPLES
Solve by completing the square
1. x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0 (give exact answer)
Solution
x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0
x 2 - 6x = - 3
c 6 m = 32 = 9
2
CONTINUED
122
x 2 - 6x + 9 = - 3 + 9
] x - 3 g2 = 6
`
x-3=! 6
x-3+3=! 6+3
x=! 6+3
Solution
y 2 + 2y - 7 = 0
y 2 + 2y = 7
c 2 m = 12 = 1
2
y 2 + 2y + 1 = 7 + 1
^ y + 1 h2 = 8
`
y+1=! 8
y + 1 - 1 = ! 8 -1
y = ! 8 -1
= !2 2 - 1
y = 1.83 or - 3.83
3.8 Exercises
1.
2.
Solving by formula
Completing the square is difficult with harder quadratic equations, for
example 2x 2 - x - 5 = 0. Completing the square on a general quadratic
equation gives the following formula.
Chapter 3 Equations
-b !
b 2 - 4ac
2a
Proof
Solve ax 2 + b + c = 0 by completing the square.
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 bx c
0
a + a +a=a
bx c
x2 + a + a = 0
c
c
bx c
x2 + a + a - a = 0 - a
bx
c
x2 + a = - a
2
2
2
b b ' 2l = c b m = b 2
a
2a
4a
bx
c
b2
b2
x2 + a + 2 = - a + 2
4a
4a
c
b2
b 2
cx +
m = -a + 2
2a
4a
- 4ac + b 2
=
4a 2
- 4ac + b 2
b
x+
=!
2a
4a 2
2
b - 4ac
=!
2a
b 2 - 4ac
b
b
b
x+
=!
2a
2a 2a
2a
b 2 - 4ac
-b
x=
!
2a
2a
2
- b ! b - 4ac
=
2a
EXAMPLES
1. Solve x 2 - x - 2 = 0 by using the quadratic formula.
Solution
a = 1, b = -1, c = - 2
b 2 - 4ac
2a
- (-1) ! (-1) 2 - 4 (1) (-2)
=
2 (1 )
1! 1+8
=
2
x=
-b !
CONTINUED
123
124
1! 9
2
1!3
=
2
= 2 or - 1
1! 3
gives two
2
1+ 3
separate solutions,
2
1- 3
and
.
2
x =
Solution
a = 2, b = -9, c = 3
-b ! b 2 - 4ac
2a
- ] -9 g ! ] -9 g2 - 4 ] 2 g ] 3 g
y=
2] 2 g
9 ! 81 - 24
=
4
9 ! 57
=
4
Z 4.14 or 0.36
x=
3.9
1.
Exercises
2.
Class Investigation
Here is a proof that 1 = 2. Can you see the fault in the proof?
x2 - x2 = x2 - x2
x(x - x) = (x + x) (x - x)
x=x+x
x = 2x
1=2
`
Chapter 3 Equations
125
Further Inequations
Inequations involving pronumerals in the denominator can be
solved in several ways. Here is one method. You will use a different
method in Chapter 10.
EXAMPLES
1
1. Solve x 1 3.
Solution
1
is undefined.
0
x!0
1
Solve x = 3.
1
x #x=3#x
1 = 3x
3x
1
=
3
3
1
=x
3
1
1
is not a solution of the inequation x 1 3.
3
1
Place x = 0 and x = on a number plane and test x values on either side
3
of these values in the inequation.
x=
-3
-2
-1
0 1
3
(true)
(false)
CONTINUED
126
1
13
1
113
(true)
1
is part of the solution.
3
1
Solution is x 1 0, x 2 .
3
So x 2
-2
-3
2. Solve
-1
0 1
3
6
$ 1.
x+3
Solution
6
is undefined.
0
x ! -3
Solve
6
= 1.
x+3
6
# (x + 3) = 1 # (x + 3)
x+3
6 =x+3
6-3 =x+ 3-3
3=x
6
$ 1.
x+3
Place x = - 3 and x = 3 on a number plane and test values on either side
in the inequation.
x = 3 is a solution of the inequation
-3
-2
-1
(false)
(true)
(false)
Chapter 3 Equations
Solution is - 3 1 x # 3
-2
-3
3. Solve
-1
y2 - 6
# 1.
y
Solution
y!0
y2 - 6
= 1.
y
2
y -6
y #y=1#y
y2 - 6 = y
y2 - y - 6 = y - y
y2 - y - 6 = 0
^y - 3h^y + 2h = 0
y - 3 = 0,
y+2 =0
y - 3 + 3 = 0 + 3, y + 2 - 2 = 0 - 2
y = 3,
y = -2
Solve
-2
-1
(true)
(false)
(true)
Test y $ 3, say y = 4
CONTINUED
127
128
42 - 6
#1
4
1
2 #1
2
So y $ 3 is not part of the solution.
The solution is y # - 2, 0 1 y # 3
-3
3.10
-2
-1
(false)
Exercises
Solve
1.
1
y 11
16.
3x + 1 1
$
x-4
3
2.
1
x 22
17.
8p + 7
25
2p - 9
3.
3
x 12
18.
3
x-2
#
5x + 1 4
4.
2
m $7
19.
7t + 4
$ -1
3t - 8
5.
3
x 2 -5
20.
5m + 4
1
1
4
2m
6.
2
# -1
b
21.
x2 - 5
1 -4
x
7.
1
24
x -1
22.
n2 + 8
$6
n
8.
1
1 -5
z+3
23.
x 2 - 15
22
x
9.
3
$4
x-2
24.
m2 - 8
#4
m +1
10.
-1
16
2-x
25.
4
$x
x-3
11.
5
# -9
x+4
26.
2x 2
# -1
3x - 2
12.
2
25
3x - 4
27.
3
#x
x-2
13.
-3
12
2a + 5
28.
n+5
2n
n-3
14.
x
25
2x - 1
29.
3x 2
1 -2
7x + 4
15.
y
12
y +1
30.
2 x ( x - 4)
#7
x -1
Chapter 3 Equations
129
Quadratic Inequations
Solving quadratic inequations is similar to solving quadratic equations, but
you need to do this in two stages. The rst is to solve the equation and then
the second step is to look at either the number line or the number plane for
the inequality.
In Chapter 10 you will look at how to use the number plane to solve
these quadratic inequations. Here are some examples of solving quadratic
inequations using the number line.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x 2 + x - 6 2 0
Solution
Be careful: x 2 + x - 6 2 0
does not mean x - 2 2 0
and x + 3 2 0.
First solve x + x - 6 = 0
(x - 2 ) (x + 3 ) = 0
`
x = 2 or -3
2
-3
-2
-1
(false)
130
(true)
(- 4) 2 + ( - 4) - 6 2 0
620
So the solution is on the LHS of -3.
-4
-3
-2
-1
(true)
Solution
First solve 9 - x 2 = 0
(3 - x) (3 + x) = 0
`
x = !3
-4
-3
-2
-1
9 - x2 $ 0
9 - 02 $ 0
9$0
(true)
-3
-2
-1
Earlier in the chapter you learned how to solve inequations with the
unknown in the denominator. Some people like to solve these using quadratic
inequations. Here are some examples of how to do this.
Chapter 3 Equations
131
EXAMPLES
Solve
1
1. x 1 3
Solution
x 2 is positive, so the inequality
sign does not change.
x!0
First, multiply both sides by x 2 .
1
x 13
x 1 3x 2
0 1 3x 2 - x
Now, solve
3x 2 - x = 0
x(3x - 1) = 0
x = 0 or
-2
1
3
-1
0 1
3
3
$2
x+5
Solution
2
(x + 5) is positive, so the
inequality sign does not
change.
x ! -5
First, multiply both sides by (x + 5)2 .
3
$2
x+5
3 ( x + 5 ) $ 2 ( x + 5) 2
0 $ 2 ( x + 5 ) 2 - 3 ( x + 5)
0 $ ( x + 5 ) [ 2 ( x + 5) - 3 ]
0 $ ( x + 5 ) ( 2 x + 7)
Now, solve (x + 5) (2x + 7) = 0
`
x + 5 = 0 or 2x + 7 = 0
x = -5
-6
-5
x = -3 1
2
-4 -3 1 -3
2
-2
1
Check by choosing a number on each side of -5 and -3 for
2
1
0 $ (x + 5) (2x + 7) that the solution is -5 1 x # -3 .
2
132
3.11
Exercises
Solve
1.
x 2 + 3x 1 0
21. x 2 1 2x
2.
y 2 - 4y 1 0
22. 2a 2 - 5a + 3 # 0
3.
n2 - n $ 0
23. 5y 2 + 6y $ 8
4.
x2 - 4 $ 0
24. 6m 2 2 15 - m
5.
1 - n2 1 0
25. 3x 2 # 7x - 4
6.
n 2 + 2n - 15 # 0
1
26. x 2 2
7.
c2 - c - 2 2 0
8.
x + 6x + 8 # 0
9.
x 2 - 9x + 20 1 0
3
27. x # 6
28.
1
15
y+1
29.
1
$2
n-3
30.
3
$ -1
x+5
31.
1
17
5x - 2
32.
4
$ -5
x-5
33.
x
#5
x+1
34.
2x + 1
21
x-2
35.
2x - 3
$6
5x + 3
10. 4b 2 + 10b + 4 $ 0
11. 1 - 2a - 3a 1 0
2
12. 2y 2 - y - 6 2 0
13. 3x 2 - 5x + 2 $ 0
14. 6 - 13b - 5b 1 0
2
15. 6x 2 + 11x + 3 # 0
16. y 2 + y # 12
17. x 2 2 16
18. a 2 # 1
19. x 2 1 x + 6
20. x $ 2x + 3
2
Simultaneous Equations
Two equations, each with two unknown pronumerals, can be solved together
to nd one solution that satises both equations.
There are different ways of solving simultaneous equations. The
elimination method adds or subtracts the equations. The substitution
method substitutes one equation into the other.
Chapter 3 Equations
Linear equations
These equations can be solved by either method. Many students prefer the
elimination method.
EXAMPLES
Solve simultaneously
1. 3a + 2b = 5 and 2a - b = -6
Solution
] 2 g # 2:
] 1 g + (3):
3a + 2b = 5
2a - b = -6
(1)
(2)
4a - 2b = -12
3a + 2b = 5
7a = - 7
a = -1
(3)
(1)
Substitute a = -1 in (1)
3 (-1) + 2b = 5
-3 + 2b = 5
2b = 8
b=4
` solution is a = -1, b = 4
2. 5x - 3y = 19 and 2x - 4y = 16
Solution
(1) # 4:
( 2 ) # 3:
(3) - (4):
5x - 3y = 19
2x - 4y = 16
20x - 12y = 76
6x - 12y = 48
14x = 28
x=2
Substitute x = 2 in (2)
2 ( 2) - 4 y
4 - 4y
- 4y
y
= 16
= 16
= 12
= -3
( 1)
( 2)
(3)
(4 )
133
134
3.12
Exercises
Solve simultaneously
1.
a - b = -2 and a + b = 4
2.
5x + 2y = 12 and 3x - 2y = 4
3.
4p - 3q = 11 and 5p + 3q = 7
13. 5p + 2q + 18 = 0 and
2p - 3q + 11 = 0
4.
y = 3x - 1 and y = 2x + 5
5.
2x + 3y = -14 and x + 3y = -4
6.
7t + v = 22 and 4t + v = 13
16. 5s - 3t - 13 = 0 and
3s - 7t - 13 = 0
7.
4x + 5y + 2 = 0 and
4x + y + 10 = 0
17. 3a - 2b = - 6 and a - 3b = - 2
8.
2x - 4y = 28 and 2x - 3y = -11
9.
5x - y = 19 and 2x + 5y = -14
14. 7x 1 + 3x 2 = 4 and 3x 1 + 5x 2 = - 2
15. 9x - 2y = -1 and 7x - 4y = 9
19. 2v 1 + 5v 2 - 16 = 0 and
7v 1 + 2v 2 + 6 = 0
20. 1.5x + 3.4y = 7.8 and
2 . 1 x - 1 . 7y = 1 . 8
PROBLEM
A group of 39 people went to see a play. There were both adults and
children in the group. The total cost of the tickets was $939, with
children paying $17 each and adults paying $29 each. How many in
the group were adults and how many were children? (Hint: let x be the
number of adults and y the number of children.)
Non-linear equations
In questions involving non-linear equations there may be more than one set
of solutions. In some of these, the elimination method cannot be used. Here
are some examples using the substitution method.
Chapter 3 Equations
EXAMPLES
Solve simultaneously
1. xy = 6 and x + y = 5
Solution
xy = 6
x+y=5
From (2):
y=5-x
Substitute (3) in (1)
x (5 - x) = 6
( 1)
(2 )
(3 )
5x - x 2 = 6
0 = x 2 - 5x + 6
0 = (x - 2 ) (x - 3 )
`
x - 2 = 0 or x - 3 = 0
x = 2 or x = 3
Substitute x = 2 in (3)
y=5-2=3
Substitute x = 3 in (3)
y=5-3=2
` solutions are x = 2, y = 3 and x = 3, y = 2
2. x 2 + y 2 = 16 and 3x - 4y - 20 = 0
Solution
x 2 + y 2 = 16
3x - 4y - 20 = 0
From ] 2 g: 3x - 20 = 4y
3x - 20
=y
4
Substitute (3) into (1)
3x - 20 2
m = 16
x2 + c
4
9x 2 - 120x + 400 n
= 16
x2 + d
16
16x 2 + 9x 2 - 120x + 400 = 256
25x 2 - 120x + 144 = 0
(5x - 12)2 = 0
`
5x - 12 = 0
5x = 12
x = 2.4
Substitute x = 2.4 into ] 3 g
3 (2.4) - 20
4
= -3.2
So the solution is x = 2.4, y = -3.2.
y=
(1)
( 2)
(3)
135
136
3.13
Exercises
y = x 2 and y = x
11. y = x - 1 and y = x 2 - 3
2.
y = x 2 and 2x + y = 0
12. y = x 2 + 1 and y = 1 - x 2
3.
x 2 + y 2 = 9 and x + y = 3
13. y = x 2 - 3x + 7 and y = 2x + 3
4.
x - y = 7 and xy = -12
14. xy = 1 and 4x - y + 3 = 0
5.
y = x 2 + 4x and 2x - y - 1 = 0
15. h = t 2 and h = ] t + 1 g2
6.
y = x 2 and 6x - y - 9 = 0
16. x + y = 2 and 2x 2 + xy - y 2 = 8
7.
x = t 2 and x + t - 2 = 0
17. y = x 3 and y = x 2 + 6x
8.
m 2 + n 2 = 16 and m + n + 4 = 0
18. y = | x | and y = x 2
9.
xy = 2 and y = 2x
19. y = x 2 - 7x + 6 and
24x + 4y - 23 = 0
10. y = x 3 and y = x 2
EXAMPLE
Solve simultaneously a - b + c = 7, a + 2b - c = -4 and 3a - b - c = 3.
Solution
a-b +c=7
a + 2b - c = - 4
3a - b - c = 3
(1) + (2):
a-b+c=7
a + 2b - c = - 4
2a + b
=3
(1) + (3):
a- b+c=7
3a - b - c = 3
4a - 2b
= 10
or
2a - b
=5
(4) + (5): 2a + b
=3
4a
=8
a=2
(1 )
(2)
(3)
( 4)
(5)
Chapter 3 Equations
Substitute a = 2 in (4)
2 ( 2) + b = 3
4+b=3
b = -1
Substitute a = 2 and b = -1 in (1)
2 - (-1) + c = 7
2 +1 + c = 7
3+c=7
c=4
` solution is a = 2, b = -1, c = 4
3.14
Exercises
x = - 2, 2x - y = 4 and
x - y + 6z = 0
2.
a = - 2, 2a - 3b = -1 and
a - b + 5c = 9
3.
2a + b + c = 1, a + b = - 2
and c = 7
4.
a + b + c = 0, a - b + c = - 4 and
2a - 3b - c = -1
5.
x + y - z = 7, x + y + 2z = 1 and
3x + y - 2z = 19
6.
x - y - z = 1, 2x + y - z = -9
and 2x - 3y - 2z = 7
137
7.
2p + 5q - r = 25,
2p - 2q - r = -24 and
3p - q + 5r = 4
8.
2x - y + 3z = 9,
3x + y - 2z = -2 and
3x - y + 5z = 14
9.
3h + j - k = -3,
h + 2j + k = -3 and
5h - 3j - 2k = -13
10. 2a - 7b + 3c = 7,
a + 3b + 2c = -4 and
4a + 5b - c = 9
138
Test Yourself 3
1.
Solve
(a) 8 = 3b - 22
a a+2
(b) =9
4
3
(c) 4 (3x + 1) = 11x - 3
-4
(d)
#3
x+3
(e) 3p + 1 # p + 9
2.
3.
9.
x-3 3
- 2 9.
7
4
4.
5.
Solve
(a) 3 x + 2 = 81
(b) 16 y = 2
6.
Solve
(a) 3b - 1 = 5
(a) x 2 - 6x + 9 = 0
(b) 5g - 3 = 3g + 1
(c) x - 2 = 7 - x
(c) 2x - 7 $ 1
(d) x 2 - x + 4 = 0
7.
8.
(e) 2x + 1 = x - 2
17. Solve simultaneously
a + b = 5, 2 a + b + c = 4, a - b - c = 5.
18. Solve 3n + 5 2 5, and plot the solution
on a number line.
19. Solve
3
4
=x
x+1
^ x ! 0, -1 h .
Chapter 3 Equations
20. Solve 9 2x + 1 = 27 x .
(k) 27 2x - 1 = 9
(l) 4b - 3 # 5
(m) 3x + 2 = 2x - 3
(n) 4t - 5 = t + 2
(o) x 2 1 2x + 3
(p) m 2 + m $ 6
2t - 3
(q)
15
t
y+1
(r)
22
y-1
n
(s)
$3
2n - 4
3x - 2
(t)
# -1
2x + 1
21. Solve
(a) 2 ^ 3y - 5 h 2 y + 5
(b) n 2 + 3n # 0
(c) 3 2x - 1 = 27
(d) 5x 3 - 1 = 39
(e) 5x - 4 = 11
(f) 2t + 1 $ 3
(g) x 2 + 2x - 8 # 0
(h) 8 x + 1 = 4 x
(i) y 2 - 4 2 0
(j) 1 - x 2 # 0
Challenge Exercise 3
1
.
a2
1.
2.
Solve x 2 a .
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
2
1
= 1 correct to 3
x -1 x +1
signicant gures. (x ! ! 1)
y2 - 6
Solve
# 1.
y
Solve
12. Solve x 2 =
1
.
8
16. Solve
17. Given A = P c 1 +
10. Solve t + 2 + 3t - 1 1 5.
6y 2
# - 3.
3y - 2
r n
m , nd P
100
correct to 2 decimal places when
A = 3281.69, r = 1.27 and n = 30.
19. Solve
5x + 3
2 2 x.
x+4
20. Solve 3y - 1 + 2y + 3 2 5.
139
4
Geometry 1
TERMINOLOGY
Altitude: Height. Any line segment from a vertex to the
opposite side of a polygon that is perpendicular to that side
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
INTRODUCTION
GEOMETRY IS USED IN many areas, including surveying, building and graphics.
These elds all require a knowledge of angles, parallel lines and so on, and
how to measure them. In this chapter, you will study angles, parallel lines,
triangles, types of quadrilaterals and general polygons.
Many exercises in this chapter on geometry need you to prove something
or give reasons for your answers. The solutions to geometry proofs only give
one method, but other methods are also acceptable.
Notation
In order to show reasons for exercises, you must know how to name gures
correctly.
B
The point is called B.
141
142
To name a quadrilateral,
go around it: for example,
BCDA is correct, but ACBD
is not.
Line AB is produced to C.
DB bisects +ABC.
AM is a median of D ABC.
AP is an altitude of D ABC.
Types of Angles
Acute angle
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
Right angle
Obtuse angle
90c1 xc1180c
Straight angle
Reflex angle
Angle of revolution
+AEC and +DEB are called vertically opposite angles. +AED and +CEB are
also vertically opposite angles.
143
144
Proof
Let +AEC = xc
Then +AED = 180c - xc
(+CED straight angle, 180c)
Now +DEB = 180c - (180c - xc)
(+AEB straight angle, 180c)
= xc
Also +CEB = 180c - xc
(+CED straight angle, 180c)
`
+AEC = +DEB and +AED =+CEB
EXAMPLES
Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons.
1.
Solution
x + 154 = 180
(+ABC is a straight angle, 180c)
x + 154 - 154 = 180 - 154
`
x = 26
2.
Solution
2x + 142 + 90
2x + 232
2x + 232 - 232
2x
2x
2
x
= 360
(angle of revolution, 360c )
= 360
= 360 - 232
= 128
128
=
2
= 64
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
3.
Solution
y + 2y + 30 = 90
3y + 30
3y + 30 - 30
3y
3y
3
y
= 90
= 90 - 30
= 60
60
3
= 20
=
4.
Solution
x + 50 = 165
x + 50 - 50 = 165 - 50
x = 115
y = 180 - 165
= 15
w = 15
5.
CONTINUED
145
146
Solution
a = 90
b + 53 + 90 = 180
b + 143 = 180
b + 143 - 143 = 180 - 143
b = 37
d = 37
c = 53
Solution
Supplementary angles add up to 180c.
So the supplement of 57c 12l is
180c - 57c 12l = 122c 48l.
7. Prove that AB and CD are straight lines.
A
(x + 30)c
C
(6x + 10)c
(2x
2 + 10)c
E
(5x + 30)c
B
Solution
6x + 10 + x + 30 + 5x + 30 + 2x + 10 = 360
^ angle of revolution h
14x + 80 - 80 = 360 - 80
14x = 280
14x
280
=
14
14
x = 20
+AEC = (20 + 30)c
= 50c
+DEB = (2 # 20 + 10)c
= 50c
These are equal vertically opposite angles.
` AB and CD are straight lines
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
4.1 Exercises
1.
yc
(i)
133c
(b)
(j)
(c)
2.
3.
4.
5.
(a) Evaluate x.
(b) Find the complement of x.
(c) Find the supplement of x.
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(2x + 30)c
142c
147
148
6.
8.
(a)
Prove that CD bisects +AFE.
9.
(b)
(3x + 70)c
(110 - 3x)c
B
(c)
A
(d)
(50 - 8y)c
(e)
(5y - 20)c
(f)
7.
(3y + 60)c
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
149
Parallel Lines
When a transversal cuts two lines, it forms pairs of angles. When the two
lines are parallel, these pairs of angles have special properties.
Alternate angles
Corresponding angles
150
Cointerior angles
Cointerior angles form
a U shape. Can you find
another pair?
If the lines are parallel, cointerior angles are supplementary (i.e. their sum
is 180c).
If +AEF = +EFD,
then AB < CD.
If +BEF = +DFG,
then AB < CD.
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
If 2 lines are both parallel to a third line, then the 3 lines are parallel to
each other. That is, if AB < CD and EF < CD, then AB < EF.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of y, giving reasons for each step of your working.
Solution
+AGF = 180c - 125c
= 55c
y = 55c
Solution
+CBF = 180c - 120c (+ABC is a straight angle)
= 60c
` +CBF = +HCD = 60c
But +CBF and +HCD are corresponding angles
` EF < GH
151
152
4.2 Exercises
1.
(h)
(i)
(b)
(j)
(c)
2.
(d)
(b)
(e)
(c)
(f)
(g)
104c
C 76c
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
(d)
(e)
B
138c
52c
E
C
E
128c
23c
F
115c
Types of Triangles
Names of triangles
A scalene triangle has no two sides or angles equal.
The side opposite the right angle (the longest side) is called the
hypotenuse.
An isosceles triangle has two equal sides.
The angles (called the base angles) opposite the equal sides in an
isosceles triangle are equal.
A
D
153
154
Proof
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
Class Investigation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Could you prove the base angles in an isosceles triangle are equal?
Can there be more than one obtuse angle in a triangle?
Could you prove that each angle in an equilateral triangle is 60c?
Can a right-angled triangle be an obtuse-angled triangle?
Can you find an isosceles triangle with a right angle in it?
The exterior angle in any triangle is equal to the sum of the two opposite
interior angles. That is,
x+y=z
Proof
EXAMPLES
Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons for each step.
1.
CONTINUED
155
156
Solution
x + 53 + 82 = 180
(angle sum of D 180c)
x + 135 = 180
x + 135 - 135 = 180 - 135
x = 45
2.
Solution
+A = +C = x
x + x + 48 = 180
2x + 48 = 180
2x + 48 - 48 = 180 - 48
2x = 132
132
2x
=
2
2
x = 66
3.
Solution
y + 35 = 141
(exterior angle of D)
y + 35 - 35 = 141 - 35
`
y = 106
This example can be done using the interior sum of angles.
+BCA = 180c - 141c
= 39c
y + 39 + 35 = 180
y + 74 = 180
y + 74 - 74 = 180 - 74
`
y = 106
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
4.3 Exercises
1.
(h)
(b)
(i)
(j)
(c)
(d)
(k)
(e)
(f)
(g)
157
2.
3.
158
4.
5.
6.
(d)
8.
9.
A
B
C
46c
E
88c
7.
(b)
75c
73c
(c)
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
Congruent Triangles
Two triangles are congruent if they are the same shape and size. All pairs of
corresponding sides and angles are equal.
For example:
Tests
To prove that two triangles are congruent, we only need to prove that certain
combinations of sides or angles are equal.
EXAMPLES
1. Prove that DOTS / DOQP where O is the centre of the circle.
CONTINUED
159
160
Solution
S:
A:
S:
OS = OQ
+TOS = +QOP
OT = OP
(equal radii)
(vertically opposite angles)
(equal radii)
Solution
To find corresponding sides, look at each side in relation to the angles.
For example, one set of corresponding sides is AB, DF, GH and JL.
D ABC / D JKL (by SAS)
3. Show that triangles ABC and DEC are congruent. Hence prove that
AB = ED.
Solution
A: +BAC = +CDE
A: +ABC = +CED
S:
AC = CD
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
4.4 Exercises
1.
2.
(b)
Y
4.7
110c
2.3
4.7
110
c
C
A
2
.3 m
(b)
(c)
(c)
(d)
(d)
(e)
(e)
161
162
3.
Prove that
(a) ABD is congruent to ACD
(b) AB bisects BC, given D ABC is
isosceles with AB = AC.
4.
7.
5.
B
O
8.
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
9.
C
O
B
Investigation
The triangle is used in many
structures, for example trestle
tables, stepladders and roofs.
Find out how many different ways
the triangle is used in the building
industry. Visit a building site, or
interview a carpenter. Write a
report on what you find.
Similar Triangles
Triangles, for example ABC and XYZ, are similar if they are the same shape but
different sizes.
As in the example, all three pairs of corresponding angles are equal.
All three pairs of corresponding sides are in proportion (in the same ratio).
163
164
Application
Similar figures are used in many areas, including maps, scale drawings, models
and enlargements.
EXAMPLE
1. Find the values of x and y in similar triangles CBA and XYZ.
Solution
First check which sides correspond to one another (by looking at their
relationships to the angles).
YZ and BA, XZ and CA, and XY and CB are corresponding sides.
`
XZ
XY
=
CA
CB
y
5.4
=
4.9
3.6
3.6y = 4.9 # 5.4
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
165
4 . 9 # 5 .4
3 .6
= 7.35
XY
=
CB
5 .4
=
3.6
= 2 . 3 # 5 .4
2 . 3 # 5 .4
=
3 .6
= 3.45
y=
YZ
BA
x
2 .3
3 .6x
x
Tests
There are three tests for similar triangles.
Two triangles are similar if:
three pairs of corresponding angles are equal
three pairs of corresponding sides are in proportion
two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles
are equal
EXAMPLES
1.
(a) Prove that triangles ABC and ADE are similar.
(b) Hence find the value of y, to 1 decimal place.
Solution
(a) +A is common
+ABC = +ADE
+ACB = +AED
` D ABC <; D ADE
(b)
CONTINUED
166
AE = 2.4 + 1.9
= 4 .3
DE
AE
=
BC
AC
y
4 .3
=
3 .7
2.4
2 .4 y = 3 . 7 # 4. 3
3 .7 # 4 .3
y=
2 .4
= 6 .6
2. Prove D XYZ <; DWVZ.
Solution
XZ
ZV
YZ
ZW
XZ
`
ZV
+XZY
3
15
=
7
35
3
6
=
=
7
14
YZ
=
ZW
= +WZV
=
` since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles are
equal the triangles are similar
Ratio of intercepts
The following result comes from similar triangles.
When two (or more) transversals cut a series of parallel lines, the
ratios of their intercepts are equal.
That is, AB : BC = DE : EF
AB
DE
or
=
EF
BC
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
Proof
Draw DG and EH parallel to AC.
Then
Also
`
DG = AB
EH = BC
DG
AB
=
EH
BC
+GDE = +HEF
+DEG = +EFH
+DGE = +EHF
(2)
AB
DE
=
EF
BC
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x, to 3 significant figures.
Solution
x
1.5
=
^ ratios of intercepts on parallel lines h
8.9
9.3
9.3x = 8.9 # 1.5
8.9 # 1.5
x=
9.3
= 1.44
CONTINUED
167
168
Solution
Use either similar triangles or ratios of intercepts to find x. You must use
similar triangles to find y.
Why?
x
2.7
=
5.8
3. 4
2.7 # 5.8
x=
3.4
= 4.6
y
2.7 + 3.4
=
7.1
3.4
6.1 # 7.1
y=
3.4
= 12.7
4.5 Exercises
1.
(c)
(d)
(e)
(b)
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
(f)
46 c
xc
11
8.9
25.7
9.1
1.3
5c
1.82
E
14.3
19
4.
52c
4.2
4.9
5.88
yc
6.86
7.
8.
6.
(g)
3.
D
87c
46
2.
5.
169
170
9.
(e)
(b)
(d)
15. Evaluate x and y correct to
2 decimal places.
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
Pythagoras Theorem
DID YOU KNOW?
The triangle with sides in the
proportion 3:4:5 was known to be
right angled as far back as ancient
Egyptian times. Egyptian surveyors
used to measure right angles by
stretching out a rope with knots tied
in it at regular intervals.
They used the rope for forming
right angles while building and
dividing fields into rectangular plots.
It was Pythagoras (572495 BC)
who actually discovered the
relationship between the sides of the
right-angled triangle. He was able to
generalise the rule to all right-angled triangles.
Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician,
philosopher and mystic. He founded the Pythagorean
School, where mathematics, science and philosophy
were studied. The school developed a brotherhood and
performed secret rituals. He and his followers believed
that the whole universe was based on numbers.
Pythagoras was murdered when he was 77, and the
brotherhood was disbanded.
c=
a2 + b2
171
172
Proof
Draw CD perpendicular to AB
Let AD = x, DB = y
Then x + y = c
In D ADC and D ABC,
+A is common
+ADC = +ACB = 90c
`
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x, correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution
c2 = a2 + b2
x2 = 72 + 42
= 49 + 16
= 65
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
173
x = 65
= 8.06 to 2 decimal places
2. Find the exact value of y.
Solution
c2 = a2 + b2
82 = y2 + 42
64 = y 2 + 16
48 = y 2
`
y = 48
= 16 # 3
=4 3
3. Find the length of the diagonal in a square with sides 6 cm. Answer to
1 decimal place.
Solution
6 cm
6 cm
c =a +b
= 62 + 62
= 72
2
c = 72
= 8 .5
So the length of the diagonal is 8.5 cm.
CONTINUED
174
4. A triangle has sides 5.1 cm, 6.8 cm and 8.5 cm. Prove that the triangle
is right angled.
Solution
5.1 cm
8.5 cm
6.8 cm
Let c = 8.5 (largest side) and a and b the other two smaller sides.
a 2 + b 2 = 5 . 1 2 + 6. 8 2
= 72.25
c 2 = 8. 5 2
= 72.25
` c2 = a2 + b2
So the triangle is right angled.
4.6 Exercises
1.
2.
(b)
(b)
(c)
(c)
(d)
(d)
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
XY
in
YZ
terms of x and y in D XYZ.
175
176
4.5 m
1.3 m
1.5 km
1.3 km
1.1 km
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
O
A
4 cm
6 cm
C
B
Types of Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is any four-sided figure
Proof
Draw in diagonal AC
+ADC + +DCA + +CAD = 180c
(angle sum of D)
+ABC + +BCA + +CAB = 180c
(similarly)
` +ADC + +DCA + +CAD + +ABC + +BCA + +CAB = 360c
That is,
+ADC + +DCB + +CBA + +BAD = 360c
177
178
EXAMPLE
Find the value of i.
Solution
i + 120 + 56 + 90 = 360 ^ angle sum of quadrilateral h
i + 266 = 360
i = 94
Parallelogram
TESTS
A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if:
both pairs of opposite sides are equal
both pairs of opposite angles are equal
one pair of sides is both equal and parallel
the diagonals bisect each other
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
179
Rectangle
PROPERTIES
the same as for a parallelogram, and also
diagonals are equal
TEST
A quadrilateral is a rectangle if its diagonals are equal
Application
Builders use the property of equal diagonals to check if a rectangle is accurate.
For example, a timber frame may look rectangular, but may be slightly slanting.
Checking the diagonals makes sure that a building does not end up like the
Leaning Tower of Pisa!
Rhombus
180
TESTS
Square
Trapezium
Kite
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
EXAMPLES
1. Find the values of i, x and y, giving reasons.
Solution
i = 83c
x = 6.7 cm
y = 2.3 cm
Solution
Let AB = x
Since ABCD is a square, AB = AD = x (adjacent sides equal)
Also, +A = 90c
(by definition)
By Pythagoras theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
62 = x2 + x2
36 = 2x 2
18 = x 2
` x = 18
= 3 2 cm
CONTINUED
181
182
3.
(a) Two equal circles have centres O and P respectively. Prove that OAPB
is a rhombus.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, show that AB is the perpendicular bisector
of OP.
Solution
OA = OB
(equal radii)
PA = PB
(similarly)
Since the circles are equal, OA = OB = PA = PB
` since all sides are equal, OAPB is a rhombus
(b) The diagonals in any rhombus are perpendicular bisectors.
Since OAPB is a rhombus, with diagonals AB and OP, AB is the
perpendicular bisector of OP.
(a)
4.7 Exercises
1.
(e)
(f)
(b)
(g)
(c)
(d)
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
2.
(c)
(d)
3.
(e)
(f)
4.
5.
3x
x+
6.
7.
(a)
(b)
(b)
183
184
(c)
(d)
(e)
(d)
8.
9.
(c)
ABCD is a kite
Polygons
A polygon is a closed plane figure with straight sides
A regular polygon has all sides and all interior angles equal
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
EXAMPLES
3-sided
(equilateral
triangle)
4-sided
(square)
5-sided
(pentagon)
6-sided
(hexagon)
8-sided
(octagon)
10-sided
(decagon)
Proof
Draw any n-sided polygon and divide it into n triangles as
shown. Then the total sum of angles is n # 180c or 180n.
But this sum includes all the angles at O. So the sum of
interior angles is 180n - 360c .
That is, S = 180n - 360
= ] n - 2 g #180c
Proof
Draw any n-sided polygon. Then the sum of both the
exterior and interior angles is n #180c.
Sum of exterior angles = n #180c - sum of interior angles
= 180n - ] 180n - 360c g
= 180n - 180n + 360c
= 360c
185
186
EXAMPLES
1. Find the sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon with 15 sides.
How large is each angle?
Solution
n = 15
S = (n - 2)#180c
= (15 - 2)#180c
= 13#180c
= 2340c
Each angle has size 2340c' 15 = 156c.
2. Find the number of sides in a regular polygon whose interior angles
are 140c.
Solution
Let n be the number of sides
Then the sum of interior angles is 140n
But
S = (n - 2)#180c
So 140n = (n - 2)#180c
= 180n - 360
360 = 40n
9=n
So the polygon has 9 sides.
4.8 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
6.
7.
8.
9.
B
D
187
188
Areas
Most areas of plane figures come from the area of a rectangle.
Rectangle
A = lb
Square
A square is a
special rectangle.
A = x2
Triangle
A=
1
bh
2
Proof
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
189
area = bh
1
1
area AEFD and area DCEF = area EBCF
2
2
1
area DCDE =
area ABCD
2
1
That is, A = bh
2
Area D DEF =
`
Parallelogram
A = bh
Proof
In parallelogram ABCD, produce DC to E and draw BE perpendicular to CE.
Then ABEF is a rectangle.
Area ABEF = bh
In D ADF and D BCE,
+AFD = +BEC = 90c
AF = BE = h
(opposite sides of a rectangle)
AD = BC
(opposite sides of a parallelogram)
` by RHS, D ADF / D BCE
`
area D ADF = area D BCE
So
area ABCD = area ABEF
= bh
Rhombus
1
xy
2
(x and y are lengths of diagonals)
A=
The area of a
parallelogram is the
same as the area of
two triangles.
190
Proof
Let AC = x and BD = y
By properties of a rhombus,
1
1
AE = EC = x and DE = EB = y
2
2
Also +AEB = 90c
Area D ABC =
=
Area D ADC =
=
` total area of rhombus =
=
1
1
x: y
2
2
1
xy
4
1
1
x: y
2
2
1
xy
4
1
1
xy + xy
4
4
1
xy
2
Trapezium
A=
Proof
Let
DE = x
Then DF = x + a
`
FC = b - ] x + a g
=b-x-a
1
h ( a + b)
2
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
Circle
A = rr 2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the area of this trapezium.
Solution
1
h ( a + b)
2
1
= ( 4) ( 7 + 5)
2
= 2 # 12
A=
= 24 m 2
4.2 cm
8.9 cm
3.7 cm
12.1 cm
CONTINUED
191
Solution
Area large rectangle = lb
= 8.9 #12.1
= 107.69 cm 2
Area small rectangle = lb
= 3 . 7 # 4 .2
`
= 15.54 cm 2
shaded area = 107.69 - 15.54
= 92.15 cm 2
3. A park with straight sides of length 126 m and width 54 m has semicircular ends as shown. Find its area, correct to 2 decimal places.
126 m
54 m
192
Solution
Area of 2 semi-circles = area of 1 circle
54
r =
2
= 27
A = rr 2
= r (27) 2
= 2290.22 m2
Area rectangle = 126 # 54
= 6804
Total area = 2290.22 + 6804
= 9094.22 m2
4.9 Exercises
1.
(b)
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
(c)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(d)
(e)
(f)
cm
2 cm
(g)
4.
2.
3.
(b)
193
194
(c)
(d)
8.
9.
(e)
5.
6.
7.
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
195
Test Yourself 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(O is the centre
of the circle.)
(f)
(g)
The perimeter
is the distance
around the outside
of the figure.
196
8.
9.
11. Prove
AF
AB
.
=
AG
AC
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
2 cm
10 cm
Challenge Exercise 4
1.
4.
2.
Evaluate x, y and z.
5.
3.
6.
197
198
7.
8.
9.
10. Evaluate x.
1.
Solve for p:
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
16. Simplify
2x + 6
.
2
x4
7.
3x
2
Solve the equation
= . ^ x ! -1h
x+1
3
8.
Simplify
9.
x 2 - 2x - 3
x+1
.
'
5
10
3
5
1
2
+
+ .
20 15 3 12
11. Simplify 2 3 - 27 .
12. Find the size of each interior angle in a
regular octagon.
13. Evaluate 0.72 ' 9.82 in scientific
notation, correct to 3 significant figures.
14. Expand and simplify
2 ^3 5 - 2 2 h.
27. Factorise 8x 3 - 1.
28. Rationalise the denominator of
2 3
.
3 5- 2
199
200
29. Simplify 2 | -4 | - | 3 | + | -2 |.
o as a fraction.
42. Write 0.16
5.21 + 4.71
correct to
3.94 # 1.76
2 significant figures.
31. Evaluate 3
5 +1
.
2 2+3
33. The price of roller skates has increased
by 6.5% to $89. Find the price before the
increase.
1
in index form.
x+3
45. Expand and simplify ] x + 2 g3.
44. Write
36. Simplify
^ a - 4 h3 # b 6
a9 # ^ b-1 h
.
4
3
2
as a rational number.
39. Simplify 2 ] x - 5 g -3 ] x - 1 g .
40. Solve 4 2x + 1 = 8.
41. Solve x 2 $ 9.
5
49. Solve x 2 1.
-
50. Write ] 3x + 2 g
1
2
without an index.
51. Simplify
(a) 8x - 7y - y + 4x
(b)
124
(c)
x2 - 9
x 3 + 27
(d)
(e)
1
+
2+1
2
2-1
3
2
4
+
x + 1 x2 - 1 x - 1
1
(f) x - x when x = 2 3
(g)
^ x - 2 h5 y 4 z - 3
x4 _ y3 i
-1
^ z - 4 h- 2
a+b
a + 2ab + b
'
3 - 6b
5a - 20ab 2
2
(h)
(i) 8 5 - 3 20 + 2 45
a3 b2 ^ c4 h
1 2
2 3
c
m
c
m
,
if
a
=
,
b
=
2
3
^ a 2 h2 bc 5
4 -1
and c = c m
9
2
(j)
53. Evaluate x.
2 1
5 3
57. Find the exact value of
.
5
16
1
1
58. Tran spent of her salary on rent,
4
3
1
1
on food, on bus and taxi fares, and
5
6
on going out. If she puts the rest of her
salary into savings, what percentage of
her salary is savings?
59. The speed of light is about
2.99 # 10 8 ms - 1 . If a rocket travels at
one-fifth the speed of light, find its speed
in kmh - 1 (in scientific notation correct
to 2 significant figures).
60. Find the value of k if
] 2x + 5 g2 = 4x 2 + kx + 25.
61. Simplify
81x 2 y 3 .
201
202
64. Factorise
(a) 5 ] a - 2 g3 + 40b 3
(b) ] 2a - b + c g2 - ] a + 5b - c g2
65. Solve -2 #
8x - 1
1 9.
5
20 m
74. Write
1
in index form.
3 ] x - 2 g5
-
5
3
5
2
(a) ] x - 2 g
]x - 2 g
(b)
3
(c) 3 ] x - 2 g
1
(d)
5
] x - 2 g3
5
2
76. Simplify
^ 2a 3 b h 3
] ab g
o to a fraction.
79. Convert 0.36
(a) 8a b
(b) 8a8b
(c) 2a7b
(d) 2a8b
77. A computer costs $1850. If it has
increased in cost by 4% since last week,
how much did it cost last week?
(a) $1924.00
(b) $1778.85
(c) $1867.80
(d) $1776.00
78. Evaluate 4
(a) - 8
(b)
1
8
(c)
1
6
(d) 6
3
2
(a)
9
25
(b)
12
33
(c) 3
(d)
80.
1
3
11
30
A
E
C
203
5
Functions and
Graphs
TERMINOLOGY
Arc of a curve: Part or a section of a curve between two
points
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS are used in many areas, such as mathematics,
science and economics. In this chapter you will study functions, function
notation and how to sketch graphs. Some of these graphs will be studied in
more detail in later chapters.
Functions
Denition of a function
Many examples of functions exist both in mathematics and in real life. These
occur when we compare two different quantities. These quantities are called
variables since they vary or take on different values according to some pattern.
We put these two variables into a grouping called an ordered pair.
205
206
EXAMPLES
1. Eye colour
Name
Anne
Colour Blue
Marco
Russell
Trang
Brown
Green
Brown
Brown
Grey
Brown
Ordered pairs are (Anne, Blue), (Jacquie, Brown), (Donna, Grey), (Hien,
Brown), (Marco, Green), (Russell, Brown) and (Trang, Brown).
2. y = x + 1
x
The ordered pairs are (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4) and (4, 5).
3.
A
C
3
D
4
The ordered pairs are (A, 1), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3) and (E, 2).
Notice that in all the examples, there was only one ordered pair for each
variable. For example, it would not make sense for Anne to have both blue
and brown eyes! (Although in rare cases some people have one eye thats a
different colour from the other.)
A relation is a set of ordered points (x, y) where the variables x and y are
related according to some rule.
A function is a special type of relation. It is like a machine where for
every INPUT there is only one OUTPUT.
INPUT
PROCESS
OUTPUT
The first variable (INPUT) is called the independent variable and the
second (OUTPUT) the dependent variable. The process is a rule or pattern.
Investigation
When we graph functions in mathematics, the independent variable
(usually the x-value) is on the horizontal axis while the dependent
variable (usually the y-value) is on the vertical axis.
In other areas, the dependent variable goes on the horizontal axis. Find
out in which subjects this happens at school by surveying teachers or
students in different subjects. Research different types of graphs on the
Internet to find some examples.
Here is an example of a relationship that is NOT a function. Can you see the
difference between this example and the previous ones?
A
B
1
2
C
3
D
E
In this example the ordered pairs are (A, 1), (A, 2), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3)
and (E, 2).
Notice that A has two dependent variables, 1 and 2. This means that it is
NOT a function.
207
208
2.
There is a very simple test to see if these graphs are functions. Notice that
in the first example, there are two values of y when x = 0. The y-axis passes
through both these points.
y
There are also other x values that give two y values around the curve. If
we drew a vertical line anywhere along the curve, it would cross the curve in
two places everywhere except one point. Can you see where this is?
In the second graph, a vertical line would only ever cross the curve in one
place.
So when a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place, it shows that
it is not a function.
If a vertical line cuts a graph only once anywhere along the graph, the
graph is a function.
y
If a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place anywhere along the
graph, the graph is not a function.
y
209
210
EXAMPLES
1. Is this graph a function?
Solution
A vertical line only cuts the graph once. So the graph is a function.
2. Is this circle a function?
Solution
A vertical line can cut the curve in more than one place. So the circle is
not a function.
Solution
For each x value there is only one y value, so this set of ordered pairs is a
function.
4. Is this a function?
y
Solution
y
211
212
5.1 Exercises
Which of these curves are functions?
1.
6.
2.
7.
3.
8.
4.
9.
^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 3, 3 h, ^ 4, 0 h
10. ^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 2, 7 h, ^ 4, 0 h
11.
5.
12.
13.
Function notation
If y depends on what value we give x in a function, then we can say that y is a
function of x. We can write this as y = f ] x g.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of y when x = 3 in the equation y = x + 1.
Solution
When x = 3:
y = x +1
= 3+1
=4
2. If f ] x g = x + 1, evaluate f (3).
Solution
f ]x g = x + 1
f ]3 g = 3 + 1
=4
Notice that these two examples are asking for the same value and f (3) is
the value of the function when x = 3.
213
214
EXAMPLES
1. If f ] x g = x 2 + 3x + 1, find f ] - 2 g .
Solution
This is the same as finding y
when x = - 2.
f ( - 2) = ] - 2 g 2 + 3 (- 2) + 1
=4-6+1
= -1
2. If f ] x g = x 3 - x 2, find the value of f ] - 1 g .
Solution
f (x) = x 3 - x 2
f (- 1) = ] - 1 g 3 - ] - 1 g 2
= -1 - 1
= -2
3. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0, given that f ] x g = x 2 + 3x - 10.
Solution
f (x) = 0
Putting f (x) = 0 is different
from finding f (0) . Follow
this example carefully.
i.e.
x + 3x - 10 = 0
( x + 5 ) ( x - 2) = 0
x + 5 = 0,
x-2=0
x = -5
x=2
2
Solution
f (3 ) = 3 ( 3) + 4
= 13
f (2 ) = 3 ( 2) + 4
= 10
f (0) = - 2 (0)
=0
f (- 4) = - 2 ( - 4)
=8
5. Find the value of
x2
g ] x g = * 2x - 1
5
since
3$2
since
2$2
since
012
since -4 1 2
g ] 1 g + g ] - 2 g - g ] 3 g if
when x 2 2
when - 1 # x # 2
when x 1 - 1
215
Solution
g (1 ) = 2 ( 1) - 1
=1
g (- 2) = 5
since -1 # 1 # 2
since - 2 1 - 1
g (3) = 3
since 3 2 2
=9
So g (1) + g (- 2) - g (3) = 1 + 5 - 9
= -3
2
5.2 Exercises
1.
2.
If h ] x g = x 2 - 2, find h ] 0 g, h ] 2 g
and h ] - 4 g .
3.
If f ] x g = - x 2, find f ] 5 g, f ] - 1 g, f ] 3 g
and f ] - 2 g .
12. If f ] x g = x 3 - 1, find f ] k g as a
product of factors.
4.
5.
Find f ] - 3 g if f ] x g = 2x 3 - 5x + 4.
6.
If f ] x g = 2x - 5, find x when
f ] x g = 13.
7.
15. f ] x g = )
8.
If f ] x g = 3 x, find x when
1
f ]x g =
.
27
9.
Z 2x - 4 if x $ 1
]
16. f ] x g = [x + 3
if -1 1 x 1 1
] 2
x
if x # -1
\
Find the values of
f ] 2 g - f ] - 2 g + f ] -1 g .
216
17. Find g ] 3 g + g ] 0 g + g ] - 2 g if
x+1
when x $ 0
g ]x g = )
- 2x + 1 when x 1 0
18. Find the value of
f ] 3 g - f ] 2 g + 2f ] - 3 g when
x for x 2 2
f ] x g = * x2
4
for -2 # x # 2
for x 1 -2
x3 - 1
2x 2 + 3x - 1
for x $ 2
for x 1 2
x 2 - 2x - 3
x-3
(a) evaluate f (2)
(b) explain why the function
does not exist for x = 3
(c) by taking several x values
close to 3, find the value of y that
the function is moving towards
as x moves towards 3.
20. If f ] x g =
21. If f ] x g = x 2 5x + 4, find
f ] x + h g - f ] x g in its simplest
form.
f ]x + h g - f ]x g
where
22. Simplify
h
2
]
g
f x = 2x + x
23. If f ] x g = 5x - 4, find f ] x g - f ] c g
in its simplest form.
24. Find the value of f ^ k 2 h if
3x + 5
for x $ 0
f ]x g = * 2
x
for x 1 0
Z 3
25. If
when x $ 3
]x
f ] x g = [5
when 0 1 x 1 3
] 2
x - x + 2 when x # 0
\
evaluate
(a) f (0)
(b) f ] 2 g - f ] 1 g
(c) f ^ - n 2 h
Graphing Techniques
You may have previously learned how to draw graphs by completing a table
of values and then plotting points. In this course, you will learn some other
techniques that will allow you to sketch graphs by showing their important
features.
Intercepts
One of the most useful techniques is to find the x- and y-intercepts.
For x-intercept, y = 0
For y-intercept, x = 0
217
EXAMPLE
Find the x- and y-intercepts of the function f ] x g = x 2 + 7x - 8.
Solution
For x-intercept: y = 0
0 = x 2 + 7x - 8
= ]x + 8g]x - 1g
x + 8 = 0,
x- 1=0
x = - 8,
x=1
For y-intercept: x = 0
y = ] 0 g2 + 7 ] 0 g - 8
= -8
The set of all real numbers x for which a function is defined is called the
domain.
The set of real values for y or f (x) as x varies is called the range (or
image) of f.
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of f ] x g = x 2 .
Solution
You can see the domain and range from the graph, which is the parabola y = x 2 .
y
CONTINUED
218
Notice that the parabola curves outwards gradually, and will take on any
real value for x. However, it is always on or above the x-axis.
Domain: {all real x}
Range: {y: y $ 0}
You can also find the domain and range from the equation y = x 2. Notice
that you can substitute any value for x and you will find a value of y.
However, all the y-values are positive or zero since squaring any number
will give a positive answer (except zero).
219
EXAMPLES
1. State the domain over which each curve is increasing and decreasing.
y
x2
x1
x3
Solution
The left-hand side of the parabola is decreasing and the right side is
increasing.
So the curve is increasing for x 2 x2 and the curve is decreasing when
x 1 x2.
2.
y
x1
x2
x3
Solution
The left-hand side of the curve is increasing until it reaches the y-axis
(where x = 0). It then turns around and decreases until x3 and then
increases again.
So the curve is increasing for x 1 0, x 2 x 3 and the curve is
decreasing for 0 1 x 1 x 3 .
220
221
EXAMPLES
1. Show that f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function.
Solution
f ] - x g = ] - x g2 + 3
= x2 + 3
= f ]x g
` f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function
2. Show that f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function.
Solution
f ] - x g = ] - x g3 - ] - x g
= -x3 + x
= - ^ x3 - x h
= -f ]x g
` f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function
Investigation
Explore the family of graphs of f ] x g = x n.
For what values of n is the function even?
For what values of n is the function odd?
Which families of functions are still even or odd given k? Let k take on
different values, both positive and negative.
1. f ] x g = kx n
2. f ] x g = x n + k
3. f ] x g = ] x + k gn
5.3 Exercises
1.
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
f ] x g = x 2 + 3x
f ] x g = x2 - 4
p ] x g = x 2 + 5x + 6
y = x 2 - 8x + 15
p ] x g = x3 + 5
k is called a parameter.
Some graphics calculators
and computer programs use
parameters to show how
changing values of k change the
shape of graphs.
222
x+3
]x ! 0 g
x
2
(j) g ] x g = 9 - x
(i) y =
2.
3.
If f ] x g = x 3 + 1, find
(a) f ^ x 2 h
(b) 6 f (x) @ 2
(c) f ] - x g
(d) Is it an even or odd function?
4.
Show that g ] x g = x 8 + 3x 4 - 2x 2 is
an even function.
5.
6.
7.
Show that f ] x g = 4x - x 3 is an
odd function.
8.
Prove that f ] x g = x 4 + x 2 is an
even function and hence find
f ]x g - f ]-x g.
9.
(b)
(c)
-2
(d)
(e)
4
2
-2
-1
-2
-4
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with graphing software to sketch
graphs and explore what effect different constants have on each type of
graph.
If your calculator or computer does not have the ability to use parameters
(this may be called dynamic graphing), simply draw different graphs by
choosing several values for k. Make sure you include positive and negative
numbers and fractions for k.
Alternatively, you may sketch these by hand.
1. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.
(a) y = kx
(b) y = kx 2
(c) y = kx 3
(d) y = kx 4
k
(e) y = x
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a
general comment about y = k f ] x g?
2. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.
(a) y = ] x + k g 2
(b) y = x 2 + k
(c) y = x 3 + k
(d) y = x 4 + k
1
(e) y = x + k
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a
general comment about y = f ] x g + k?
CONTINUED
223
224
Linear Function
A linear function is a function whose graph is a straight line.
Gradient form:
y = mx + b has gradient m and y-intercept b
General form:
ax + by + c = 0
Investigation
Are straight line graphs always functions? Can you find an example of a
straight line that is not a function?
Are there any odd or even straight lines? What are their equations?
225
EXAMPLE
Sketch the function f ] x g = 3x - 5 and state its domain and range.
Solution
This is a linear function. It could be written as y = 3x - 5.
Find the intercepts
y
For x-intercept: y = 0
6
0 = 3x - 5
5
5 = 3x
4
2
=x
3
For y-intercept: x = 0
1
y = 3 ]0 g - 5
= -5
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 23
1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Notice that the line extends over the whole of the number plane, so that
it covers all real numbers for both the domain and range.
Domain: {all real x}
Range: {all real y}
Special lines
Horizontal and vertical lines have special equations.
226
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch y = 2 on a number plane. What is its domain and range?
Solution
x can be any value and y is always 2.
Some of the points on the line will be (0, 2), (1, 2) and (2, 2).
This gives a horizontal line with y-intercept 2.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 -1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Solution
y can be any value and x is always - 1.
Some of the points on the line will be ^ - 1, 0 h, ^ - 1, 1 h and ^ - 1, 2 h .
This gives a vertical line with x-intercept - 1.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Domain: " x: x = - 1 ,
Range: " all real y ,
5.4 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
By sketching x - y - 4 = 0 and
2x + 3y - 3 = 0 on the same set
of axes, find the point where they
meet.
227
228
Quadratic Function
The quadratic function gives the graph of a parabola.
The pronumeral
a is called the
coefficient of x 2.
Applications
The parabola shape is used in many different applications as it has special
properties that are very useful. For example if a light is placed inside the parabola
at a special place (called the focus), then all light rays coming from this light and
bouncing off the parabola shape will radiate out parallel to each other, giving a
strong light. This is how car headlights work. Satellite dishes also use this property
of the parabola, as sound coming in to the dish will bounce back to the focus.
The lens in a camera and glasses are also parabola shaped. Some bridges look
like they are shaped like a parabola, but they are often based on the catenary.
Research the parabola and catenary on the Internet for further information.
Investigation
Is the parabola always a function? Can you find an example of a parabola
that is not a function?
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability
to explore the effect of a parameter on a quadratic function, or choose
different values of k (both positive and negative).
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.
1. y = kx 2
2. y = x 2 + k
3. y = ] x + k g2
4. y = x 2 + kx
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs?
Which of these families are even functions? Are there any odd quadratic
functions?
229
230
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of y = x 2 - 1, showing intercepts.
(b) State the domain and range.
Solution
(a) This is the graph of a parabola. Since a 2 0, it is concave upward
For x-intercept: y = 0
0=x -1
1 = x2
!1 = x
For y-intercept: x = 0
2
y = 02 - 1
= -1
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
(b) From the graph, the curve is moving outwards and will extend
to all real x values. The minimum y value is - 1.
Domain: " all real x ,
Range: " y: y $ -1 ,
2. Sketch f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2.
Solution
This is a quadratic function. We nd the intercepts to see where the
parabola will lie.
Alternatively, you may know from your work on parameters that
f ] x g = ] x + a g 2 will move the function f ] x g = x 2 horizontally a units to the
left.
So f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2 moves the parabola f ] x g = x 2 1 unit to the left.
For x-intercept: y = 0
0 = ]x + 1 g2
x+1=0
x = -1
For y-intercept: x = 0
y = ]0 + 1 g2
=1
231
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0
This means f ] x g = 0
0 = x2 + x - 6
= ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g
x + 3 = 0, x - 2 = 0
x = - 3, x = 2
For y-intercept: x = 0
f ] 0 g = ] 0 g2 + ] 0 g - 6
= -6
(b) Since a 2 0, the quadratic function has a minimum value.
Since the parabola is symmetrical, this will lie halfway between the
x-intercepts.
Halfway between x = - 3 and x = 2:
-3 + 2
1
=2
2
1
Minimum value is f c - m
2
1
1 2
1
f c- m = c- m + c- m - 6
2
2
2
1 1
= - -6
4 2
1
= -6
4
1
So the minimum value is - 6 .
4
CONTINUED
232
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-1 , -6 14
2
From the graph, notice that the parabola is gradually going outwards and
will include all real x values.
Since the minimum value is - 6 1 , all y values are greater than this.
4
Domain: " all real x ,
1
Range: ' y: y $ -6 1
4
(d) The curve decreases down to the minimum point and then
1
increases. So the curve is decreasing for all x 1 - .
2
4. (a) Find the x- and y-intercepts and the maximum value of the
quadratic function f ] x g = - x 2 + 4x + 5.
(b) Sketch the function and state the domain and range.
(c) For what values of x is the curve increasing?
Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0
So
f ]x g = 0
0 = - x 2 + 4x + 5
x 2 - 4x - 5 = 0
]x - 5 g]x + 1 g = 0
x - 5 = 0, x + 1 = 0
x = 5,
x = -1
For y-intercept: x = 0
f ] 0 g = - ] 0 g2 + 4 ] 0 g + 5
=5
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 -1
-2
-3
-4
-5
From the graph, the function can take on all real numbers for x, but the
maximum value for y is 9.
Domain: " all real x ,
Range: " y: y # 9 ,
(c) From the graph, the function is increasing on the left of the
maximum point and decreasing on the right.
So the function is increasing when x 1 2.
5.5 Exercises
1.
2.
Sketch
(a) y = x 2 + 2
(b) y = - x 2 + 1
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 4
2
(d) y = x + 2x
(e) y = - x 2 - x
(f) f ] x g = ] x - 3 g 2
233
234
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
3.
f ] x g = ] x + 1 g2
y = x 2 + 3x - 4
y = 2x 2 - 5 x + 3
f ] x g = - x 2 + 3x - 2
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch f ] x g = x - 1 and state its domain and range.
Solution
Method 1: Table of values
When sketching any new graph for the first time, you can use a table of
values. A good selection of values is -3 # x # 3 but if these dont give
enough information, you can find other values.
-3
-2
-1
-1
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
5
y=x-1
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
CONTINUED
235
236
y = -x - 1 ] x 1 0 g
y
y=-x-1
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted
lines to get the graph shown in method 1.
y
y = -x - 1
y=x-1
4
3
2
1
-4 -3
-2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Method 3: If you know the shape of the absolute value functions, find the
intercepts.
For x-intercept: y = 0
So f ] x g = 0
0 = | x |- 1
1 =| x |
` x = !1
For y-intercept: x = 0
f (0) = | 0 | - 1
= -1
-2 -1
-1
x
If you already know how
to sketch the graph of
y = | x | , translate the
graph of y = | x | - 1
down 1 unit, giving it a
y-intercept of -1.
-2
-3
-4
-5
From the graph, notice that x values can be any real number while the
minimum value of y is - 1.
Domain: {all real x}
Range: {y: y $ -1}
2. Sketch y = | x + 2 | .
Solution
Method 1: Use the definition of absolute value.
+2
when x + 2 $ 0
y = | x + 2 | = 'x
- (x + 2) when x + 2 1 0
This gives 2 straight lines:
y = x + 2 when x + 2 $ 0
x $ -2
y
5
y=x+2
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
CONTINUED
237
238
y = - ] x + 2 g when x + 2 1 0
i.e. y = - x - 2 when
x 1 -2
y
5
4
y = -x - 2
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted lines.
y
5
y = -x - 2
y=x+2
4
3
2
1
-4 -3
-2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0 =| x + 2 |
0=x+2
-2 = x
For y-intercept: x = 0
f (0) = | 0 + 2 |
=2
-3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Investigation
Are graphs that involve absolute value always functions? Can you find an
example of one that is not a function?
Can you find any odd or even functions involving absolute values? What
are their equations?
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability
to explore the effect of a parameter on an absolute value function, or
choose different values of k (both positive and negative).
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k
1. f ] x g = k | x |
2. f ] x g = | x | + k
3. f ] x g = | x + k |
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs?
The equations and inequations involving absolute values that you studied in
Chapter 3 can be solved graphically.
239
240
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. | 2x - 1 | = 3
Solution
Sketch y = | 2x - 1 | and y = 3 on the same number plane.
Solution
Sketch y = | 2x + 1 | and y = 3x - 2 on the same number plane.
The solution is x = 3.
3. | x + 1 | 1 2
Solution
Sketch y = | x + 1 | and y = 2 on the same number plane.
5.6 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
(c)
(d)
(e)
f ] x g = | 2x + 5 |
y = 2 | x |- 3
f ] x g = -| x - 3 |
4.
5.
6.
241
242
7.
(k) | 2x + 3 | # 5
(l) | 2x - 1 | $ 1
(m) | 3x - 1 | = x + 3
(n) | 3x - 2 | = x - 4
(o) | x - 1 | = x + 1
(p) | x + 3 | = 2x + 2
(q) | 2x + 1 | = 1 - x
(r) | 2x - 5 | = x - 3
(s) | x - 1 | = 2x
(t) | 2x - 3 | = x + 3
Solve graphically
(a) | x | = 3
(b) | x | 2 1
(c) | x | # 2
(d) | x + 2 | = 1
(e) | x - 3 | = 0
(f) | 2x - 3 | = 1
(g) | x - 1 | 1 4
(h) | x + 1 | # 3
(i) | x - 2 | 2 2
(j) | x - 3 | $ 1
The Hyperbola
a
A hyperbola is a function with its equation in the form xy = a or y = x .
EXAMPLE
1
Sketch y = x .
Solution
1
y = x is a discontinuous curve since the function is undefined at x = 0.
Drawing up a table of values gives:
x
-3
1
3
1
2
-2
-1
1
2
-1
-2
1
4
1
4
1
2
-4
1
2
1
3
Class Discussion
What happens to the graph as x becomes closer to 0? What happens as x
becomes very large in both positive and negative directions? The value of
y is never 0. Why?
To sketch the graph of a more general hyperbola, we can use the domain and
range to help nd the asymptotes (lines towards which the curve approaches
but never touches).
The hyperbola is an example of a discontinuous graph, since it has a gap
in it and is in two separate parts.
Investigation
Is the hyperbola always a function? Can you nd an example of a
hyperbola that is not a function?
Are there any families of odd or even hyperbolas? What are their
equations?
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability
to explore the effect of a parameter on a hyperbola, or choose different
values of k (both positive and negative).
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k
k
1. y = x
1
2. y = x + k
3. y =
1
x+k
EXAMPLES
3
.
x-3
(b) Hence sketch the graph of the function.
Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola.
To nd the domain, we notice that x - 3 ! 0.
So x ! 3
Also y cannot be zero (see example on page 242).
Domain: {all real x: x ! 3}
Range: {all real y: y ! 0}
The lines x = 3 and y = 0 (the x-axis) are called asymptotes.
CONTINUED
243
244
To make the graph more accurate we can find another point or two. The
easiest one to find is the y-intercept.
For y-intercept, x = 0
3
y=
0-3
= -1
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
y=0
Asymptotes
x=3
-4
-5
2. Sketch y = -
1
.
2x + 4
Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola. The negative sign turns the hyperbola
around so that it will be in the opposite quadrants. If you are not sure
where it will be, you can find two or three points on the curve.
To find the domain, we notice that 2x + 4 ! 0.
2x ! - 4
x ! -2
For the range, y can never be zero.
Domain: {all real x: x ! -2}
Range: {all real y: y ! 0}
So there are asymptotes at x = -2 and y = 0 (the x-axis).
To make the graph more accurate we can find the y-intercept.
For y-intercept, x = 0
1
2 ( 0) + 4
1
=4
y=-
-2
- 14
a
is a hyperbola with
bx + c
c
domain & all real x: x ! - 0 and
b
The function f ] x g =
5.7 Exercises
1.
2
x+1
2
(i) f ] x g =
6x - 3
6
(j) y = x+2
(h) y = -
2.
2
Show that f ] x g = x is an odd
function.
3.
245
246
3
for - 3 # x # 3
x-4
2
for 0 # x # 5
(e) y = 3x + 1
1
1
for -1 # y # 7
x-1
3
for
(d) f ] x g = 2x + 1
1
-1 # y # 3
6
1
(e) y =
for 1 # y # 6
3x - 2
2
(c) f ] x g =
(d) f ] x g = -
4.
Circle gate
Proof
y
(x, y)
r
x
y
x
247
EXAMPLE
(a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 4. Is it a function?
(b) State its domain and range.
Solution
The radius is
-2
-2
The circle is not a function since a vertical line will cut it in more than
one place.
y
-2
-2
CONTINUED
4.
248
(b) Notice that the x-values for this graph lie between - 2 and 2 and
the y-values also lie between - 2 and 2.
Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2}
Range: {y: -2 # y # 2}
We can use Pythagoras theorem to find the equation of a more general circle.
Proof
Take a general point on the circle, (x, y) and draw a right-angled triangle as
shown.
y
(x, y)
y
r
b
y-b
x-a
(a, b)
a
Notice that the small sides of the triangle are x a and y b and the
hypotenuse is r, the radius.
By Pythagoras theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
r 2 = ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 81.
(b) State its domain and range.
Solution
(a) The equation is in the form x 2 + y 2 = r 2.
This is a circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 9.
y
-9
-9
(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x
and y for the circle.
Domain: {x: -9 # x # 9}
Range: {y: -9 # y # 9}
2. (a) Sketch the circle ] x 1 g2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4.
(b) State its domain and range.
Solution
(a) The equation is in the form ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2.
] x 1 g 2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4
] x 1 g 2 + _ y ] - 2 g i2 = 2 2
So a = 1, b = - 2 and r = 2
CONTINUED
249
250
-4 -3 -2
-1
-1
-2
-3
(1, -2)
-4
-5
(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x
and y for the circle.
Domain: {x: -1 # x # 3}
Range: {y: -4 # y # 0}
3. Find the equation of a circle with radius 3 and centre ^ -2, 1 h in
expanded form.
Solution
This is a general circle with equation ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2 where
a = - 2, b = 1 and r = 3.
Substituting:
] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2
You may need to revise this
in Chapter 2.
] x - ] - 2 g g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 3 2
] x + 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 9
Remove the grouping symbols.
] a + b g2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
So ] x + 2 g2 = x 2 + 2 ] x g ] 2 g + 2 2
= x 2 + 4x + 4
2
] a b g = a 2 - 2ab + b 2
So ^ y 1 h2 = y 2 - 2 ^ y h ] 1 g + 1 2
= y 2 - 2y + 1
The equation of the circle is:
x 2 + 4x + 4 + y - 2y + 1 = 9
x 2 + 4 x + y - 2y + 5 = 9
x 2 + 4 x + y 2y + 5 - 9 = 9 - 9
x 2 + 4x + y - 2y - 4 = 0
Investigation
The circle is not a function. Could you break the circle up into
two functions?
Change the subject of this equation to y.
What do you notice when you change the subject to y? Do you get two
functions? What are their domains and ranges?
If you have a graphics calculator, how could you draw the graph of a
circle?
Proof
x2 + y2 = r2
y2 = r2 x2
y = ! r2 - x2
This gives two functions:
-r
251
252
-r
-r
EXAMPLES
Sketch each function and state the domain and range.
1. f ] x g =
9 - x2
Solution
This is in the form f ] x g = r 2 - x 2 where r = 3.
It is a semi-circle above the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 3.
y
-3
Domain: {x: -3 # x # 3}
Range: {y: 0 # y # 3}
2. y = - 4 - x 2
Solution
This is in the form y = - r 2 - x 2 where r = 2.
It is a semi-circle below the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 2.
y
-2
-2
Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2}
Range: {y: -2 # y # 0}
5.8 Exercises
1.
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3.
y = - 25 - x 2
y = 1 - x2
y = 36 - x 2
y = - 64 - x 2
y = - 7 - x2
253
254
4.
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
Other Graphs
There are many other different types of graphs. We will look at some of these
graphs and explore their domain and range.
You will meet these
graphs again in the
HSC Course.
Solution
If you do not know what this graph looks like, draw up a table of values.
You may need to revise the indices that you studied in Chapter 1.
e.g. When x = 0:
y = 3c
=1
When x = -1:
y = 3-1
1
= 1
3
1
=
3
x
y
-3
1
27
-2
1
9
-1
1
3
27
If you already know what the shape of the graph is, you can draw it
just using 2 or 3 points to make it more accurate.
3
2
1
x
From the graph, x can be any real value (the equation shows this as well
since any x value substituted into the equation will give a value for y).
From the graph, y is always positive, which can be confirmed by
substituting different values of x into the equation.
Domain: " all real x ,
Range: " y: y 2 0 ,
2. Sketch f ] x g = log x and state the domain and range.
Solution
Use the LOG key on your calculator to complete the table of values.
Notice that you cant find the log of 0 or a negative number.
x
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.6
2
1
-1
From the graph and by trying different values on the calculator, y can be
any real number while x is always positive.
Domain: ! x: x 2 0 +
Range: " all real y ,
255
256
Cubic function
A cubic function has an equation where the highest power of x is x 3 .
EXAMPLE
1. Sketch the function f ] x g = x 3 + 2 and state its domain and range.
Solution
Draw up a table of values.
x
25
10
29
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
If you already
know the shape of
y = x 3, f (x) = x 3 + 2 has
the same shape as f (x) = x 3
but it is translated 2 units up
(this gives a y-intercept of 2).
-3
-4
-5
EXAMPLE
1. Find the range of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 over the given domain of -1 # x # 4.
Solution
The graph of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 is the cubic function in the previous example.
From the graph, the range is {all real y}. However, with a restricted
domain of -1 # x # 4 we need to see where the endpoints of this
function are.
f ] -1 g = ] -1 g3 + 2
= -1 + 2
=1
f ] 4 g = ] 4 g3 + 2
= 64 + 2
= 66
Sketching the graph, we can see that the values of y all lie between
these points.
y
(4, 66)
(-1, 1)
x
Range: " y: 1 # y # 66 ,
257
258
You may not know what a function looks like on a graph, but you can still
find its domain and range by looking at its equation.
When finding the domain, we look for values of x that are impossible.
For example, with the hyperbola you have already seen that the denominator
of a fraction cannot be zero.
For the range, we look for the results when different values of x are
substituted into the equation. For example, x2 will always give zero or a
positive number.
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of f ] x g =
x - 4.
Solution
We can only find the square root of a positive number or zero.
So x 4 $ 0
x$4
When you take the square root of a number, the answer is always positive
(or zero). So y $ 0
Domain: ! x: x $ 4 +
Range: " y: y $ 0 ,
5.9 Exercises
1.
(c) f ] x g = | 2x - 3 |
(d) y = | x | - 2
(e) f ] x g = - 2x + 5
(c) x = 3
(d) f ] x g = 4x 2 1
(e) p ] x g = x 3 2
(f) y = 5 - | x |
(g) y = 2 x
(h) y = -5 x
x+1
(i) f ] x g = x
4x - 3
(j) y =
2x
(f) f ] x g = 12 - x - x 2
(g) x 2 + y 2 = 64
3
t-4
2
(i) g (z) = + 5
z
(j) f ] x g = | x |
(h) f ] t g =
2.
x-2
3.
4.
(a) Solve 1 - x 2 $ 0.
(b) Find the domain of
f ] x g = 1 - x2 .
5.
6.
9.
x
Given the function f ] x g = x
(a) find the domain of the
function
(b) find its range.
Draw each graph on a number
plane
(a) f ] x g = x 4
(b) y = - x 3
(c) y = x 4 - 3
(d) p ] x g = 2x 3
(e) g ] x g = x 3 + 1
(f) x 2 + y 2 = 100
(g) y = 2 x + 1
-2 # x # 1
1
(d) y = x in the domain
1# x #5
8.
259
260
The exponential function and the hyperbola are examples of functions that
approach a limit. The curve y = a x approaches the x-axis when x approaches
very large negative numbers, but never touches it.
That is, when x " - 3, a x " 0.
Putting a - 3 into index form gives
1
a-3 = 3
a
1
=3
Z0
We say that the limit of a x as x approaches -3 is 0. In symbols, we write
lim a x = 0.
x " -3
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "0
x 2 + 5x
.
x
Solution
0
, which is undened.
0
Factorising and cancelling help us nd the limit.
x 1 ]x + 5 g
x 2 + 5x
lim
lim
=
x
x "0
x "0
x1
= lim (x + 5)
Substituting x = 0 into the function gives
x "0
=5
2. Find lim
x "2
x-2
.
x2 - 4
Solution
Substituting x = 2 into the function gives
0
, which is undefined.
0
x-2
x-2
= lim
2
1
x
"
2
x -4
^x + 2h _x - 2i
1
= lim
x "2 x + 2
1
=
4
1
lim
x "2
3. Find lim
h "0
2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h
.
h
Solution
lim
h "0
h ^ 2hx + x 2 - 7 h
2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h
= lim
h "0
h
h
= lim 2hx + x 2 - 7
h "0
= x2 - 7
Continuity
Many functions are continuous. That is, they have a smooth, unbroken curve
(or line). However, there are some discontinuous functions that have gaps in
their graphs. The hyperbola is an example.
If a curve is discontinuous at a certain point, we can use limits to find the
value that the curve approaches at that point.
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "1
y=
x2 - 1
and hence describe the domain and range of the curve
x-1
x -1
. Sketch the curve.
x-1
2
Solution
Substituting x = 1 into
x2 - 1
0
gives
x-1
0
CONTINUED
261
262
lim
x "1
]x + 1 g]x - 1 g
x2 - 1
= lim
x-1
x-1
x-1
= lim (x + 1)
x "1
=2
y=
x2 - 1
is discontinuous at x = 1 since y is undefined at that point.
x-1
This leaves a gap in the curve. The limit tells us that y " 2 as x " 1, so
the gap is at ^ 1, 2 h .
Domain: " x: all real x, x ! 1 ,
Range: " y: all real y, y ! 2 ,
y=
=
x2 - 1
x-1
^x + 1h ^x - 1h
x-1
=x+1
the graph is y = x + 1 where x ! 1
Remember that x ! 1.
2. Find lim
x " -2
x2 + x - 2
x2 + x - 2
and hence sketch the curve y =
.
x+2
x+2
Solution
Substituting x = -2 into
lim
x " -2
x2 + x - 2
0
gives
x+2
0
^x - 1h ^x + 2h
x2 + x - 2
= lim
x
"
2
x+2
^x + 2h
= lim ^ x - 1 h
x " -2
= -3
y=
y=
x2 + x - 2
is discontinuous at x = - 2
x+2
^x + 2h ^x - 1h
x+2
=x-1
So the function is y = x - 1 where x ! -2. It is discontinuous at ^ -2, -3 h .
5.10 Exercises
1.
Find
(a) lim x 2 + 5
2.
x "4
(b) lim t - 7
t " -3
(c) lim x 3 + 2x - 4
x "2
(d) lim
x 2 + 3x
x
(e) lim
h2 - h - 2
h-2
(f) lim
y 3 - 125
y-5
(g) lim
x 2 + 2x + 1
x+1
(h) lim
x 2 + 2x - 8
x+4
x "0
h "2
y "5
x "-1
x " -4
x-1
1
(d) y = 2
x +4
1
(e) y = 2
x -4
3.
x 2 + 3x
x
(i) lim
c-2
c2 - 4
(b) y =
(j) lim
x-1
x2 - x
x 2 + 3x
x+3
(c) y =
x 2 + 5x + 4
x+1
(k) lim
h 3 + 2h 2 - 7h
h
(l) lim
hx 2 - 3hx + h 2
h
(m) lim
2hx 3 - h 2 x 2 + 3hx - 5h
h
c "2
x "1
h "0
h "0
h "0
x3 - c3
(n) lim
x "c x - c
263
264
Further Graphs
Graphs of functions with asymptotes can be difficult to sketch. It is important
to find the limits as the function approaches the asymptotes.
1
A special limit is lim x = 0
x "3
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "3
3x 2
.
x 2 - 2x + 3
Solution
3x 2
3x
x2
(dividing by the highest power of x)
= lim 2
lim 2
x " 3 x - 2x + 3
x "3 x
3
2x
+
x2 x2 x2
3
= lim
x "3
3
2
1-x+ 2
x
3
=
1-0+0
=3
2
2. Find
(a) lim
x "3
(b)
x
x 2 + 4x + 4
lim
x " -3
x
x + 4x + 4
2
Solution
x
x
x2
(a) lim 2
= lim 2
x " 3 x + 4x + 4
x "3 x
4x
4
+
+
x2 x2 x2
1
x
= lim
x "3
4
4
1+x+ 2
x
0
1+0+0
=0
=
265
1
Since x " 0 from the positive side when x " + 3, we can write
x
lim
= 0+
x " 3 x 2 + 4x + 4
1
x
x
(b) lim 2
= lim
x " -3 x + 4x + 4
x " -3
4
4
1+x+ 2
x
=0
1
Since x " 0 from the negative side when x " - 3, we can write
x
lim
= 0x " -3 x 2 + 4x + 4
3. Find lim
x "3
3x 2
.
x-1
Solution
3
Dividing by x 2 will give .
0
Divide by x.
3x 2
3x
x
lim
= lim
x "3 x - 1
x "3 x
1
x-x
3x
= lim
x "3
1
1-x
3x
=
1-0
= 3x
2
General graphs
It is not always appropriate to sketch graphs, for example, a hyperbola or
circle, from a table of values. By restricting the table of values, important
features of a graph may be overlooked.
1+
4
4
+
is positive
x x2
whether x is + or -. Can
you see why?
266
asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes occur when f ] x g ! 0 and h ] x g = 0, given
g ]x g
f ]x g =
.
h ]x g
Horizontal and other asymptotes are found (if they exist) when
finding lim f ] x g .
x "!3
domain and range
The domain is the set of all possible x values for a function.
The range is the set of all possible y values for a function.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch y =
Solution
x2
.
x -9
2
Intercepts:
For x-intercept, y = 0
x2
x2 - 9
0 = x2
0=x
0=
So the x-intercept is 0.
For y-intercept, x = 0
02
0-2
=0
y=
So the y-intercept is 0
Type of function:
f (- x) =
] - x g2
] - x g2 - 9
x2
= 2
x -9
= f (x)
267
f (3 ) =
^ 3 - h2 - 9
+
==So y " - 3
As x " 3 from RHS:
f (3 +) =
^ 3 + h2
^ 3 + h2 - 9
+
+
=+
So y " 3
=
^ - 3 - h2
^ - 3 - h2 - 9
+
+
=+
=
So y " 3
As x " - 3 from RHS:
^ - 3 + h2
f (- 3 +) =
^ - 3 + h2 - 9
+
==So y " - 3
Horizontal asymptotes:
2
x2
x2
x
= lim
9
x2 - 9 x " 3 x2
- 2
2
x
x
1
= lim
x "3
9
1- 2
x
1
=
1-0
=1
As x " 3
32
f ( 3) = 2
3 -9
21
So as x " 3, y " 1 from above
lim
x "3
CONTINUED
268
As x " - 3
You could substitute
values such as 1000 and
-1000 to see what
y does as x
approaches !3.
f (-3) =
] -3 g 2
] -3 g 2 - 9
21
2. Sketch f (x) =
x2
.
x-2
Solution
Intercepts:
For x-intercept, y = 0
x2
0=
x-2
0 = x2
0=x
So the x-intercept is 0
For y-intercept, x = 0
02
0-2
=0
y=
So the y-intercept is 0.
Type of function:
] - x g2
f (- x) =
]-x g - 2
x2
=
-x - 2
x2
=x+2
! - f (x)
The function is neither even nor odd.
269
Vertical asymptotes:
x-2!0
x!2
So there is an asymptote at x = 2.
As x " 2 from LHS:
^ 2 - h2
f (2 -) =
2- - 2
+
==So y " - 3
As x " 2 from RHS:
^ 2 + h2
f (2 +) =
2+ - 2
+
=
+
=+
So y " 3
You could substitute values close to 2 on either side into the equation, say
1.9 on LHS and 2.1 on RHS.
e.g. When x = 2.1
] 2.1 g2
f (2.1) =
2 .1 - 2
= 44.1
Horizontal asymptotes:
x2
x
x
= lim
x - 2 x "3 x 2
x-x
x
= lim
x "3
2
1-x
x
=
1-0
=x
This means that as x approaches !3, the function approaches y = x.
As x " 3
lim
x "3
32
3- 2
2x
f ( 3) =
by x 2, we get
] -3 g 2
-3 - 2
1x
So as x " -3, y " x from above.
CONTINUED
270
This is not easy to see, so substitute values such as 1000 and -1000 to see
what y does as x approaches 3.
e.g. When x = - 1000
] -1000 g2
-1000 - 2
= - 998
f (-1000) =
x
2
There is a method that combines all these features to make sketching easier.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch y =
Solution
x2
.
x2 - 9
271
x-intercepts: y = 0
x2
x -9
0 = x2
0=x
asymptotes: (x + 3) (x - 3) = 0
x = !3
0=
These critical points, x = 0, !3, divide the number plane into four regions.
A graph is positive if it is
above the x-axis.
CONTINUED
272
Re gion 3: y = x
y=x+3 +
y=x-3 x#x
y=
`
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g
-#=
+#+
==Re gion 4: y = x
y=x+3 y=x-3 x#x
y=
`
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g
-#=
-#+
=
+
=+
Find any horizontal asymptotes.
x2
1
lim 2
= lim
x "3 x - 9
x "3
9
1- 2
x
= 1 from above
Check these!
lim
x " -3
x2
= 1 from above
x2 - 9
2. Sketch y =
Solution
x+1
.
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
273
Use these to divide the number plane into 4 regions and sketch
y = x + 1, y = x + 2 and y = x - 1.
x+1
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
+
=
+#+
=+
Re gion 1: y =
x+1
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
+
=
+#=-
Re gion 2: y =
x+1
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
=
+#=+
Re gion 3: y =
x+1
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
=
-#=-
Re gion 4: y =
x "3
The y-intercept is -
1
.
2
274
Class Investigation
You can explore graphs of this type on a graphical calculator or by using
computer software designed to draw graphs.
5.11 Exercises
1.
4.
Find
x
(a) lim 2
x "3 x
(b) lim
x "3
2
x+4
5.
x2
(e) lim 2
x " 3 x + 7x + 1
5
(f) lim
6x
x 5 - 2x - 7
(g) lim
2x - 3x - 6
3x 3 + 1
3
(h) lim
x "3
x2
4x 3 + 27x - 9
2
(i) lim
x "3
5x
x+2
x-1
x "3
3.
Find
(a) lim
2x
x+5
(b) lim
2x
x+5
x "3
(b) lim
5x 3
4x + 3
Sketch
(a) y =
1
x +1
(b) y =
1
x2 - 1
(c) y =
x
x+1
(d) y =
x2
x +1
(e) y =
x2
x2 - 4
x " -3
(f) y = 1 +
x
x2 + 1
(g) y =
x+2
x2 - 4
(h) y =
4 - x2
4 + x2
3 x
(j) lim
2.
x4
3x 3 + 7x
x "3
2x 3
(d) lim 3
x "3 x - x
x "3
(a) lim
x "3
5x
(c) lim 2
x "3 x + 1
x "3
Find
1
(i) y = x + x
(j) y =
3
x -4
2
EXAMPLES
1. Solve
1
$ 2 graphically.
x+1
Solution
Sketch y =
1
and y = 2 on the same number plane.
x+1
The hyperbola has domain {all real x: x ! -1} and range {all real y: y ! 0}.
For y-intercept: x = 0
1
y=
0+1
=1
y
y=2
2
1
1
-1 - 2
-2
-1
y=
1
x+1
-2
1
1
is on or
$ 2 occurs when the hyperbola y =
x+1
x+1
above the line y = 2.
The solution of
CONTINUED
275
276
1
= 2.
x+1
1
# (x + 1) = 2 # (x + 1)
x+1
1 = 2 ]x + 1 g
= 2x + 2
-1 = 2x
2x
-1
=
2
2
1
- =x
2
1
The solution is -1 1 x # (from the graph).
2
2. Solve
1
1 1 graphically.
x-2
Solution
Sketch y =
1
and y = 1 on the same number plane.
x-2
The hyperbola has domain {all real x: x ! 2} and range {all real y: y ! 0}.
For y-intercept: x = 0
1
y=
0-2
1
=2
y
2
y=1
-2
-1
- 12
-1
-2
The solution of
the line y = 1.
y= 1
x-2
1
1
is below
1 1 occurs when the hyperbola y =
x-2
x-2
1
=1
x-2
1
# ( x - 2) = 1 # ( x - 2 )
x-2
1=x-2
3=x
The solution is x 1 2, x 2 3
5.12 Exercises
Solve graphically and algebraically.
1.
1
x 1 -2
2.
1
x 23
3.
1
x $1
4.
1
-x $2
5.
1
23
x-1
1
x+2
2
7.
x-2
3
8.
x+3
-1
9.
x-1
x
10.
x+2
6.
#1
$5
2 -1
#3
$4
Regions
Class Investigation
How many solutions are there for y $ x + 2? How would you record
them all?
277
278
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region x # 3.
Solution
Remember that x = 3 is a
vertical line with x-intercept 3.
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
x=3
An unbounded region means that the line or curve is not included in the
region.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region y 2 -1.
Solution
y 2 -1 doesnt include y = -1. When this happens, it is an unbounded
region and we draw the line y = -1 as a broken line to show it is not
included.
-2
-3
-4
-5
For lines that are not horizontal or vertical, or for curves, we need to
check a point to see if it lies in the region.
EXAMPLES
Find the region defined by
1. y $ x + 2
Solution
First sketch y = x + 2 as an unbroken line.
On one side of the line, y 2 x + 2 and on the other side, y 1 x + 2.
To find which side gives y 2 x + 2, test a point on one side of the
line (not on the line).
For example, choose ^ 0, 0 h and substitute into
y$x+2
0$0+2
0$2
(false)
CONTINUED
279
Remember that y = -1 is a
horizontal line with
y-intercept -1.
280
2. 2x - 3y 1 6
Solution
First sketch 2x - 3y = 6 as a broken line, as it is not included in the
region.
To find which side of the line gives 2x - 3y 1 6, test a point on one
side of the line.
For example, choose ^ 0, 1 h and substitute into
2x - 3y 1 6
2 ] 0 g - 3 (1 ) 1 6
-3 1 6 (true)
This means that ^ 0, 1 h lies in the region 2x - 3y 1 6.
2x - 3y = 6
3. x 2 + y 2 2 1
Solution
The equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 is a circle, radius 1 and centre ^ 0, 0 h .
Draw x 2 + y 2 = 1 as a broken line, since the region does not include
the curve.
4. y $ x 2
Solution
The equation y = x 2 is a parabola. Sketch this as an unbroken line, as it is
included in the region.
Choose a point inside the parabola, say ^ 1, 3 h.
y $ x2
3 2 12
3 2 1 (true)
So ^ 1, 3 h lies in the region.
y = x2
281
282
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region x # 4, y 2 -2 and y # x 2 .
Solution
Draw the three regions, either separately or on the same set of axes, and
see where they overlap.
.
EXAMPLES
Describe each region.
1.
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
Solution
The shaded area is below and including y = 6 so can be described as
y # 6.
It is also to the left of, but not including the line x = 4, which can be
described as x 1 4.
The region is the intersection of these two regions:
y # 6 and x 1 4
y
2.
2
-2
-2
CONTINUED
283
284
Solution
The shaded area is the interior of the circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 2 but
it does not include the circle.
The equation of the circle is x 2 + y 2 = 2 2 or x 2 + y 2 = 4.
You may know (or guess) the inequality for the inside of the circle.
If you are unsure, choose a point inside the circle and substitute into the
equation e.g. (0, 0).
LHS = x 2 + y 2
= 02 + 02
=0
1 4 ] RHS g
So the region is x 2 + y 2 1 4.
5.13 Exercises
1.
2.
(b)
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
(c)
y=x+1
3
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-3
-2
-4
-3
-4
(d)
y
5
5.
6.
7.
y = x2 - 4
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
(e)
y
y = 2x
3
2
1
1
3.
4.
1
, the
x+2
x-axis and the lines x = 0 and
285
286
Application
Regions are used in business applications to find optimum profit. Two (or more)
equations are graphed together, and the region where a profit is made is shaded.
The optimum profit occurs at the endpoints (or vertices) of the region.
EXAMPLE
A company makes both roller skates (X ) and ice skates (Y ). Roller skates make a
$25 profit, while ice skates make a profit of $21. Each pair of roller skates spends
2 hours on machine A (available 12 hours per day) and 2 hours on machine B
(available 8 hours per day). Each pair of ice skates spends 3 hours on machine A
and 1 hour on machine B.
How many skates of each type should be made each day to give the greatest
profit while making the most efficient use of the machines?
SOLUTION
Profit P = $25 X + $21Y
Machine A: 2X + 3Y # 12
Machine B: 2X + Y # 8
Sketch the regions and find the
point of intersection of the lines.
The shaded area shows all possible ways of making a profit. Optimum profit
occurs at one of the endpoints of the regions.
(0, 4): P = $25 ] 0 g + $21 ] 4 g = $84
(4, 0): P = $25 ] 4 g + $21 ] 0 g = $100
(3, 2): P = $25 ] 3 g + $21 ] 2 g = $117
^ 3, 2 h gives the greatest profit, so 3 pairs of roller skates and 2 pairs of ice
skates each day gives optimum profit.
Test Yourself 5
1.
If f ] x g = x 2 - 3x - 4, find
(a) f ] -2 g
(b) f ] a g
(c) x when f ] x g = 0
2.
(b)
3.
4.
If f ] x g = *
2x
if x $ 1
x -3
if x 1 1
find f ] 5 g - f ] 0 g + f ] 1 g
3
if x 2 3
5.
Given f ] x g = * x
if 1 # x # 3
2 - x if x 1 1
find
(a) f ] 2 g
(b) f ] -3 g
(c) f ] 3 g
(d) f ] 5 g
(e) f ] 0 g
6.
7.
8.
9.
(c)
287
288
x 2 - 2x - 3
x-3
(b) lim
2x
x 2 + 5x
x "3
x "0
(c) lim
x " -1
(d) lim
h "0
x3 + 1
x2 - 1
2xh 2 + 3h
h
Challenge Exercise 5
Find the values of b if f ] x g = 3x 2 - 7x + 1
and f ] b g = 7.
5.
2.
6.
3.
4.
1.
2x 3
.
x2 - 4
4 - x 2 in the first
7.
8.
9.
12. If h ] t g = )
13. Sketch y =
2x + 7
.
x+3
2x + 7
.
x+3
18. Sketch y = 2 x - 1 .
19. Sketch y =
|x |
.
x2
20. Find the domain and range of
f ] x g = 2x - 6 .
21. What is the domain of y =
22. Sketch f ] x g = 1 -
1
.
x2
2x + 7
1
=2+
.
x+3
x+3
x "3
2 x
.
x-1
(b) Sketch y =
24. Sketch y =
2 x
.
x-1
x+1
.
x2 - 1
1
4 - x2
289
6
Trigonometry
TERMINOLOGY
Angle of depression: The angle between the horizontal
and the line of sight when looking down to an object
below
Angle of elevation: The angle between the horizontal and
the line of sight when looking up to an object above
Angles of any magnitude: Angles can be measured around
a circle at the centre to find the trigonometric ratios of
angles of any size from 0c to 360c and beyond
Bearing: The direction relative to north. Bearings may
be written as true bearings (clockwise from North) or as
compass bearings (using N, S, E and W)
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
291
INTRODUCTION
TRIGONOMETRY IS USED IN many elds, such as building, surveying and
navigating. Wave theory also uses trigonometry.
This chapter revises basic right-angled triangle problems and applies them
to real-life situations. Some properties of trigonometric ratios, angles greater
than 90c and trigonometric equations are introduced. You will also study
trigonometry in non-right-angled triangles.
Trigonometric Ratios
In similar triangles, pairs of corresponding angles are equal and sides are in
proportion. For example:
ch6.indd 291
8/11/09 10:58:08 AM
292
The opposite and adjacent sides vary according to where the angle is
marked. For example:
Sine
sin i =
Cosine
cos i =
Tangent tan i =
opposite
hypotenuse
adjacent
hypotenuse
opposite
adjacent
Cosecant cosec i =
1
sin i
Secant
sec i =
1
cos i
Cotangent cot i =
1
tan i
hypotenuse
p
opposite
hypotenuse
f=
p
adjacent
adjacent
f=
p
opposite
f=
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
293
EXAMPLES
1. Find sin a, tan a and sec a.
Solution
AB = hypotenuse = 5
BC = opposite side = 3
AC = adjacent side = 4
opposite
sin a =
hypotenuse
3
=
5
opposite
tan a =
adjacent
3
=
4
1
sec a =
cos a
hypotenuse
=
adjacent
5
=
4
2. If sin i =
2
, find the exact ratios of cos i, tan i and cot i.
7
Solution
To find the other ratios
you need to find the
adjacent side.
By Pythagoras theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
72 = a2 + 22
49 = a 2 + 4
45 = a 2
`a=
45
CONTINUED
294
cos i =
=
tan i =
adjacent
hypotenuse
45
7
opposite
adjacent
2
=
45
1
cot i =
tan i
45
=
2
Complementary angles
(angle sum of a )
a
(90c - i) = c
b
cos (90c - i) = c
a
tan (90c - i) =
b
c
sec (90c - i) =
b
c
cosec (90c - i) = a
b
cot (90c - i) = a
b
i= c
a
cos i = c
b
tan i = a
c
sec i = a
c
cosec i =
b
a
cot i =
b
sin
sin
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
295
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify tan 50c - cot 40c.
Solution
tan 50c = cot ] 90c - 50c g
= cot 40c
` tan 50c - cot 40c = tan 50c - tan 50c
=0
Solution
sec 55c = cosec ] 90c - 55c g
= cosec 35c
` 2m - 15 = 35
2m = 50
m = 25
6.1 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
296
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
4
, find cos i and sin i.
3
2
If cos i = , find exact values for
3
tan i, sec i and sin i.
If tan i =
1
If sin i = , find the exact ratios
6
of cos i and tan i.
If cos i = 0.7, find exact values
for tan i and sin i.
D ABC is a right-angled isosceles
triangle with +ABC = 90c and
AB = BC = 1.
(a) Find the exact length of AC.
(b) Find +BAC.
(c) From the triangle, write down
the exact ratios of sin 45c, cos 45c
and tan 45c.
10.
sin 55c
cos 35c
(e)
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
297
EXAMPLES
Round off to the nearest minute.
1. 23c 12l 22m
Solution
23c 12l 22m = 23c 12l
2. 59c 34l 41m
Solution
59c 34l 41m = 59c 35l
3. 16c 54l 30m
Because 30 seconds is
half a minute, we round
up to the next minute.
Solution
16c 54l 30m = 16c 55l
% , ,,
KEY
Some calculators have
This key changes decimal angles into degrees, minutes and seconds
EXAMPLES
1. Change 58c 19l into a decimal.
Solution
Press 58 % , ,, 19 % , ,, = % , ,,
So 58c 19l = 58.31666667
2. Change 45.236c into degrees and minutes.
Solution
Press 45.236 = SHIFT % , ,,
So 45.236c = 45c14l
298
EXAMPLES
1. Find cos 58c 19l, correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution
If your calculator
doesn't give this
answer, check that it
is in degree mode.
Press COS 58 % , ,, 19 % , ,, =
So cos 58c19l = 0.525
2. Find sin 38c14l, correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution
Press SIN 38 % , ,, 14 % , ,, =
So sin 38c 14l = 0.619
3. If tani = 0.348, find i in degrees and minutes.
Solution
This is the reverse of finding trigonometric ratios.
To find the angle, given the ratio, use the inverse key ^ tan - 1 h .
Press SHIFT TAN - 1 0.348 = SHIFT % , ,,
tan i = 0.348
i = tan - 1 (0.348)
= 19c11l
4. Find i in degrees and minutes if cos i = 0.675.
Solution
Press SHIFT COS - 1 0.675 = SHIFT % , ,,
cos i = 0.675
i = cos - 1 (0.675)
= 47c 33l
6.2 Exercises
1.
2.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
3.
Change to a decimal.
(a) 77c45l
(b) 65c30l
(c) 24c51l
(d) 68c21l
(e) 82c31l
5.
4.
6.
Finding a side
We can use trigonometry to find a side of a right-angled triangle.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
cos i =
adjacent
hypotenuse
x
cos 23 49l =
11.8
x
11.8 # cos 23 49l = 11.8 #
11.8
11.8 cos 23 49l = x
`
CONTINUED
299
300
Solution
sin i =
opposite
hypotenuse
9.7
sin 41c 15l = y
9.7
y # sin 41c 15l = y # y
y sin 41c 15l = 9.7
y sin 41c 15l
9.7
=
sin 41c 15l
sin 41c 15l
9.7
y=
sin 41c 15l
= 14.7 m ^ to 3 significant figures h
6.3 Exercises
1.
(c)
(b)
(d)
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
(e)
(l)
4.7 cm
(f)
37c22l
72c18l
(m)
x
6.3 cm
(g)
(n)
63c14l
23 mm
(o)
39c47l
(h)
3.7 m
(i)
(p)
k
(j)
46c5l
14.3 cm
(q)
5.4 cm
(k)
31c12l
4.8 m
74c29l
301
302
68c41l
(r)
0.45 m
6.2 cm
73c
4.
(s)
5.75 cm
19c17l
17.3 m
(t)
12.8 m
67c
b
5.
6c3l
2.
2.7 m
60c
3.
6.
6 cm
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
7.
8.
9.
57c29l
72c51l
15.8 cm
Finding an angle
Trigonometry can also be used to find one of the angles in a right-angled
triangle.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of i, in degrees and minutes.
CONTINUED
303
304
Solution
cos i =
adjacent
hypotenuse
5.8
=
7.3
5.8
` i = cos - 1 c
m
7.3
= 37c 23l
Solution
tan a =
opposite
adjacent
4
= .9
2 .1
4 .9
` a = tan - 1 c
m
2 .1
= 66c 48l
6.4 Exercises
1.
(b)
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
(c)
(i)
(j)
(d)
(e)
3.8 cm
(k)
2.4 cm
(l)
(f)
8.3 cm
5.7 cm
(m)
i
6.9 mm
(g)
11.3 mm
(n)
(h)
3m
7m
305
306
(o)
b
20 m
5.1 cm
11.6 cm
3.
(p)
15 m
Andre
13 m
(q)
4.4 cm
12.3 m
7.6 cm
13.7 m
(r)
5.6 m
14.3 cm
8.4 cm
(s)
4.
Gate
3m
18 m
5m
(t)
i
18.9 cm
10.3 cm
2.
5.
60 m
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
6.
7.
5 cm
D
1 cm
74.5 m
16c
52 m
9 cm
8.
i
6m
9.
15 m
41c
w
A
39c
7.4 m
i
15.9 m
307
308
Applications
The tower is about 55 m tall and 16 m in diameter. It is tilted about 5 m from the vertical, and
tilts by an extra 0.6 cm each year.
Class Investigation
Discuss some of the problems with the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
Find the angle at which it is tilted from the vertical.
Work out how far it will be tilted in 10 years.
Use research to find out if the tower will fall over, and if so, when.
Angle of elevation
The angle of elevation is used to measure the
height of tall objects that cannot be measured
directly, for example a tree, cliff, tower or
building.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
Class Exercise
Stand outside the school building and look up to the top of the building.
Think about which angle your eyes pass through to look up to the top of
the building.
EXAMPLE
The angle of elevation of a tree from a point 50 m out from its base is
38c 14l. Find the height of the tree, to the nearest metre.
Solution
We assume that the tree is vertical!
A clinometer is used to
measure the angle of
elevation or depression.
h
50
h
50
309
310
Angle of depression
The angle of depression is the angle
formed when looking down from a high
place to an object below.
Class Exercise
If your classroom is high enough, stand at the window and look down to
something below the window. If the classroom is not high enough, find
a hill or other high place. Through which angle do your eyes pass as you
look down?
EXAMPLES
1. The angle of depression from the top of a 20 m building to a boy
below is 61c 39l. How far is the boy from the building, to 1 decimal place?
Solution
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
+DAC = +ACB
= 61c 39l
20
tan 61c 39l = x
20
x # tan 61c 39l = x # x
x tan 61c 39l = 20
x tan 61c 39l
20
=
tan 61c 39l
tan 61c 39l
20
x=
tan 61c 39l
Z 10.8
Solution
B
8m
3.5 m
8
3.5
8
m
3 .5
= 66c 22l
` i = tan - 1 c
] horizontal lines g
^ alternate angles h
311
312
Bearings
Bearings can be described in different ways:
For example, N70c W:
EXAMPLES
We could write
315o T for true bearings.
Solution
Measure clockwise,
starting at north.
Solution
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
Solution
The diagram below shows the bearing of the house from the school.
North
House
School
305c
To find the bearing of the school from the house, draw in North from the
house and use geometry to find the bearing as follows:
N2
N1
H
S
305c
^ angle of revolution h
+N 2 HS = 180c - 55c
= 125c
CONTINUED
313
314
Solution
125
100
= 1.25
tan x =
x = tan - 1 (1.25)
(to the nearest degree)
= 51c
i = 90c - xc
= 90c - 51c
= 39c
So the bearing of the plane from Sydney is 039.
5. A ship sails on a bearing of 140 from Sydney for 250 km. How far
east of Sydney is the ship now, to the nearest km?
Solution
A navigator on a ship
uses a sextant to
measure angles.
i = 140c - 90c
= 50c
x
cos 50c =
250
x
250 # cos 50c = 250 #
250
250 cos 50c = x
161 Z x
So the ship is 161 km east of Sydney, to the nearest kilometre.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
6.5 Exercises
1.
2.
North
(b)
West
East
35c
X
South
(c)
North
X
10c
West
East
South
(d)
X
North
23c
West
East
South
(e)
112c
North
West
X
X
South
East
315
316
3.
4.
5.
Tamworth is on a bearing of
340c from Newcastle. What is
the bearing of Newcastle from
Tamworth?
6.
7.
8.
9.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
20 m
15.8 m
317
318
Exact Ratios
A right-angled triangle with one angle of 45 is isosceles. The exact length of
its hypotenuse can be found.
c2 = a2 + b2
AC 2 = 1 2 + 1 2
=2
AC =
This means that the trigonometric ratios of 45c can be written as exact ratios.
1
2
1
cos 45c =
2
tan 45c = 1
sin 45c =
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
319
This angle is commonly used; for example, 45 is often used for the pitch of
a roof. The triangle with angles of 60 and 30 can also be written with exact
sides.
AD 2 = 2 2 - 1 2
=3
AD =
3
2
1
cos 60 =
2
tan 60 = 3
sin 30c =
sin 60 =
1
2
3
2
1
tan 30c =
3
It may be easier to
remember the triangle
rather than all these ratios.
cos 30c =
0c
30c
45c
60c
90c
120c
135c
150c
sin A
0
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
cos A
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
2
- 1
2
- 2
2
- 3
2
320
EXAMPLES
1. Find the exact value of sec 45.
Solution
1
cos 45
1
=
1
2
= 2
sec 45 =
Solution
5
cos 30c = x
x cos 30c = 5
5
cos 30c
5
=
3
2
2
=5#
3
10
=
3
10 3
=
3
x=
10 3
m.
3
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
321
6.6 Exercises
Find the exact value in all questions,
with rational denominator where
relevant.
1.
(b)
Evaluate
(a) sin 60c + cos 60c
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(c)
3.
(p)
1 - cos 45c
1 + cos 45c
(q)
cot 30c
sec 60c
(a)
5.
6.
2 - tan 60c
sec 2 45c
322
7.
Investigation
1. (a) Copy and complete the table for these acute angles
(between 0c and 90c).
x
0c
10c
20c
30c
40c
50c
60c
70c
80c
90c
sin x
cos x
tan x
(b) Copy and complete the table for these obtuse angles
(between 90c and 180c).
x
sin x
cos x
tan x
100c
110c
120c
130c
140c
150c
160c
170c
180c
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
(c) Copy and complete the table for these reflex angles
(between 180c and 270c).
x
190c
200c
210c
220c
230c
240c
250c
260c
270c
350c
360c
sin x
cos x
tan x
(d) Copy and complete the table for these reflex angles
(between 270c and 360c).
x
280c
290c
300c
310c
320c
330c
340c
sin x
cos x
tan x
2. What do you notice about their signs? Can you see any patterns?
Could you write down any rules for the sign of sin, cos and tan for
different angle sizes?
3. Draw the graphs of y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tan x for
0c # x # 360c. For y = tan x, you may need to find the ratios of
angle close to and either side of 90c and 270c.
Drawing the graphs of the trigonometric ratios can help us to see the
change in signs as angles increase.
We divide the domain 0c to 360c into 4 quadrants:
1st quadrant:
0c to 90c
2nd quadrant: 90c to 180c
3rd quadrant: 180c to 270c
4th quadrant: 270c to 360c
EXAMPLES
1. Describe the sign of sin x in each section (quadrant) of the graph y = sin x.
Solution
We can sketch the graph using the table below or using the values from
the tables in the investigation above for more accuracy.
x
0c
90c
180c
270c
-1
360c
0
CONTINUED
323
324
1
y = sin x
90c
180c
270c
360c
-1
The graph is above the x-axis for the first 2 quadrants, then below for the
3rd and 4th quadrants.
This means that sin x is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants and
negative in the 3rd and 4th quadrants.
2. Describe the sign of cos x in each section (quadrant) of the graph of
y = cos x.
Solution
We can sketch the graph using the table below or using the values from
the tables in the investigation above for more accuracy.
x
0c
90c
180c
-1
270c
360c
y = cos x
90c
180c
270c
360c
-1
The graph is above the x-axis in the 1st quadrant, then below for the 2nd
and 3rd quadrants and above again for the 4th quadrant.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
325
This means that cos x is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants and
negative in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
3. Describe the sign of tan x in each section (quadrant) of the
graph y = tan x.
Solution
We can sketch the graph using the table below or using the values from
the tables in the investigation above for more accuracy.
x
0c
90c
180c
270c
360c
No result
No result
Neither tan 90c nor tan 270c exists (we say that they are undefined).
Find the tan of angles close to these angles, for example tan 89c 59l and
tan 90c 01l, tan 279c 59l and tan 270c 01l.
There are asymptotes at 90c and 270c. On the left of 90c and 270c,
tan x is positive and on the right, the ratio is negative.
y
90c
180c
270c
360c
y = tan x
The graph is above the x-axis in the 1st quadrant, below for the 2nd,
above for the 3rd and below for the 4th quadrant.
This means that tan x is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants and
negative in the 2nd and 4th quadrants.
326
1 unit
1 unit
20c
20c
20c
20c
1 unit
1 unit
If we divide the circle into 4 quadrants, we notice that the x- and y-values
have different signs in different quadrants. This is crucial to notice when
looking at angles of any magnitude and explains the different signs you get
when finding sin, cos and tan for angles greater than 90c.
Quadrant 1
Looking at the first quadrant (see diagram below), notice that x and y are both
positive and that angle i is turning anticlockwise from the x-axis.
y
First quadrant
The angle at the x-axis is 0 and
the angle at the y-axis is 90c,
with all other angles in this
quadrant between these two
angles.
(x, y)
1 unit
i
x
Point (x, y) forms a triangle with sides 1, x and y, so we can find the
trigonometric ratios for angle i.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
327
y
1
=y
sin i =
x
1
=x
cos i =
y
tan i = x
Investigation
Since cos i = x and sin i = y, we can write the point (x, y) as (cos i, sin i).
The polar coordinates (cos i, sin i) give a circle.
The polar coordinates 6 A sin ] ai + c g, B sin ] bi g @ form a shape called a
Lissajous figure. These are sometimes called a Bowditch curve and they
are often used as logos, for example the ABC logo.
Use the Internet to research these and other similar shapes.
Use a graphics calculator or a computer program such as Autograph to draw
other graphs with polar coordinates using variations of sin i and cos i.
Quadrant 2
In the second quadrant, angles are between 90c and 180c.
If we take the 1st quadrant coordinates (x, y), where x 2 0 and y 2 0 and
put them in the 2nd quadrant, we notice that all x values are negative in the
second quadrant and y values are positive.
So the point in the 2nd quadrant will be (-x, y)
y
90c
Second quadrant
(-x, y)
y
180c
1 unit
180c- i
0c
328
Quadrant 3
In the third quadrant, angles are between 180c and 270c.
y
90c
180c
180c + i
x
y
0c
1 unit
(-x, -y)
Third quadrant
270c
Notice that x and y are both negative in the third quadrant, so cos i and
sin i will be both negative.
y
tan i = x so will be positive (a negative divided by a negative number).
To have an angle of i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 180c + i.
Quadrant 4
In the fourth quadrant, angles are between 270c and 360c.
y
90c
180c
i
360c - i
0c
1 unit
360c
(x, -y)
270c
Fourth quadrant
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
329
ASTC rule
Putting all of these results together gives a rule for all four quadrants that we
usually call the ASTC rule.
y
90c
2nd quadrant
1st quadrant
180c - i
A
0c
180c
360c
180c + i
3rd quadrant
360c - i
4th quadrant
270c
First quadrant:
Angle i:
sin i is positive
cos i is positive
tan i is positive
330
Second quadrant:
Angle 180c - i:
sin ] 180c - i g = sin i
cos ] 180c - i g = - cos i
tan ] 180c - i g = - tan i
Third quadrant:
Angle 180c + i:
sin ] 180c + i g = - sin i
cos ] 180c + i g = - cos i
tan ] 180c + i g = tan i
Fourth quadrant:
Angle 360c - i:
sin ] 360c - i g = - sin i
cos ] 360c - i g = cos i
tan ] 360c - i g = - tan i
EXAMPLES
1. Find all quadrants where
(a) sin i 2 0
(b) cos i 1 0
(c) tan i 1 0 and cos i 2 0
Solution
(a) sin i 2 0 means sin i is positive.
Using the ASTC rule, sin i is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants.
(b) cos i is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants, so cos i is negative in
the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
(c) tan i is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants so tan i is negative
in the 2nd and 4th quadrants. Also cos i is positive in the 1st and 4th
quadrants.
So tan i 1 0 and cos i 2 0 in the 4th quadrant.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
331
Solution
First we find the quadrant that 330c is in. It is in the 4th quadrant.
y
330c
30c
The angle inside the triangle in the 4th quadrant is 30c and tan is
negative in the 4th quadrant.
Notice that
360c - 30c = 330c.
30c
:3
60c
Solution
The angle in the triangle in the 3rd quadrant is 45c and sin is negative in
the 3rd quadrant.
CONTINUED
Notice that
180c + 45c = 225c.
332
225c
45c
45c
:2
45c
Solution
To find cos 510c, we move around the circle more than once.
y
30c
150c
510c
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
30c
333
3
2
:3
60c
Notice that
180c - 30c = 150c.
Solution
180c + x is an angle in the 3rd quadrant where cos is negative.
So cos ] 180c + x g = - cos x
6. If sin x = -
3
and cos x 2 0, find the value of tan x and sec x.
5
Solution
sin x 1 0 in the 3rd and 4th quadrants and cos x 2 0 in the 1st and 4th
quadrants.
So sin x 1 0 and cos x 2 0 in the 4th quadrant.
This means that tan x 1 0 and sec x 2 0.
sin x =
opposite
hypotenuse
x
5
334
3
4
1
sec x = cos x
5
=
4
So tan x = -
The ASTC rule also works for negative angles. These are measured in the
opposite way (clockwise) from positive angles as shown.
y
-270c
2nd quadrant
-(180c+ i )
1st quadrant
-360c
0
-180c
-(180c- i )
-(360c- i )
3rd quadrant
-i
4th quadrant
-90c
The only difference with this rule is that the angles are labelled differently.
EXAMPLE
Find the exact value of tan (-120c).
Solution
Notice that
- (180c - 60c) = -120c.
Moving around the circle the opposite way, the angle is in the 3rd
quadrant, with 60c in the triangle.
y
60c
120c
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
3
30c
:3
60c
6.7 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
335
336
9.
10. If tan i =
4
11. Given sin i = and tan i 1 0,
7
find the exact value of cos i and
tan i.
5
12. If sin x 1 0 and tan x = - , find
8
the exact value of cos x and cosec x.
2
and tan x 1 0,
5
find the exact value of cosec x,
cot x and tan x.
4
and
9
270c 1 i 1 360c, find the exact
15. If sin i = -
16. If cos i = -
tan ^ 180c + b h
sin ] 180c + a g
tan ] 360c - i g
sin ] - i g
cos ] - a g
tan ] - x g
Trigonometric Equations
This is called the principle
solution.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
337
EXAMPLES
1. Solve cos x =
3
in the domain 0 # x # 360.
2
Solution
3
is a positive ratio and cos is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants.
2
So there are two possible answers.
In the 1st quadrant, angles are in the form of i and in the 4th quadrant
angles are in the form of 360c - i.
cos 30c =
3
2
30c
:3
For cos x =
60c
Solution
2 sin 2 x - 1 = 0
2 sin 2 x = 1
1
sin 2 x =
2
sin x = !
2
1
=!
2
Since the ratio could be positive or negative, there are solutions in all
4 quadrants.
1st quadrant: angle i
2nd quadrant: angle 180c - i
3rd quadrant: angle 180c + i
4th quadrant: angle 360c - i
CONTINUED
338
1
2
x = 45c , 180c - 45c , 180c + 45c , 360c - 45c
= 45c , 135c , 225c , 315c
sin 45c =
45c
:2
45c
3. Solve tan x =
Solution
3 is a positive ratio and tan is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants.
So there are two possible answers.
In the domain - 180c # x # 180c, we use positive angles for
0c # x # 180c and negative angles for - 180c # x # 0c.
y
90c
2nd quadrant
1st quadrant
180c - i
180c
0c
-180c
-(180c - i)
0c
3rd quadrant
-i
4th quadrant
-90c
In the 1st quadrant, angles are in the form of i and in the 3rd quadrant
angles are in the form of - ^ 180c - i h .
tan 60c = 3
But there is also a solution in the 3rd quadrant where the angle is
- ^ 180c - i h .
For tan x = 3
x = 60c , - ] 180c - 60c g
= 30c , -120c
30c
:3
60c
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
339
Solution
Notice that the angle is 2x but the domain is for x.
If 0c # x # 360c then we multiply each part by 2 to get the domain for 2x.
0c # 2x # 720c
This means that we can find the solutions by going
around the circle twice!
30c
2 sin 2x - 1 = 0
2 sin 2x = 1
:3
1
2
1
sin 30c =
2
sin 2x =
60c
The trigonometric graphs can also help solve some trigonometric equations.
EXAMPLE
Solve cos x = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.
cos 90c = 0
However, looking at the graph of y = cos x shows that there is another
solution in the domain 0c # x # 360c.
y
90c
-1
For cos x = 0
x = 90c, 270c
180c
270c 360c
340
Investigation
Here are the 3 trigonometric graphs that you explored earlier in the chapter.
y = sin x
y = cos x
y = tan x
Use the values in the sin, cos and tan graphs to find values for the inverse
trigonometric functions in the tables below and then sketch the inverse
trigonometric functions.
For example sin 270 = -1
1
So cosec 270c =
-1
= -1
Some values will be undefined, so you will need to find values near them
in order to see where the graph goes.
y = cosec x
x
sin x
cosec x
0c
90c
180c
270c
360c
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
y = sec x
x
0c
90c
180c
270c
360c
0c
90c
180c
270c
360c
cos x
sec x
y = cot x
x
tan x
cot x
y = sec x
y = cot x
y = cotx
1
0
-1
90c
180c 270c
360c
x
360c
341
342
6.8 Exercises
1.
(h) 2 sin 3i = - 1
(i) 2 cos 2i - 1 = 0
(j) tan 2 3i = 1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric identities are statements about the relationships of
trigonometric ratios. You have already met some of thesethe reciprocal
ratios, complementary angles and the rules for the angle of any magnitude.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
Reciprocal ratios
1
sin i
1
sec i =
cos i
1
cot i =
tan i
cosec i =
Complementary angles
In this section you will learn some other identities, based on the unit circle.
In the work on angles of any magnitude, we defined
sin i as the y-coordinate of P and cos i as the x-coordinate of P.
343
344
y
tan i = x
sin i
=
cos i
tan i =
sin i
cos i
cot i =
cos i
sin i
1
tan i
cos i
=
sin i
cot i =
Pythagorean identities
The circle has equation x 2 + y 2 = 1.
Substituting x = cos i and y = sin i into x 2 + y 2 = 1 gives
Remeber that cos 2 i
means (cos i) 2.
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1
1 + tan 2 i = sec 2 i
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
345
Proof
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1
cos 2 i sin 2 i
1
+
=
cos 2 i cos 2 i
cos 2 i
1 + tan 2 i = sec 2 i
This identity can be rearranged to give
tan 2 i = sec 2 i - 1
1 = sec 2 i - tan 2 i
cot 2 i + 1 = cosec 2 i
Proof
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1
cos 2 i sin 2 i
1
+
=
2
2
sin i sin i
sin 2 i
2
cot i + 1 = cosec 2 i
This identity can be rearranged to give
cot 2 i = cosec 2 i - 1
1 = cosec 2 i - cot 2 i
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify sin i cot i.
Solution
sin i cot i = sin i #
= cos i
cos i
sin i
Solution
sin ^ 90c - b h sec b = cos b #
=1
1
cos b
CONTINUED
346
3. Simplify
Solution
sin 4 i + sin 2 i cos 2 i = sin 2 i ^ sin 2 i + cos 2 i h
= sin 2 i ] 1 g
= sin 2 i
= sin i
4. Prove cot x + tan x = cosec x sec x.
Solution
LHS = cot x + tan x
cos x sin x
=
+
sin x cos x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x
sin x cos x
1
=
sin x cos x
1
1
=
# cos x
sin x
= cosec x sec x
= RHS
=
1 - cos x
1
=
.
1 + cos x
sin 2 x
Solution
1 - cos x
sin 2 x
1 - cos x
=
1 - cos 2 x
1 - cos x
=
] 1 + cos x g ] 1 - cos x g
1
=
1 + cos x
= RHS
LHS =
1 - cos x
1
=
2
1
cos x
+
sin x
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
6.9 Exercises
1.
2.
Simplify
(a) sin ] 90c - i g
(b) tan ] 360c - i g
(c) cos ] - i g
(d) cot ] 90c - i g
(e) sec ] 180c + a g
= cosec 2 x - cot 2 x
(e) ] sin x - cos x g3
= sin x - cos x - 2 sin 2 x cos x
+2 sin x cos 2 x
(f) cot i + 2 sec i
1 - sin 2 i + 2 sin i
sin i cos i
(g) cos 2 ] 90c - i g cot i
Simplify
(a) tan i cos i
(b) tan i cosec i
(c) sec x cot x
(d) 1 - sin 2 x
1 - cos a
cot 2 x + 1
1 + tan 2 x
sec 2 i - 1
5 cot 2 i + 5
1
(j)
cosec 2 x
(k) sin 2 a cosec 2 a
(l) cot i - cot i cos 2 i
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
3.
= sin i cos i
(h) (cosec x + cot x) (cosec x - cot x) = 1
Prove that
(a) cos 2 x - 1 = - sin 2 x
1 + sin i
(b) sec i + tan i =
cos i
3
2
(c) 3 + 3 tan a =
1 - sin 2 a
1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i
cos 2 i
2
= tan i + cos 2 i
1 + cot b
(j)
- cos b
cosec b
sec b
=
tan b + cot b
(i)
4.
5.
Show that x 2 + y 2 = 81 if
x = 9 cos i and y = 9 sin i.
347
348
Sine rule
sin A
sin B
sin C
a = b = c
a
c
b
=
=
sin A
sin B
sin C
or
Proof
(1)
From TACD,
h
b
h = b sin C
sin C =
`
(2)
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
EXAMPLES
349
Solution
Name the sides a and b, and angles A and B.
a
b
=
sin A
sin B
10.7
x
=
sin 43c 21l
sin 79c 12l
10.7
x
sin 43c 21l #
= sin 43c 21l #
sin 43c 21l
sin 79c 12l
10.7 sin 43c 21l
x=
sin 79c 12l
Z 7.5 cm
2. Find the value of y, to the nearest whole number.
You can rename the
triangle ABC or just make
sure you put sides with
their opposite angles
together.
Solution
+Y = 180c - (53c + 24c )
= 103c
a
b
=
sin A
sin B
y
8
=
sin 103c
sin 53c
y
8
= sin 103c #
sin 103c #
sin 103c
sin 53c
8 sin 103c
y=
sin 53c
Z 10
CONTINUED
350
Solution
sin A
sin B
a = b
sin i
sin 86c 11l
=
6.7
8.3
sin i
sin 86c 11l
= 6.7 #
6.7 #
6 .7
8.3
6.7 sin 86c 11l
sin i =
8 .3
- 1 6.7 sin 86c 11l
i = sin c
m
8 .3
Z 53c39l
Since sin x is positive in the first 2 quadrants, both acute angles (between 0c
and 90c) and obtuse angles (between 90c and 180c) give positive sin ratios.
e.g. sin 50c = 0.766
and sin 130c = 0.766
This affects the sine rule, since there is no way of distinguishing between an
acute angle and an obtuse angle. When doing a question involving an obtuse
angle, we need to use the 2nd quadrant angle of 180c - i rather than relying
on the calculator to give the correct answer.
EXAMPLE
Angle i is obtuse. Find the value of i, in degrees and minutes.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
Solution
sin A
sin B
a = b
sin i
sin 15c 49l
=
5.4
11.9
sin i
sin 15c 49l
= 11.9 #
11.9 #
5.4
11.9
11.9 sin 15c 49l
sin i =
5.4
- 1 11.9 sin 15c 49l
m
i = sin c
5.4
= 36c 55l
^ acute angle h
But i is obtuse
`
i = 180c - 36c 55l
= 143c 05l
6.10
1.
Exercises
(c)
(a)
(d)
(b)
(e)
351
352
2.
BC = 4.6 cm and
+ACB = 33c 47l.
4.
5.
6.
7.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e) (i is obtuse)
9.
53c
3.7
3.
12.7 m
8.
4.9
21c31l
47c
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
(a) AD
(b) BD.
A
52c
8.3 cm
32c
Cosine rule
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
Similarly
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos A
b 2 = a 2 + c 2 - 2ac cos B
Proof
A
a-x
(1)
(2)
(3)
353
354
(4)
EXAMPLE
Find the value of x, correct to the nearest whole number.
The cosine rule uses 3 sides
and 1 angle, with 1 unknown.
Solution
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
x 2 = 5.6 2 + 6.4 2 - 2 (5.6) (6.4) cos 112c 32l
Z 99.79
x = 99.79
Z 10
Press 5.6 x 2 + 6.4 x 2 - 2 # 5.6 # 6.4
# cos 112 % , ,, 32 % , ,, =
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
355
a2 + b2 - c2
2ab
Similarly
cos A =
b2 + c2 - a2
2bc
cos B =
a +c -b
2ac
2
EXAMPLES
1. Find i, in degrees and minutes.
Solution
a2 + b2 - c2
2ab
52 + 62 - 32
cos i =
2 ]5 g]6 g
52
=
60
52
m
i = cos - 1 c
60
Z 29c 56l
cos C =
4.5 cm
B
8.4 cm
CONTINUED
356
Solution
a2 + b2 - c2
2ab
4.5 2 + 6.1 2 - 8.4 2
cos +BAC =
2 ] 4. 5 g ] 6 .1 g
= - 0.2386
cos C =
6.11
1.
Exercises
(e)
(a)
2.
(b)
(b)
(c)
(c)
(d)
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
(d)
7.
8.
(e)
3.
42 c8 l
8.4 cm
B
12.9 mm
125 c
101 c38 l
3.7 cm
23.8 mm
9.9 cm
4.
5.
6.
9.
357
358
Applications
The sine and cosine rules can be used in solving problems.
EXAMPLES
1. The angle of elevation of a tower from point A is 72c. From point B,
50 m further away from the tower than A, the angle of elevation is 47c.
(a) Find the exact length of AT.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, find the height h of the tower to 1 decimal place.
Solution
^ straight angle h
(angle sum of T)
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
h
AT
h = AT sin 72c
50 sin 47c
=
# sin 72c
sin 25c
Z 82.3 m
359
2. A ship sails from Sydney for 200 km on a bearing of 040c , then sails
on a bearing of 157c for 345 km.
(a) How far from Sydney is the ship, to the nearest km?
(b) What is the bearing of the ship from Sydney, to the nearest degree?
Solution
^ cointerior angles h
^ angle of revolution h
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
x 2 = 200 2 + 345 2 - 2 (200) (345) cos 63c
Z 96374.3
x = 96374.3
Z 310
So the ship is 310 km from Sydney.
sin A
sin B
a = b
sin i
sin 63c
=
345
310
345 sin 63c
` sin i =
310
Z 0.99
i Z 82c
( b)
360
6.12
Exercises
1.
2.
3.
7.
8.
9.
54 c37 l
4.
12.8 m
85c58 l
5.
6.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
125 c
16.8 m
23.4 m
13.9 m
58 c1l
11.4 m
14.3 m
132 c31l
361
362
Area
To find the area of a triangle, you need to know its perpendicular height.
Trigonometry allows us to find this height in terms of one of the angles in the
triangle.
A=
Similarly,
1
ac sin B
2
1
A = bc sin A
2
A=
Proof
From D BCD,
h
sin C = a
` h = a sin C
1
bh
2
1
= ba sin C
2
A=
1
ab sin C
2
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
363
EXAMPLE
Find the area of D ABC correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution
1
ab sin C
2
1
= (4.3) (5.8) sin 112c 34l
2
Z 11.52 units 2
A=
6.13
1.
Exercises
(c)
(d)
(b)
(e)
364
2.
3.
7.
8.
9.
4.
5.
14.3 cm
10.5 cm
6.
44c
9.4 cm
36c
6.7 cm
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
365
Solution
(a) From D XTO
h
25
25 tan 47c = h
26.8 = h
tan 47c =
26.8
m
15
= 60c 46l
i = tan - 1 c
Solution
The radius of the base is 9 cm.
9
sin i =
15
9
` i = sin - 1 c
m
15
= 36c 52l
Vertical angle = 2i
= 73c 44l
366
6.14
1.
2.
3.
Exercises
A 25 cm #11 cm # 8 cm cardboard
box contains an insert (the
shaded area) made of foam.
(a) Find the area of foam in the
insert, to the nearest cm 2 .
(b) Find the angle, i, the insert
makes at the corner of the box.
4.
5.
6.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
7.
9.
367
368
Proof
Remember:
cos i = x -coordinate and
sin i = y -coordinate.
(1)
Proof
Substitute - y for y.
cos (x - y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
cos (x - (- y )) = cos x cos (- y ) + sin x sin (- y )
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y + sin x (- sin y )
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y - sin x sin y
(2)
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
369
Proof
Substitute 90c - x for x.
cos (x - y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
cos (90c - x - y) = cos (90c - x) cos y + sin (90c- x) sin y
cos (90c - (x + y)) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
Proof
Substitute - y for y.
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
sin (x + (- y)) = sin x cos (- y) + cos x sin (- y)
sin (x - y) = sin x cos y + cos x (- sin y)
sin (x - y) = sin x cos y - cos x sin y
tan ^ x + y h =
tan x + tan y
1 - tan x tan y
Proof
tan (x + y) =
sin ^ x + y h
cos ^ x + y h
sin x cos y + cos x sin y
=
cos x cos y - sin x sin y
sin x cos y + cos x sin y
cos x cos y
=
cos x cos y - sin x sin y
cos x cos y
tan x + tan y
tan (x + y) =
1 - tan x tan y
tan ^ x - y h =
tan x - tan y
1 + tan x tan y
370
Proof
Substitute -y for y.
tan (x + y) =
tan (x + (- y)) =
tan (x - y) =
tan x + tan y
1 - tan x tan y
tan x + tan ^ - y h
1 - tan x tan ^ - y h
tan x - tan y
1 - tan x ^ - tan y h
tan x - tan y
tan (x - y) =
1 + tan x tan y
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify sin 2i cos i - cos 2i sin i.
Solution
sin 2i cos i - cos 2i sin i = sin (2i - i)
= sin i
2. Find the exact value of cos 75c .
Solution
cos 75c = cos (30c+ 45c)
= cos 30c cos 45c - sin 30c sin 45c
=
=
3
1
1
1
#
- #
2
2
2
2
3-1
2 2
3-1
#
2 2
6- 2
=
4
2
2
Solution
cos (i + 60c) + sin (i + 60c)
= cos i cos 60c - sin i sin 60c + sin i cos 60c + cos i sin 60c
3
3
1
1
- sin i #
+ sin i # + cos i #
2
2
2
2
3
3
1
1
n + sin i d = cos i d +
+ n
2
2
2
2
1+ 3n
1- 3n
= cos i d
+ sin i d
2
2
= cos i #
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
371
Proof
sin 2x = sin (x + x)
= sin x cos x + cos x sin x
= 2 sin x cos x
Proof
cos 2x = cos (x + x)
= cos x cos x - sin x sin x
= cos 2 x - sin 2 x
= (1 - sin 2 x) - sin 2 x
= 1 - 2 sin 2 x
= 1 - 2 (1 - cos 2 x)
= 2 cos 2 x - 1
tan 2x =
Proof
tan 2x = tan (x + x)
tan x + tan x
=
1 - tan x tan x
2 tan x
tan 2x =
1 - tan 2 x
Remember:
sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1.
2 tan x
1 - tan 2 x
372
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify cos 2 2i - sin 2 2i.
Solution
cos 2 2i - sin 2 2i = cos 2 (2i)
= cos 4i
2. If sin x =
4
, find the exact value of sin 2x.
7
Solution
AC 2 = 7 2 - 4 2
= 33
` AC = 33
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
4
#
7
8 33
=
49
=2#
33
7
PROBLEM
1 ]
3 sin i - sin 3i g to
4
draw up a table of sine ratios. Can you prove this relation?
6.15
1.
Exercises
Expand
(a) sin ] a - b g
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
cos ^ p + q h
tan ^ a + b h
sin (x + 20c)
tan ] 48c + x g
cos ] 2i - a g
cos ( x + 75c)
tan ^ 5x - 7y h
sin ^ 4a - b h
tan ^ a - 3b h
2.
Simplify
(a) sin a cos b + cos a sin b
tan 36c + tan 29c
(b)
1 - tan 36c tan 29c
(c) cos 28c cos 27c - sin 28c sin 27c
(d) sin 2x cos 3y + cos 2x sin 3y
tan 3i - tan i
(e)
1 + tan 3i tan i
(f) sin 74c cos 42c - cos 74c sin 42c
(g) sin ] a + b g + sin ] a - b g
(h) sin ^ x + y h - sin ^ x - y h
(i) cos ^ x - y h - cos ^ x + y h
(j) cos ] m + n g + cos ] m - n g
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
3.
4.
3
2
and cos y = , find
4
3
the exact value of
(a) sin ^ x + y h
(b) cos ^ x - y h
(c) tan ^ x + y h
5.
If sin x =
6.
By taking 2i = i + i, find an
expression for
(a) sin 2i
(b) cos 2i
(c) tan 2i
7.
By writing 3i as 2i + i, find an
expression in terms of i for
(a) sin 3i
(b) cos 3i
(c) tan 3i
tan 7i - tan 3i
.
1 + tan 7i tan 3i
(b) Find an expression for sin 4i
in terms of 7i and 3i.
3
5
and cos y =
, find
5
13
the value of
(a) cos x
(b) sin y
(c) sin ^ x - y h
(d) tan y
(e) tan ^ x + y h
11. If sin x =
cos ^ x + y h - cos ^ x - y h
sin ^ x + y h - sin ^ x - y h
cos ^ x + y h + sin ^ x - y h
tan ^ x + y h + tan ^ x - y h
tan ^ x + y h - tan ^ x - y h
14. Expand
(a) sin 2b
(b) tan 2i
(c) cos 2i
(d) sin (x + 2y)
(e) cos (2a + b )
(f) tan (x + 2y)
(g) sin (2i - d )
(h) cos (i - 2c)
(i) tan (x - 2z)
(j) sin (2x - 2y)
15. Simplify
(a) 2 cos 3x sin 3x
(b) cos 2 7y - sin 2 7y
2 tan 5i
(c)
1
- tan 2 5i
9. Find an expression for cos 9x in
(d) 1 - 2 sin 2 y
terms of 2x and 7x.
(e) sin 6i cos 6i
10. Find the exact value of
(f) ] sin x + cos x g2
(a) cos 23c cos 22c - sin 23c sin 22c
(g) 2 cos 2 3a - 1
tan 85c - tan 25c
(b)
(h) 1 - 2 sin 2 40c
1 + tan 85c tan 25c
2 tan b
(c) sin 180c cos 60c
(i)
1 - tan 2 b
+ cos 180c sin 60c
(j) ] sin 3x - cos 3x g2
(d) cos 290c cos 80c
8.
(a) Simplify
373
374
17. If cos x =
3
12
and tan b =
, find
5
5
the exact values of
(a) sin ^ a + b h
(b) cos 2a
(c) sin 2b
(d) tan ^ a - b h
18. If sin a =
sin 2x
.
1 + cos 2x
1
sin 2i tan i
2
i
1 - cos i
=
2
sin i
If tan
i
2
i
2t
= t, then tan i =
2
1 - t2
Proof
2 tan A
1 - tan 2 A
i
2 tan
2
` tan i =
where i = 2A
i
1 - tan 2
2
2t
=
1 - t2
tan 2A =
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
If tan
375
i
2t
= t, then sin i =
2
1 + t2
Proof
tan
i
t
=t=
2
1
The hypotenuse is
1 + t 2 by Pythagoras
theorem.
If tan
i
2
i
come from the
2
triangle above.
i
1 - t2
= t, then cos i =
2
1 + t2
Proof
cos 2A = cos 2 A - sin 2 A
i
i
where i = 2A
` cos i = cos 2 - sin 2
2
2
2
2
t
1
=e
-e
o
o
1 + t2
1 + t2
2
t
1
=
2
1+t
1 + t2
1 - t2
=
1 + t2
i
The ratios for cos and
2
i
sin come from the
2
previous triangle.
376
EXAMPLES
1. Find the exact value of
Solution
sin i =
So
2t
1 + t2
2 tan 15c
.
1 + tan 2 15c
where t = tan
i
2
2 tan 15c
= sin 30c
1 + tan 2 15c
1
=
2
i
i
- 2 cot i = tan .
2
2
Solution
i
- 2 cot i
2
1
2
=
i tan i
tan
2
i
1
2
where t = tan
= t
2t
2
1 - t2
2
1 2^1 - t h
= t
2t
1 1 - t2
= t
t
1 - 1 + t2
=
t
t2
=
t
=t
LHS = cot
i
2
= RHS
= tan
` cot
i
i
- 2 cot i = tan
2
2
There is also another expression that will help solve some further
trigonometric equations.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
377
Proof
If tan a =
b
, then the
a
hypotenuse is a 2 + b 2 by
Pythagoras theorem.
RHS = r sin (i + a )
=
b
a + b2
2
b
a 2 + b 2 and tan a = a
where r =
EXAMPLES
1. Write
Solution
a sin i + b cos i = r sin ] i + a g where r =
b
a 2 + b 2 and tan a = a
a2 + b2
2
3 + 12
=
= 3+1
= 4
=2
b
tan a = a
1
=
3
a = tan - 1 e
1
o
3
= 30c
So
CONTINUED
378
Solution
a sin i + b cos i = r sin (i + a ) where r =
b
a 2 + b 2 and tan a = a
a2 + b2
32 + 22
9+4
13
b
tan a = a
2
=
3
2
a = tan - 1 c m
3
= 33 41l
So 3 sin i + 2 cos i =
Class Investigation
Can you find similar results for these?
a sin i - b cos i
a cos i + b cos i
a cos i - b sin i
6.16
1.
Exercises
Simplify
2t
(a)
1 - t2
(e)
1 - t2
(b)
1 + t2
2 tan 10c
(c)
1 - tan 2 10c
1 - tan 25c
1 + tan 2 25c
2
(d)
2 tan i
1 + tan 2 i
i
2
(f)
i
1 + tan 2
2
1 - tan 2
2.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
3.
(b)
1 - tan 2 22.5c
1 + tan 2 22.5c
(c)
1 - tan 2 30c
1 + tan 2 30c
(d)
2 tan 90c
1 - tan 2 90c
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
7.
8.
9.
i
2
(g) 3 cos i + 4 sin i
(f) 1 + tan i tan
(h)
1 + sin i + cos i
1 + sin i - cos i
4.
Prove
5.
6.
2 sin i + cos i
sin i + 3 cos i
sin i + cos i
5 sin i + 2 cos i
4 sin i + cos i
3 sin i + cos i
2 sin i + 3 cos i
4 sin i + 7 cos i
5 sin i + 4 cos i
3 sin i + 5 cos i
EXAMPLES
1. Solve 2 sin i = cos i for 0c # i # 360c .
Solution
2 sin i = cos i
Dividing both sides by cos i:
2 sin i
cos i
=
cos i
cos i
2 tan i = 1
tan i = 0.5
CONTINUED
379
380
Solution
cos 2i = cos i
2 cos i - 1 = cos i
2 cos i - cos i - 1 = 0
] 2 cos i + 1 g ] cos i - 1 g = 0
2
` 2 cos i + 1 = 0 or cos i - 1 = 0
2 cos i = -1
cos i = 1
1
i = 0c, 360c
cos i = 2
i = 120c, 240c
` solutions are i = 0c, 120c, 240c, 360c
3 sin x + cos x = 1 for 0c # x # 360c.
3. Solve
Solution (Method 1)
Use the result for a sin x + b cos x.
For 3 sin x + cos x, a = 3 and b = 1
r=
a2 + b2
= ^ 3 h + 12
=2
b
tan a = a
1
=
3
` a = 30c
2
Solving:
3 sin x + cos x = 1
2 sin ] x + 30c g = 1
1
sin ] x + 30c g =
2
`
for 0c # x # 360c
for 30c # x + 30c # 390c
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
Solution (Method 2)
Use the results for t = tan
i
.
2
3 sin x + cos x = 1
2t
1 - t2
3d
+
=1
n
1 + t2
1 + t2
2 3 t + 1 - t2
=1
1 + t2
2 3 t + 1 - t2 = 1 + t2
0 = 2t 2 - 2 3 t
= 2t ^ t - 3 h
` 2t = 0
or t - 3
t=0
t
x
x
tan = 0
tan
2
2
x
x
= 0c, 180c
2
2
` x = 0c, 120c, 360c
=0
= 3
=
3 for 0c #
x
# 180c
2
= 60c
EXAMPLE
Find all solutions for sin i =
3
.
2
Solution
CONTINUED
381
382
EXAMPLE
Find all solutions for cos i =
Solution
1
.
2
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
383
EXAMPLE
Find all solutions for tan i = 1.
Solution
6.17
1.
Exercises
2.
(b) cos x =
3 sin x
(g)
(h) cos x - 1 = 0
(i) 2 sin x tan x - tan x
+ 2 sin x - 1 = 0
(j) 3 cos 2 x - 7 cos x + 4 = 0
2 cos i + sin i = 1
5
2
2 cos i + sin i + 1 = 0
384
3.
7.
8.
9.
(c) cos i =
(e) tan i + 1 = 0
(f) 2 cos 2 b = 1
(g) 4 sin 2 c = 3
1
(h) tan i =
3
(i) cos i = 0.245
(j) sin a = 0.399
4.
3
for
2
-180c # x # 180c .
5.
6.
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
Test Yourself 6
1.
2.
Simplify
1 + cot 2 A
i
1 - t2
(d)
where t = tan
2
2
1+t
(e) 1 - 2 sin 2 10i
(c)
3.
4.
5.
Prove that
6.
7.
(b)
(b)
8
and
17
5
13
8.
9.
(c)
385
386
10 mm
4 mm
12 mm
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
Challenge Exercise 6
1.
2.
3.
6.
7.
8.
9.
4.
5.
387
388
7
Linear Functions
TERMINOLOGY
Collinear points: Two or more points that lie on the same
straight line
INTRODUCTION
IN CHAPTER 5, YOU STUDIED functions and their graphs. This chapter
looks at the linear function, or straight-line graph, in more detail.
Here you will study the gradient and equation of a straight line, the
intersection of two or more lines, parallel and perpendicular lines,
the midpoint, distance and the perpendicular distance from a point
to a line.
Class Assignment
Find as many examples as you can of straight-line graphs in newspapers
and magazines.
Distance
The distance between two points (or the length of the interval between two
points) is easy to find when the points form a vertical or horizontal line.
391
392
EXAMPLES
Find the distance between
1. ^ -1, 4 h and ^ -1, -2 h
Solution
Solution
When the two points are not lined up horizontally or vertically, we use
Pythagoras theorem to find the distance.
393
EXAMPLE
Find the distance between points ^ 3, -1 h and ^ -2, 5 h.
Solution
BC = 5 and AC = 6
By Pythagoras theorem,
c =a +b
AB 2 = 5 2 + 6 2
= 25 + 36
= 61
2
` AB = 61
Z 7.81
2
2
_ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
394
Proof
(x 1 - x 2 ) + (y 1 - y 2 ) ,
2
Let A = _ x 1, y 1 i and B = _ x 2, y 2 i
Length AC = x 2 - x 1 and length BC = y 2 - y 1
By Pythagoras theorem
AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2
d 2 = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2
`d=
2
2
_ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
EXAMPLES
1. Find the distance between the points ^ 1, 3 h and ^ -3, 0 h.
Solution
Let ^ 1, 3 h be _ x 1, y 1 i and ^ -3, 0 h be _ x 2, y 2 i
d=
2
2
_ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
= ] -3 - 1 g2 + ] 0 - 3 g2
= ] -4 g2 + ] -3 g2
= 16 + 9
= 25
=5
So the distance is 5 units.
2. Find the exact length of AB given that A = ^ -2, -4 h and B = ^ -1, 5 h .
Solution
Let ^ -2, -4 h be _ x 1, y 1 i and ^ -1, 5 h be _ x 2, y 2 i
d=
2
2
_ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
6 -1 - ^ -2 h @ 2 + 6 5 - ^ -4 h @ 2
=
=
=
12 + 92
1 + 81
82
7.1 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
395
396
Midpoint
The midpoint is the point halfway between two other points.
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
o
,
2
2
Proof
EXAMPLES
1. Find the midpoint of ^ -1, 4 h and ^ 5, 2 h.
Solution
x=
x1 + x2
2
-1 + 5
2
4
=
2
=2
y1 + y2
y=
2
4+2
=
2
6
=
2
=3
So M = (2, 3) .
=
Solution
x=
x1 + x2
2
-7 + a
2=
2
4 = -7 + a
11 = a
y1 + y2
y=
2
-8 + b
-3 =
2
-6 = -8 + b
2=b
So a = 11 and b = 2.
PROBLEM
A timekeeper worked out the average time for 8 finalists in a race. The
average was 30.55, but the timekeeper lost one of the finalists times.
The other 7 times were 30.3, 31.1, 30.9, 30.7, 29.9, 31.0 and 30.3.
Can you find out the missing time?
397
398
7.2 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The locus is the path
that P (x, y) follows.
6.
7.
8.
The points A ^ 3, 5 h, B ^ 9, -3 h,
C ^ 5, -6 h and D ^ -1, 2 h form a
quadrilateral. Prove that the
diagonals are equal and bisect
one another. What type of
quadrilateral is ABCD?
9.
Gradient
The gradient of a straight line measures its slope. The gradient compares the
vertical rise with the horizontal run.
399
rise
Gradient = run
EXAMPLES
Find the gradient of each interval.
1.
You will study the
gradient at different
points on a curve in
the next chapter.
Solution
rise
Gradient = run
2
=
3
CONTINUED
400
2.
Solution
In this case, x is - 3 (the run is measured towards the left).
rise
Gradient = run
2
=
-3
2
=3
Proof
401
BC = y 2 - y 1 and AC = x 2 - x 1
rise
Gradient = run
y2 - y1
= x -x
2
1
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the line between points ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -3, 4 h .
Solution
y2 - y1
Gradient: m = x - x
2
1
4-3
=
-3 - 2
1
=
-5
1
=5
2. Prove that points ^ 2, 3 h, ^ -2, -5 h and ^ 0, -1 h are collinear.
Solution
To prove points are collinear, we show that they have the same gradient
(slope).
CONTINUED
402
Proof
rise
m = run
opposite
=
adjacent
= tan i
403
Class Discussion
1. Which angles give a positive gradient?
2. Which angles give a negative gradient? Why?
3. What is the gradient of a horizontal line? What angle does it make
with the x-axis?
4. What angle does a vertical line make with the x-axis? Can you find
its gradient?
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the line that makes an angle of 135c with the
x-axis in the positive direction.
Solution
m = tan i
= tan 135c
= -1
2. Find the angle, in degrees and minutes, that a straight line makes
with the x-axis in the positive direction if its gradient is 0.5.
Solution
m = tan i
` tan i = 0.5
i = 26c34l
404
7.3 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Investigation
1. (i) Draw the graph of each linear function.
(ii) By selecting two points on the line, find its gradient.
(a) y = x
(b) y = 2x
(c) y = 3x
(d) y = - x
(e) y = - 2x
Can you find a pattern for the gradient of each line? Can you predict
what the gradient of y = 5x and y = - 9x would be?
2. (i) Draw the graph of each linear function.
(ii) Find the y-intercept.
(a) y = x
(b) y = x + 1
(c) y = x + 2
(d) y = x - 2
(e) y = x - 3
Can you find a pattern for the y-intercept of each line? Can you predict
what the y-intercept of y = x + 11 and y = x - 6 would be?
y = mx + b has
m = gradient
b = y-intercept
405
406
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient and y-intercept of the linear function y = 7x - 5.
Solution
The equation is in the form y = mx + b where m = 7 and b = - 5.
Gradient = 7
y-intercept = - 5
2. Find the gradient of the straight line with equation 2x + 3y - 6 = 0.
Solution
First, we change the equation into the form y = mx + b.
2x + 3y - 6 = 0
2x + 3y - 6 + 6 = 0 + 6
2x + 3y = 6
2x - 2x + 3y = 6 - 2x
3y = 6 - 2x
= - 2x + 6
3y
- 2x + 6
=
3
3
- 2x 6
y=
+
3
3
2
= - x +2
3
2
m=3
2
So the gradient is - .
3
Proof
ax + by + c = 0
by = - ax - c
ax c
y=b
b
a
`
m=b
a
b
EXAMPLE
Find the gradient of 3x - y = 2.
Solution
3x - y = 2
3x - y - 2 = 0
a = 3, b = - 1
a
m=b
3
=-1
=3
` gradient is 3
7.4 Exercises
1.
Find
(i) the gradient and
(ii) the y-intercept of each linear
function.
(a) y = 3x + 5
(b) f ] x g = 2x + 1
(c) y = 6x - 7
(d) y = - x
(e) y = - 4x + 3
(f) y = x - 2
(g) f ] x g = 6 - 2x
(h) y = 1 - x
(i) y = 9x
(j) y = 5x - 2
2.
Find
(i) the gradient and
(ii) the y-intercept of each linear
function.
(a) 2x + y - 3 = 0
(b) 5x + y + 6 = 0
(c) 6x - y - 1 = 0
(d) x - y + 4 = 0
(e) 4x + 2y - 1 = 0
(f) 6x - 2y + 3 = 0
(g) x + 3y + 6 = 0
(h) 4x + 5y - 10 = 0
(i) 7x - 2y - 1 = 0
(j) 5x - 3y + 2 = 0
3.
407
408
General form
ax + by + c = 0
Gradient form
y = mx + b
where m = gradient and b = y-intercept
Intercept form
x y
a+b =1
where a and b are the x-intercept and y-intercept respectively
Proof
b
m = - a, b = b
`
b
y = -ax + b
y
b
y
x
= -a + 1
x
a+b =1
Point-gradient formula
There are two formulae for finding the equation of a straight line. One of these
uses a point and the gradient of the line.
409
Proof
Given point _ x 1, y 1 i on the line with gradient m
Let P = ^ x, y h
Then line AP has gradient
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
y - y1
`
m= x-x
1
m _ x - x1 i = y - y1
Two-point formula
The equation of a straight line is given by
y - y1
y2 - y1
=
x - x1
x2 - x1
This formula is
optional as you can
use the pointgradient
formula for any
question.
Proof
Let P = ^ x, y h
D APQ <; D ABR
PQ
BR
So
=
AR
AQ
y - y1
y2 - y1
i.e. x - x = x - x
1
2
1
The two-point formula is not essential. The right-hand side of it is the gradient
of the line. Replacing this by m gives the pointgradient formula.
410
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the straight line with gradient -4 and passing
through the point ^ -2, 3 h .
Solution
m = -4, x 1 = -2 and y 1 = 3
Equation: y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
y - 3 = - 4 [x - (-2)]
= - 4 (x + 2)
= - 4x - 8
`
y = - 4x - 5
or 4x + y + 5 = 0
(gradient form)
(general form)
2. Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the points
^ 2, -3 h and ^ -4, -7 h .
Solution
By two-point formula:
y - y1
y2 - y1
=
x - x1
x2 - x1
y - ] -7 g
-3 - ] -7 g
=
x - ] -4 g
2 - ] -4 g
y+7
-3 + 7
=
x+4
2+4
y+7
2
=
x+4
3
3 ^ y + 7 h = 2 ]x + 4 g
3y + 21 = 2x + 8
-2x + 3y + 13 = 0
or 2x - 3y - 13 = 0
By point-gradient method:
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
-3 - ] -7 g
=
2 - ] -4 g
-3 + 7
=
2+4
2
=
3
Use one of the points, say ^ -4, -7 h .
2
m = , x 1 = -4 and y 1 = -7
3
Equation:
y - y 1 = m ( x - x 1)
y - (-7) =
2
6 x - ( - 4) @
3
2
( x + 4)
3
= 2 ]x + 4 g
= 2x + 8
=0
=0
y+7=
3^ y + 7h
3y + 21
` -2x + 3y + 13
or 2x - 3y - 13
Solution
x y
Intercept form is a + = 1, where a and b are the x-intercept and
b
y-intercept respectively.
x y
`
+ =1
3 2
2x + 3y = 6
` 2x + 3y - 6 = 0
Again, the point-gradient formula can be used. The x-intercept and
y-intercept are the points ^ 3, 0 h and ^ 0, 2 h .
7.5 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
411
412
6.
7.
8.
9.
Class Investigation
Sketch the following straight lines on the same number plane.
1. y = 2x
2. y = 2x + 1
3. y = 2x - 3
4. y = 2x + 5
What do you notice about these lines?
If two lines are parallel, then they have the same gradient. That is,
m1 = m2
413
Proof
a
b
a
ax + by + c 2 = 0 has gradient m 2 = b
Since m 1 = m 2, the two lines are parallel.
ax + by + c 1 = 0 has gradient m 1 = -
EXAMPLES
1. Prove that the straight lines 5x - 2y - 1 = 0 and 5x - 2y + 7 = 0 are
parallel.
Solution
5x - 2y - 1 = 0
5x - 1 = 2y
5
1
x- =y
2
2
5
`
m1 =
2
5x - 2y + 7 = 0
5x + 7 = 2 y
5
7
x+ =y
2
2
5
`
m2 =
2
5
m1 = m2 =
2
` the lines are parallel.
2. Find the equation of a straight line parallel to the line 2x - y - 3 = 0
and passing through ^ 1, -5 h .
Solution
2x - y - 3 = 0
2x - 3 = y
`
m1 = 2
For parallel lines m 1 = m 2
` m2 = 2
Equation:
y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
y - (-5) = 2 (x - 1)
y + 5 = 2x - 2
0 = 2x - y - 7
414
Perpendicular lines
Class Investigation
Sketch the following pairs of straight lines on the same number plane.
1. (a) 3x - 4y + 12 = 0
2. (a) 2x + y + 4 = 0
(b) 4x + 3y - 8 = 0
(b) x - 2y + 2 = 0
Proof
^ straight angle h
So
or
Proof
a
b
b
bx - ay + c 2 = 0 has gradient m 2 = - - a
b
=a
a
b
m1 m2 = - # a
b
= -1
ax + by + c 1 = 0 has gradient m 1 = -
EXAMPLES
1. Show that the lines 3x + y - 11 = 0 and x - 3y + 1 = 0 are
perpendicular.
Solution
3x + y - 11 = 0
y = -3x + 11
m 1 = -3
`
x - 3y + 1 = 0
x + 1 = 3y
1
1
x+ =y
3
3
1
`
m2 =
3
1
m 1 m 2 = - 3#
3
= -1
CONTINUED
415
416
Solution
Line through ^ -1, 7 h and ^ 3, 3 h:
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
7-3
m1 =
-1 - 3
4
=
-4
= -1
For perpendicular lines, m 1 m 2 = - 1
i.e.
-1m 2 = - 1
m2 = 1
Equation through ^ 2, 3 h:
y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
y - 3 = 1 (x - 2 )
=x-2
0=x-y+1
7.6 Exercises
1.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
417
Intersection of Lines
Two straight lines intersect at a single point ^ x, y h . The point satisfies the
equations of both lines. We find this point by solving simultaneous equations.
418
EXAMPLES
1. Find the point of intersection between lines 2x - 3y - 3 = 0 and
5x - 2y - 13 = 0.
Solution
Solve simultaneous equations:
2x - 3y - 3 = 0
5x - 2y - 13 = 0
4x - 6y - 6 = 0
^ 1 h # 2:
15x - 6y - 39 = 0
^ 2 h # 3:
+ 33 = 0
^ 3 h - ^ 4 h: -11x
33 = 11x
3=x
^1h
^2h
^3h
^4h
Substitute x = 3 into ^ 1 h:
You could use a
computer spreadsheet to
solve these simultaneous
equations.
2 ^ 3 h - 3y - 3 = 0
- 3y + 3 = 0
3 = 3y
1=y
So the point of intersection is ^ 3, 1 h .
2. Show that the lines 3x - y + 1 = 0, x + 2y + 12 = 0 and
4x - 3y - 7 = 0 are concurrent.
Solution
Solve any two simultaneous equations:
3x - y + 1 = 0
x + 2y + 12 = 0
4x - 3y - 7 = 0
6x - 2y + 2 = 0
^ 1 h # 2:
2
+
4
:
7
x
+ 14 = 0
^ h ^ h
^1h
^2h
^3h
^4h
7x = -14
x = -2
Substitute x = -2 into ^ 1 h:
3 ^ -2 h - y + 1 = 0
-y - 5 = 0
-5 = y
So the point of intersection of (1) and (2) is ^ -2, -5 h .
Substitute ^ -2, -5 h into (3): 4x - 3y - 7 = 0
LHS = 4 ^ -2 h - 3 ^ - 5 h - 7
= -8 + 15 - 7
=0
= RHS
So the point lies on line (3)
` all three lines are concurrent.
Proof
Let l 1 have equation a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 = 0.
Let l 2 have equation a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0.
Let the point of intersection of l 1 and l 2 be P ^ x 1, y 1 h .
Then P satisfies l 1
i.e. a 1 x 1 + b 1 y 1 + c 1 = 0
P also satisfies l2
i.e. a 2 x 1 + b 2 y 1 + c 2 = 0
Substitute P into (a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1) + k (a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2) = 0
(a 1 x 1 + b 1 y 1 + c 1) + k (a 2 x 1 + b 2 y 1 + c 2) = 0
0 + k ^0h = 0
0=0
` if point P satisfies both equations l 1 and l 2 then it satisfies l 1 + kl 2 = 0.
419
420
EXAMPLE
Find the equation of the line through ^ -1, 2 h that passes through the
intersection of lines 2x + y - 5 = 0 and x - 3y + 1 = 0.
Solution
Using the formula:
a 1 = 2, b 1 = 1, c 1 = -5
a 2 = 1, b 2 = -3, c 2 = 1
^ a1 x + b1 y + c1 h + k ^ a2 x + b2 y + c2 h = 0
^ 2x + y - 5 h + k ^ x - 3y + 1 h = 0
Since this line passes through ^ -1, 2 h, substitute the point into the
equation:
^ -2 + 2 - 5 h + k ^ -1 - 6 + 1 h = 0
-5 - 6k = 0
-5 = 6k
5
- =k
6
So the equation becomes:
5
^ 2x + y - 5 h - ^ x - 3y + 1 h = 0
6
6 ^ 2x + y - 5 h - 5 ^ x - 3 y + 1 h = 0
12x + 6y - 30 - 5x + 15y - 5 = 0
7x + 21y - 35 = 0
x + 3y - 5 = 0
Another way to do this example is to find the point of intersection, then
use both points to find the equation.
7.7 Exercises
1.
(h) 3x + 7y = 12 and
4x - y - 1 6 = 0
(i) 3x - 5y = - 7 and
2x - 3y = 4
(j) 8x - 7y - 3 = 0 and
5x - 2y - 1 = 0
2.
3.
A triangle is formed by 3
straight lines with equations
2x - y + 1 = 0, 2x + y - 9 = 0
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
421
422
Perpendicular Distance
The distance formula d = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2 is used to find the distance
between two points.
Perpendicular distance is used to find the distance between a point and
a line. If we look at the distance between a point and a line, there could be
many distances.
given by d =
Proof
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
a2 + b2
In D ACO, AC =
c2 b2 + c2 a2
a2 b2
=
=
PR = y 1 - e
=
c a2 + b2
ab
- ax 1 - c
b
ax 1 + by 1 + c
b
Why?
PQ
PR
=
AO
AC
AO . PR
PQ =
AC
ax 1 + by 1 + c
c a2 + b2
c
d=a#
'
b
ab
c _ ax 1 + by 1 + c i
ab
=
#
ab
c a2 + b2
ax 1 + by 1 + c
=
a2 + b2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the perpendicular distance of ^ 4, - 3 h from the line 3x - 4y - 1 = 0.
Solution
x 1 = 4, y 1 = - 3, a = 3, b = - 4, c = - 1
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
d=
a2 + b2
| 3 ] 4 g + ] - 4 g ] -3 g + ] -1 g |
=
3 2 + ] -4 g2
CONTINUED
423
424
| 12 + 12 - 1 |
25
23
=
5
= 4 .6
So the perpendicular distance is 4.6 units.
2. Prove that the line 6x + 8y + 20 = 0 is a tangent to the circle
x 2 + y 2 = 4.
Solution
There are three possibilities for the intersection of a circle and a straight line.
Solution
To show that points lie on the same side of a line, their perpendicular
distance must have the same sign. We use the formula without the
absolute value sign.
d=
ax 1 + by 1 + c
a2 + b2
^ - 1, 3 h :
2 ]-1 g - 3 ]3 g + 4
d=
22 + ] - 3 g 2
-2 - 9 + 4
=
4+9
-7
=
13
^ 2, 7 h :
2 ]2 g - 3 ]7 g + 4
d=
2 2 + ] -3 g 2
4 - 21 + 4
=
4+9
- 13
=
13
Since the perpendicular distance for both points has the same sign, the
points lie on the same side of the line.
7.8 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
425
426
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
m1 - m2
1 + m1 m2
Proof
m1 - m2
1 + m1 m2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the acute angle between the lines 3x - 2y + 1 = 0 and
x - 3 y = 0.
Solution
3x - 2y + 1 = 0
3x + 1 = 2y
3
1
x+ =y
2
2
3
m1 =
So
2
x - 3y = 0
x = 3y
1
x=y
3
1
m2 =
So
3
m1 - m2
tan i =
1 + m1 m2
CONTINUED
427
428
3 1
2 3
=
3
1
1+ #
2
3
7
=
9
7
i = tan -1 c m
9
= 37c 52l
2. Find the obtuse angle between the lines 5x - 2y + 6 = 0 and
2x + y - 4 = 0.
Solution
9
Notice that tan -1 d - n
8
gives - 48c 22l so we need
to find the obtuse angle by
subtracting the acute angle
from 180c.
5x - 2y + 6 = 0
5x + 6 = 2y
5
x+3=y
2
5
So m 1 =
2
2x + y - 4 = 0
y = - 2x + 4
So m 2 = - 2
m1 - m2
tan i =
1 + m1 m2
5 ]
- -2g
2
=
5
1 + # ]-2 g
2
9
= 8
9
=
8
9
i = tan - 1 c m
8
= 48 22l
This gives the acute angle.
Obtuse angle = 180c - 48c 22l
= 131c 38l
3. If the angle between the lines 2x - y - 7 = 0 and y = mx + 3 is 25c,
find two possible values of m, correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
2x - y - 7 = 0
2x - 7 = y
`
m1 = 2
( 1)
y = mx + 3
`
m2 = m
m1 - m2
tan i =
1 + m1 m2
2-m
tan 25 =
1 + 2m
(2 )
(2)
2-m
1 + 2m
tan 25c (1 + 2m) = 2 - m
tan 25c + 2m tan 25c = 2 - m
2m tan 25c + m = 2 - tan 25c
m (2 tan 25c + 1) = 2 - tan 25c
2 - tan 25c
m=
2 tan 25c + 1
Z 0.8
tan 25c =
2-m
1 + 2m
- tan 25c (1 + 2m) = 2 - m
- tan 25c - 2m tan 25c = 2 - m
- 2m tan 25c + m = 2 + tan 25c
m (- 2 tan 25c + 1) = 2 + tan 25c
2 + tan 25c
m=
- 2 tan 25c + 1
Z 36.6
- tan 25c =
7.9 Exercises
1.
(g) 2x - 7y - 1 = 0 and
3x + 2y - 4 = 0
(h) 2x + 2y + 1 = 0 and
x + 2y = 4
(i) 3x + 4y + 1 = 0 and
5x - 2y - 2 = 0
(j) x - 2y - 3 = 0 and
6 x - 3 y + 4 = 0.
2.
429
430
(c) x + 6y = 2 and
2x - 4y + 3 = 0
(d) 5x + 2y + 1 = 0 and
4x + y - 7 = 0
(e) 4x - 2y - 7 = 0 and
x - 3 y = 0.
3.
4.
5.
A ^ 2, -1 h, B ^ - 3, 4 h and C ^ 1, - 5 h
form the vertices of a triangle.
Find the interior angles of the
triangle.
6.
7.
Lines y = mx + 2 and y = 5x - 9
intersect at an acute angle whose
2
tangent is . Find the possible
5
values of m.
8.
9.
A ^ 0, 0 h, B ^ 1, 2 h, C ^ 5, 2 h and
D ^ 4, 0 h form the vertices of a
parallelogram.
(a) By finding all the interior
angles, show that opposite angles
are equal.
(b) Find the obtuse angle
between the diagonals of the
parallelogram.
Ratios
You have a formula for the midpoint which divides an interval in half.
Sometimes we may want to divide an interval into a ratio that is not a half.
Here is a formula that we can use to divide an interval into any internal or
external ratio.
Proof
431
Let P ^ x, y h be the point dividing the interval AB into the ratio m:n.
Then
m
AP
= n
PB
x1 + x2
2
,y =
y1 + y2
2
If P divides the interval externally in the ratio m:n, then the ratio is
negative and P lies outside AB.
m and n are measured in
opposite directions so they
have opposite signs.
EXAMPLES
1. Divide AB into the ratio 3:4 where A is ^ 6, - 2 h and B is ^ - 7, 5 h .
Solution
CONTINUED
432
mx 2 + nx 1
m+n
]
3 -7 g + 4 ] 6 g
=
3+4
3
=
7
my 2 + ny 1
y=
m+n
3 ] 5 g + 4 ] -2 g
=
3+4
7
=
7
=1
x=
3
` P = c ,1m
7
2. If A is ^ - 2, -1 h and B is ^ 1, 5 h, find the coordinates of the point P that
divides AB externally in the ratio 2:5.
Solution
7.10
1.
2.
3.
Exercises
5.
6.
An interval AB is divided
internally at P in the ratio 5:4. If
A is ^ - 1, 2 h and P is ^ 5, - 6 h, find
the coordinates of B.
7.
8.
9.
433
434
Test Yourself 7
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Challenge Exercise 7
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
13. If ax - y - 2 = 0 and bx - 5y + 11 = 0
intersect at the point ^ 3, 4 h, find the
values of a and b.
7.
8.
435
436
8
Introduction to
Calculus
TERMINOLOGY
Composite function: A function of a function. One
function, f (x), is a composite of one function to another
function, for example g(x)
Continuity: Describing a line or curve that is unbroken
over its domain
Continuous function: A function is continuous over an
interval if it has no break in its graph. For every x value
on the graph the limit exists and equals the function
value
439
INTRODUCTION
CALCULUS IS A VERY IMPORTANT part of mathematics and involves the
Isaac Newton
440
In this chapter you will learn about differentiation, which measures the rate of
change of one variable with respect to another.
Gradient
Gradient of a straight line
The gradient of a straight line measures its slope. You studied gradient in the
last chapter.
rise
m = run
Class Discussion
Remember that an increasing line has a positive gradient and a
decreasing line has a negative gradient.
positive
negative
Gradient plays an important part, not just in mathematics, but in many areas
including science, business, medicine and engineering. It is used everywhere
we want to nd rates.
On a graph, the gradient measures the rate of change of the dependent
variable with respect to the change in the independent variable.
EXAMPLES
1. The graph shows the average distance travelled by a car over time.
Find the gradient and describe it as a rate.
d
km
400
5
Hours
Solution
The line is increasing so it will have a positive gradient.
rise
m = run
400
=
5
80
=
1
= 80
This means that the car is travelling at the rate of 80 km/hour.
2. The graph shows the number of cases of flu reported in a town over
several weeks.
N
Number of
cases (100s)
15
Weeks
10
441
Solution
The line is decreasing so it will have a negative gradient.
rise
m = run
1500
=10
150
=1
= - 150
This means that the rate is -150 cases/week, or the number of cases
reported is decreasing by 150 cases/week.
When nding the gradient of a straight line in the number plane, we think of
a change in y values as x changes. The gradients in the examples above show
rates of change.
However, in most examples in real life, the rate of change will vary. For
example, a car would speed up and slow down depending on where it is in
relation to other cars, trafc light signals and changing speed limits.
Gradient of a curve
Class Discussion
The two graphs show the distance that a bicycle travels over time. One is
a straight line and the other is a curve.
d
20
20
15
15
km
km
442
10
5
10
5
3
Hours
3
Hours
Is the average speed of the bicycle the same in both cases? What is
different about the speed in the two graphs?
How could you measure the speed in the second graph at any one
time? Does it change? If so, how does it change?
Here is a more general curve. What could you say about its gradient?
How does it change along the curve?
y
Copy the graph and mark on it where the gradient is positive, negative
and zero.
Using what we know about the gradient of a straight line, we can see where
the gradient of a curve is positive, negative or zero by drawing tangents to the
curve in different places around the curve.
y
+
x
Notice that when the curve increases it has a positive gradient, when it
decreases it has a negative gradient and when it turns around the gradient is zero.
Investigation
There are some excellent computer programs that will draw tangents to
a curve and then sketch the gradient curve. One of these is Geometer
Sketchpad.
Explore how to sketch gradient functions using this or a similar
program as you look at the examples below.
443
444
EXAMPLES
Describe the gradient of each curve.
1.
Solution
Where the curve increases, the gradient is positive. Where it decreases, it
is negative. Where it turns around, it has a zero gradient.
2.
Solution
445
Since we have a formula for finding the gradient of a straight line, we find the
gradient of a curve by measuring the gradient of a tangent to the curve.
EXAMPLE
(a) Make an accurate sketch of y = x 2 on graph paper.
(b) Draw tangents to this curve at the points where
x = - 3, x = - 2, x = - 1, x = 0, x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3.
(c) Find the gradient of each of these tangents.
(d) Draw the graph of the gradients (the gradient function) on a
number plane.
Solution
(a) and (b)
y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
-3 -2
(c) At x = - 3, m = - 6
At x = - 2, m = - 4
At x = - 1, m = - 2
At x = 0, m = 0
At x = 1, m = 2
At x = 2, m = 4
At x = 3, m = 6
(d)
446
EXAMPLES
Sketch the gradient function of each curve.
1.
Solution
First we mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.
Now on the gradient graph, place the points where m = 0 on the x-axis.
These are at x 1, x 2 and x 3 .
To the left of x 1, the gradient is negative, so this part of the graph will
be below the x-axis. Between x 1 and x 2, the gradient is positive, so the
graph will be above the x-axis. Between x 2 and x 3, the gradient is negative,
so the graph will be below the x-axis. To the right of x 3, the gradient is
positive, so this part of the graph will be above the x-axis.
2.
Solution
First mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.
CONTINUED
447
448
The gradient is zero at x 1 and x 2 . These points will be on the x-axis. To the
left of x 1, the gradient is positive, so this part of the graph will be above
the x-axis. Between x 1 and x 2, the gradient is negative, so the graph will
be below the x-axis. To the right of x 2, the gradient is positive, so this part
of the graph will be above the x-axis.
8.1 Exercises
Sketch the gradient function for each graph.
1.
4.
2.
5.
3.
6.
9.
7.
8.
10.
Differentiability
A function is called a differentiable function if the gradient of the tangent
can be found.
There are some graphs that are not differentiable in places.
Most functions are continuous, which means that they have a smooth
unbroken line or curve. However, some have a gap, or discontinuity, in the
graph (e.g. hyperbola). This can be shown by an asymptote or a hole in the
graph. We cannot find the gradient of a tangent to the curve at a point that
doesnt exist! So the function is not differentiable at the point of discontinuity.
y
449
450
EXAMPLES
1. Find all points where the function below is not differentiable.
y
x
C
Solution
The function is not differentiable at points A and B since there are sharp
corners and the curve is not smooth at these points.
It is not differentiable at point C since the function is discontinuous
at this point.
x2
3x - 2
for x $ 1
differentiable at all points?
for x 1 1
Solution
The functions f (x) = x 2 and f (x) = 3x - 2 are both differentiable at all
points.
However, we need to look at where one nishes and the other starts, at f (1).
For f (x) = x 2
f ] 1 g = 12
=1
For f (x) = 3x - 2
f ]1 g = 3 ]1 g - 2
=1
This means that both pieces of this function join up (the function is
continuous). However, to be differentiable, the curve must be smooth at
this point.
CONTINUED
451
452
Sketching this function shows that it is not smooth (it has a sharp
corner) so it is not differentiable at x = 1.
y
y = x2
1
1
-2
y = 3x - 2
8.2 Exercises
For each function, state whether it has any points at which it is not
differentiable.
1.
4.
x1
x1
2.
3.
5.
453
10.
5
4
3
2
x1
x2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
6.
4
f (x) = x
7.
y=-
8.
9.
-4
-5
1
x+3
x3
if x 2 2
f (x) = )
x + 1 if x # 2
Z 2x
for x 2 3
]
f (x) = [3
for - 2 # x # 3
]
2
\1 - x for x 1 - 2
x
12. f (x) = x
13. f (i) = -3 cos 2i
14. g (z) = sin 2 z
15. y =
x-3
x2 - 9
Limits
To differentiate from first principles, we need to look more closely at the
concept of a limit.
A limit is used when we want to move as close as we can to something.
Often this is to find out where a function is near a gap or discontinuous point.
You saw this in Chapter 5 when looking at discontinuous graphs. In this topic,
it is used when we want to move from a gradient of a line between two points
to a gradient of a tangent.
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "2
x2 - x - 2
.
x-2
Solution
(x + 1) (x - 2)
x2 - x - 2
= lim
x "2
x "2
x-2
(x - 2 )
= lim (x + 1)
lim
x "2
=2+1
=3
CONTINUED
454
2xh - h 2 - 3h
.
h
Solution
h (2 x - h - 3)
2xh - h 2 - 3h
= lim
h "0
h "0
h
h
= lim (2x - h - 3)
lim
h "0
= 2x - 3
3. Find an expression in terms of x for lim
dx " 0
3x 2 dx + dx 2 - 5dx
.
dx
Solution
d x ( 3x 2 + d x - 5 )
3x 2 d x + d x 2 - 5 d x
= lim
dx " 0
dx " 0
dx
dx
2
= lim (3x + dx - 5)
lim
dx " 0
2
= 3x - 5
8.3 Exercises
1.
Evaluate
2.
x + 3x
x
x "0
5x 3 - 2x 2 - 7x
lim
x
x "0
x 2 - 3x
lim
x "3 x - 3
t 2 - 16
lim
t "4
t-4
g2 - 1
lim
g "1 g - 1
x2 + x - 2
lim
x " -2
x+2
h 5 + 2h
lim
h "0
h
2
x - 7x + 12
lim
x "3
x-3
n 2 - 25
lim
n "5 n - 5
x 2 + 4x + 3
lim
x " -1
x2 - 1
x 2 h - 2xh - 4h
h "0
h
2x 3 h + xh - h
lim
h "0
h
3x 2 h 2 - 7xh + 4h 2 - h
lim
h "0
h
4x 4 h - x 2 h - 4xh 2
lim
h "0
h
x 2 h 2 + 3xh 2 - 4xh + 3h
lim
h "0
h
2x 2 h + 5xh 2 + 6h
lim
h "0
h
x 2 dx 2 - 2xdx
lim
dx " 0
dx
4 x 2 dx - 2 dx 2
lim
dx " 0
dx
x 3 dx 2 + 3xdx - dx
lim
dx " 0
dx
x 2 dx - 2xdx + 9dx
lim
dx " 0
dx
(a) lim
(a) lim
(b)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
Differentiation as a limit
y2 - y1
The formula m = x - x is used to nd the gradient of a straight line when we
2
1
know two points on the line. However, when the line is a tangent to a curve,
we only know one point on the linethe point of contact with the curve.
To differentiate from rst principles, we rst use the point of contact
and another point close to it on the curve (this line is called a secant) and then
we move the second point closer and closer to the point of contact until they
overlap and the line is at single point (the tangent). To do this, we use a limit.
If you look at a close up of a graph, you can get some idea of this concept.
When the curve is magnied, two points appear to be joined by a straight line.
We say the curve is locally straight.
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or a computer program to sketch a curve and
then zoom in on a section of the curve to see that it is locally straight.
For example, here is a parabola.
10
f 1(x) = x2
2
-20
x
20
-10
2.99
f 1(x) = x2
Use technology to sketch other curves and zoom in to show that they are
locally straight.
455
456
(3.01, f (3.01))
(3, f (3))
x
EXAMPLES
1. For the function f ] x g = x 3, nd the gradient of the secant PQ where P
is the point on the function where x = 2 and Q is another point on the
curve close to P. Choose different values for Q and use these results to
estimate the gradient of the curve at P.
y
Q
P
(2.1, f(2.1))
(2, f(2))
457
Solution
P = ^ 2, f (2) h
Take different values of x for point Q, for example x = 2.1
Using different values of x for point Q gives the results in the table.
Point Q
_ 2 .1 , f ] 2 .1 g i
_ 2.01, f ] 2.01 g i
_ 2.001, f ] 2.001 g i
_ 1 .9 , f ] 1 .9 g i
_ 1.99, f ] 1.99 g i
_ 1.999, f ] 1.999 g i
Gradient of secant PQ
y2 - y1
to nd
x2 - x1
the gradient of the secant.
Use m =
f ( 2 . 1 ) - f (2 )
m=
2 .1 - 2
2 .1 3 - 2 3
=
2 .1 - 2
= 12.61
f (2.01) - f (2)
2.01 - 2
2.01 3 - 2 3
=
2.01 - 2
= 12.0601
m=
f (2.001) - f (2)
2.001 - 2
2.001 3 - 2 3
=
2.001 - 2
= 12.006001
m=
f ( 1 . 9 ) - f (2 )
1 .9 - 2
1 .9 3 - 2 3
=
1 .9 - 2
= 11.41
m=
f (1.99) - f (2)
1.99 - 2
1.99 3 - 2 3
=
1.99 - 2
= 11.9401
m=
f (1.999) - f (2)
1.999 - 2
1.999 3 - 2 3
=
1.999 - 2
= 11.994001
m=
CONTINUED
458
Solution
A = ^ 5, f (5) h
Take three different values of x for point B, for example x = 4.9, x = 5.1
and x = 5.01.
(a) B = ^ 4.9, f (4.9) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
f ( 4 . 9 ) - f (5 )
=
4 .9 - 5
4 .9 2 - 5 2
=
4 .9 - 5
= 9 .9
(b) B = ^ 5.1, f (5.1) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
f ( 5 . 1 ) - f (5 )
=
5 .1 - 5
5 .1 2 - 5 2
=
5 .1 - 5
= 10.1
(c) B = ^ 5.01, f (5.01) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
f (5.01) - f (5)
=
5.01 - 5
5.01 2 - 5 2
=
5.01 - 5
= 10.01
From these results, a good estimate for the gradient at A is 10.
We can say that as x approaches 5, the gradient approaches 10.
We can write lim
x "5
f (x) - f (5)
= 10.
x-5
459
f l(c) = lim
x "c
f (x) - f (c)
x-c
(x + h, f(x + h))
(x , f(x))
x
(x + h, f(x + h))
Q
Q
P
(x, f (x))
x
460
fl(x) = lim
f (x + h) - f (x)
h
h "0
The symbol d is a
Greek letter called
delta.
f (x + h) - f (x)
dy
dx
= lim
dx " 0
dy
dx
All of these different notations stand for the derivative, or the gradient of
the tangent:
dy
d
d
,
(y),
^ f (x) h, f l(x), yl
dx dx
dx
These occur because Newton, Leibniz and other mathematicians over the
years have used different notation.
Investigation
Leibniz used
dy
dx
461
The three formulae for differentiating from rst principles all work in a
similar way.
EXAMPLE
Differentiate from rst principles to nd the gradient of the tangent to
the curve y = x 2 + 3 at the point where x = 1.
Remember that y = x 2 - 3
is the same as f (x) = x 2 - 3.
Solution
Method 1:
f (x) - f (c)
x-c
2
f ]x g = x + 3
f ] 1 g = 12 + 3
=4
f (x) - f (c)
f l(c) = lim
x "c
x-c
f (x) - f (1)
f l(1) = lim
x "1
x-1
(x 2 + 3) - 4
= lim
x "1
x-1
x2 - 1
= lim
x "1 x - 1
(x + 1) (x - 1)
= lim
x "1
x-1
= lim (x + 1)
f l(c) = lim
x "c
x "1
=1+1
=2
Method 2:
f l(x) = lim
f (x + h ) - f ( x )
h "0
f ] x g = x2 + 3
f ] 1 g = 12 + 3
=4
f ] x + h g = ] x + h g2 + 3
When x = 1
f ] 1 + h g = ] 1 + h g2 + 3
= 1 + 2h + h 2 + 3
= 2h + h 2 + 4
CONTINUED
462
f l(x) = lim
h "0
f l(1) = lim
f (x + h) - f (x)
h
f (1 + h) - f (1)
h
(2h + h 2 + 4) - 4
= lim
h "0
h
2h + h 2
= lim
h "0
h
h (2 + h)
= lim
h "0
h
= lim (2 + h)
h "0
h "0
=2+0
=2
Method 3:
dy
= lim
dy
dx
dx
y = x2 + 3
dx " 0
When x = 1
y = 12 + 3
=4
So point ^ 1, 4 h lies on the curve.
Substitute point (1 + dx, 4 + dy):
4 + dy = (1 + dx) 2 + 3
= 1 + 2d x + d x 2 + 3
= 2d x + d x 2 + 4
d y = 2d x + d x 2
dy
2d x + d x 2
=
dx
dx
dx(2 + dx)
=
dx
= 2 + dx
dy
dy
= lim
d
x
"
0
dx
dx
= lim (2 + dx)
dx " 0
=2+0
=2
We can also use these formulae to find the derivative function generally.
463
EXAMPLE
Differentiate f ] x g = 2x 2 + 7x - 3 from rst principles.
Solution
f ] x g = 2x + 7x - 3
f ] x + h g = 2 ] x + h g2 + 7 ] x + h g - 3
2
= 2 ^ x 2 + 2xh + h 2 h + 7x + 7h - 3
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3
f ] x + h g - f ] x g = ^ 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3 h - ^ 2x 2 + 7x - 3 h
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3 - 2x 2 - 7x + 3
= 4xh + 2h 2 + 7h
f l(x) = lim
f (x + h) - f (x)
h
4xh + 2h 2 + 7h
= lim
h "0
h
h ( 4 x + 2h + 7 )
= lim
h "0
h
= lim (4x + 2h + 7)
h "0
h "0
= 4x + 0 + 7
= 4x + 7
8.4 Exercises
1.
2.
f (x) - f (2)
x-2
when x = 2.01.
f (x) - f (2)
(c) Evaluate
when
x-2
x = 1.99.
(d) Hence nd the gradient of the
tangent at the point ^ 2, 10 h .
3.
4.
If f (x) = x 2,
(a) nd f (x + h)
(b) show that
f (x + h) - f (x) = 2xh + h 2
464
5.
6.
= 2x + h
A function is given by
f (x) = 2x 2 - 7x + 3.
(a) Show that f (x + h) =
2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3.
(b) Show that
f (x + h) - f (x) = 4xh + 2h 2 - 7h.
(c) Show that
f (x + h) - f (x)
= 4x + 2h - 7 .
h
(d) Find fl(x) .
(c) nd
A function is given by
f (x) = x 2 + x + 5.
(a) Find f ] 2 g.
(b) Find f ] 2 + h g.
(c) Find f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g.
(d) Show that
f (2 + h) - f ( 2)
= 5 + h.
h
(e) Find fl(2).
7.
8.
9.
Remember that
1
-1
=
x
dy
dx
dy
dx
= 2x + dx + 2
f (x) - f (4)
when
x-4
x = 3 .9 .
f (x) - f (4)
(b) Evaluate
when
x-4
x = 3.999.
f (x) - f (4)
when
(c) Evaluate
x-4
x = 4.01.
14. For the function f (x) = x - 1,
f (x) - f (5)
(a) evaluate
when
x-5
x = 4.99.
f (x) - f (5)
(b) evaluate
when
x-5
x = 5.01.
(c) Use these results to find the
derivative of the function at the
point where x = 5.
y = mx + b
So if y = mx,
dy
dx
=m
d ] g
kx = k
dx
y=k
So if y = k,
dy
dx
=0
d ] g
k =0
dx
465
466
Investigation
Differentiate from rst principles:
y = x2
y = x3
y = x4
Can you nd a pattern? Could you predict what the result would be for xn?
Alternatively, you could nd an approximation to the derivative of a
f (x + 0.01) - f (x)
function at any point by drawing the graph of y =
.
0.01
Use a graphics calculator or graphing computer software to sketch the
derivative for these functions and nd the equation of the derivative.
d ^ nh
x = nx n - 1
dx
Proof
You do not need to know
this proof.
f (x) = x n
f (x + h) = (x + h) n
f (x + h) - f (x) = (x + h) n - x n
= ^ (x + h) - x h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3
+ . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
= h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3
+ . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
f l(x) = lim
f (x + h) - f (x)
h
h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
= lim
h "0
h
n-1
n-2
n-3 2
= lim [(x + h)
+ (x + h )
x + (x + h)
x + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
h "0
h "0
467
EXAMPLE
Differentiate f (x) = x 7.
Solution
f l(x) = 7x 6
There are some more rules that give us short ways to differentiate functions.
The rst one says that if there is a constant in front of the x (we call this a
coefcient), then it is just multiplied with the derivative.
d ^ nh
kx = knx n - 1
dx
d
^ kf (x) h = kf l(x)
dx
Proof
kf (x + h) - kf (x)
d
^ kf (x) h = lim
0
h
"
dx
h
k [f (x + h) - f (x)]
= lim
h "0
h
f (x + h) - f (x)
= k lim
h "0
h
= kf l(x)
EXAMPLE
Find the derivative of 3x8.
Solution
If y = 3x 8
dy
= 3 # 8x 7
dx
= 24x 7
468
d
^ f (x) + g (x) h = f l(x) + g (x)
dx
Proof
You do not need to
know this proof.
EXAMPLE
Differentiate x 3 + x 4.
Solution
d 3
(x + x 4) = 3x 2 + 4x 3
dx
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. 7x
Solution
d ] g
7x = 7
dx
CONTINUED
2. f (x) = x 4 - x 3 + 5
Solution
f l(x) = 4x 3 - 3x 2 + 0
= 4x 3 - 3x 2
3. y = 4x 7
Solution
dy
dx
= 4 # 7x 6
= 28x 6
Solution
f l(x) = 10x 4 - 21x 2 + 5
f l(-1) = 10(-1) 4 - 21(-1) 2 + 5
= -6
5. Differentiate
3x 2 + 5x
2x
Solution
Divide by 2x before differentiating.
3x 2 + 5x
3x 2 5x
=
+
2x
2x
2x
3
5
= x+
2
2
dy
3
=
2
dx
1
=1
2
6. Differentiate S = 2rr 2 + 2rrh with respect to r.
Solution
We are differentiating with respect to r, so r is the variable and r and h
are constants.
dS
= 2r(2r) + 2rh
dr
= 4r r + 2r h
469
470
8.5 Exercises
1.
Expand brackets
before differentiating.
2.
3.
Simplify by dividing
before differentiating.
Differentiate
(a) x + 2
(b) 5x - 9
(c) x 2 + 3x + 4
(d) 5x 2 - x - 8
(e) x 3 + 2x 2 - 7x - 3
(f) 2x 3 - 7x 2 + 7x - 1
(g) 3x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x
(h) x 6 - 5x 5 - 2x 4
(i) 2x 5 - 4x 3 + x 2 - 2x + 4
(j) 4x 10 - 7x 9
Find the derivative of
(a) x ] 2x + 1 g
(b) ] 2x - 3 g2
(c) ] x + 4 g ] x - 4 g
2
(d) ^ 2x 2 - 3 h
(e) ] 2x + 5 g ^ x 2 - x + 1 h
Differentiate
(a)
x2
-x
6
(b)
x4 x3
+4
2
3
(c)
1 6 2
x ( x - 3)
3
(d)
2x 3 + 5x
x
(e)
x 2 + 2x
4x
(f)
2x 5 - 3x 4 + 6x 3 - 2x 2
3x 2
4.
5.
6.
7.
If s = 5t 2 - 20t , nd
8.
dv
when v = 15t 2 - 9.
dt
dh
10. If h = 40t - 2t 2, nd
.
dt
9.
Find
11. Given V =
dV
4 3
rr , nd
.
3
dr
12. If f (x) = 2x 3 - 3x + 4,
evaluate f l(1).
13. Given f (x) = x 2 - x + 5, evaluate
(a) f l(3)
(b) f l(-2)
(c) x when f l(x) = 7
14. If y = x 3 - 7, evaluate
dy
(a)
when x = 2
dx
dy
(b) x when
= 12
dx
15. Evaluate gl(2) when
g (t) = 3t 3 - 4t 2 - 2t + 1.
471
However, a tangent to a curve could intersect the curve more than once.
Remember from earlier in the chapter that the derivative is the gradient of the
tangent to a curve.
dy
dx
472
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola y = x 2 + 1 at the
point ^ 1, 2 h .
Solution
dy
dx
At ^ 1, 2 h
dy
dx
= 2x + 0
= 2x
= 2 (1 )
=2
Solution
dy
dx
dy
dx
= 6x 2 - 12x
is the gradient of the tangent, so substitute
dy
dx
= 18.
18 = 6x 2 - 12x
0 = 6x 2 - 12x - 18
= x 2 - 2x - 3
= ]x - 3 g]x + 1 g
x - 3 = 0, x + 1 = 0
` x = 3,
x = -1
3. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 4 - 3x 3 + 7x - 2
at the point ^ 2, 4 h .
Solution
dy
At ^ 2, 4 h
dx
dy
dx
= 4x 3 - 9x 2 + 7
= 4 ] 2 g3 - 9 ] 2 g2 + 7
=3
So the gradient of the tangent at ^ 2, 4 h is 3.
Equation of the tangent:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
y - 4 = 3 ]x - 2 g
473
= 3x - 6
y = 3x - 2
or 0 = 3x - y - 2
The normal is a straight line perpendicular to the tangent at the same point of
contact with the curve.
y
Tangent
Normal
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the normal to the curve y = 2x 2 - 3x + 5 at the
point where x = 4.
Solution
dy
dx
= 4x - 3
dx
When x = 4
dy
=4#4-3
dx
= 13
So m 1 = 13
The normal is perpendicular to the tangent.
So m 1 m 2 = -1
CONTINUED
474
13m 2 = -1
1
m2 = 13
1
So the gradient of the normal is - .
13
Solution
dy
dx
= 3x 2 + 6x - 2
dx
When x = -1
dy
= 3 ] -1 g2 + 6 ] -1 g - 2
dx
= -5
So m 1 = - 5
The normal is perpendicular to the tangent.
So m 1 m 2 = -1
-5m 2 = -1
1
m2 =
5
1
So the gradient of the normal is .
5
Equation of the normal:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
1
y - 3 = ] x - ] -1 g g
5
5y - 15 = x + 1
0 = x - 5y + 16
8.6 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A function f (x) = x 2 + 4x - 12
has a tangent with a gradient of
-6 at point P on the curve. Find
the coordinates of the point P.
475
476
Investigation
1. (a) Show that
-h
1
1
- =
.
x+h x
x (x + h)
1
(b) Hence differentiate y = x from rst principles.
(c) Differentiate y = x - 1 using a short method. Do you get the same
answer as 1(b)?
2. (a) Show that ( x + h - x ) ( x + h + x ) = h.
(b) Hence differentiate y =
1
2
(c) Differentiate y = x and show that this gives the same answer as 2(b).
EXAMPLES
1. Differentiate 7 3 x .
Solution
1
7 3 x = 7x 3
dy
1 1-1
= 7$ x 3
3
dx
2
7 -3
= x
3
7
1
= # 2
3
x3
=
=
7
1
#
3
3
x2
7
3 3 x2
4
2. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 2 at the point
x
where x = 2.
Solution
4
x2
= 4x - 2
y=
dy
dx
= - 8x - 3
=-
8
x3
When x = 2
4
y= 2
2
=1
Gradient of the tangent at ^ 2, 1 h:
dy
8
=- 3
dx
2
= -1
Equation of the tangent:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
y - 1 = -1 ] x - 2 g
= -x + 2
y = -x + 3
or x + y - 3 = 0
8.7 Exercises
1.
Differentiate
(a) x - 3
(b) x 1.4
(c) 6x 0.2
1
(d) x 2
1
(e) 2x 2 - 3x - 1
1
(f) 3x 3
3
(g) 8x 4
(h) - 2x
1
2
2.
477
478
Note that
1
2x 6
1
1
# .
2
x6
(g)
1
2x 6
(h) x x
x
11. (a) Differentiate x .
2
(i)
3x
3
1
(j)
+
4x 2 x 4
3.
dx
12
, find
when t = 2.
t
dt
4.
If x =
5.
6.
if y = ^ x + x h .
2
7.
Find
8.
A function f (x) =
9.
dx
x
has a
2
tangent at ^ 4, 1 h . Find the
gradient of the tangent.
dy
dx
dy
du
du
dx
Proof
Let dx, dy and du be small changes in x, y and u where dx " 0, dy " 0, du " 0.
dy
dy
du
=
#
Then
dx
du
dx
As dx " 0, du " 0
dy
dy
du
= lim
# lim
So lim
dx " 0 d x
du " 0 d u
dx " 0 d x
479
Using the denition of the derivative from rst principles, this gives
dy
dx
dy
du
du
.
dx
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. (5x + 4) 7
Solution
u = 5x + 4
du
Then
=5
dx
y = u7
dy
`
= 7u 6
du
dy
dy
du
=
#
dx
du
dx
= 7u 6 # 5
= 35 (5x + 4) 6
Let
2. (3x 2 + 2x - 1) 9
Solution
u = 3x 2 + 2x - 1
du
Then
= 6x + 2
dx
y = u9
dy
`
= 9u 8
du
dy
dy
du
=
#
dx
du
dx
8
= 9u (6x + 2)
= 9(6x + 2) (3x 2 + 2x - 1) 8
Let
CONTINUED
480
3.
3-x
Solution
1
3 - x = (3 - x) 2
Let u = 3 - x
du
= -1
dx
1
y = u2
dy
1 -1
= u 2
2
du
dy
dy
du
=
#
dx
du
dx
1 - 12
= u (-1)
2
1
1
= - (3 - x) 2
2
1
=2 3-x
d
[ f (x)] n = f l(x) n [ f (x)] n - 1
dx
Proof
u = f (x)
du
= f l(x)
Then
dx
y = un
dy
`
= nu n - 1
du
dy
dy
du
=
#
dx
du
dx
= nu n - 1 # f l(x)
= f l(x) n [ f (x)] n - 1
Let
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. (8x 3 - 1) 5
Solution
dy
dx
= f l(x) $ n [ f (x)] n - 1
= 24x 2 $ 5 (8x 3 - 1) 4
= 120x 2 (8x 3 - 1) 4
2. (3x + 8) 11
Solution
yl = f l(x) . n [ f (x)] n - 1
= 3 # 11 (3x + 8) 10
= 33 (3x + 8) 10
3.
1
(6x + 1) 2
Solution
1
= (6x + 1) - 2
(6x + 1) 2
yl = f l(x) $ n [ f (x)] n - 1
= 6 # -2 (6x + 1) - 3
= -12 (6x + 1) - 3
12
=( 6 x + 1) 3
8.8 Exercises
1.
Differentiate
(a) (x + 3) 4
(b) (2x - 1) 3
(c) (5x 2 - 4) 7
(d) (8x + 3) 6
(e) (1 - x) 5
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
3 (5x + 9) 9
2 (x - 4) 2
(2x 3 + 3x) 4
(x 2 + 5x - 1) 8
(x 6 - 2x 2 + 3) 6
1
(k) (3x - 1) 2
481
482
2.
(o) (x 3 - 7x 2 + x) 4
3.
3x + 4
1
(q)
5x - 2
1
(r)
(x 2 + 1) 4
4.
The curve y =
5.
6.
(l) (4 - x) - 2
(m) (x 2 - 9) - 3
1
(n) (5x + 4) 3
(p)
(s)
(t)
(u)
(v)
(w)
(x)
(y)
(7 - 3x) 2
5
4+x
1
2 3x - 1
3
4 (2x + 7) 9
1
x 4 - 3x 3 + 3x
(4x + 1) 4
1
( 7 - x) 5
x - 3 has a
1
tangent with gradient at point
2
N. Find the coordinates of N.
Product Rule
Differentiating the product of two functions y = uv gives the result
dy
dx
=u
dv
du
+v
dx
dx
Proof
y = uv
Given that dy, du and dv are small changes in y, u and v.
y + dy = (u + du) (v + dv)
= uv + udv + vdu + dudv
`
As dx " 0, du " 0
dy
dv
du
dv
F
lim
= lim < u
+v
+ du
dx " 0 d x
dx " 0
dx
dx
dx
dv
du
dv
F + lim < v
F + lim < du
F
= lim < u
dx " 0
d
x
"
0
d
x
"
0
dx
dx
dx
dy
dv
du
=u
+v
dx
dx
dx
483
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. ] 3x + 1 g ] x - 5 g
Solution
You could expand the brackets and then differentiate:
] 3x + 1 g ] x - 5 g = 3x 2 - 15x + x - 5
= 3x 2 - 14x - 5
dy
= 6x - 14
dx
Using the product rule:
y = uv where u = 3x + 1 and v = x - 5
ul = 3
vl = 1
y l = u lv + v l u
= 3 ] x - 5 g + 1 ] 3x + 1 g
= 3x - 15 + 3x + 1
= 6x - 14
2. 2x 5 ] 5x + 3 g3
Solution
y = uv where u = 2x 5 and v = ] 5x + 3 g 3
u l = 10x 4 v l = 5.3 ] 5x + 3 g 2
CONTINUED
484
y l = u lv + v l u
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g3 + 5.3 ] 5x + 3 g2 $ 2x 5
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g3 + 30x 5 ] 5x + 3 g2
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g2 6 ] 5x + 3 g + 3x @
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g2 ] 8x + 3 g
3. (3x - 4) 5 - 2x
Solution
1
Remember
5 - 2x = ] 5 - 2x g 2
y = uv where u = 3x - 4 and v = ] 5 - 2x g 2
1
1
ul = 3
v l = - 2 $ (5 - 2 x ) 2
2
y l = u lv + v lu
1
1
1]
5 - 2x g 2 ] 3x - 4 g
2
1
5 - 2x - (3x - 4) ] 5 - 2x g 2
3x - 4
5 - 2x 1
(5 - 2x) 2
3x - 4
5 - 2x 5 - 2x
5 - 2x $ 5 - 2x - (3x - 4)
= 3 ] 5 - 2x g 2 +- 2 $
=3
=3
=3
=
=
5 - 2x
3(5 - 2x) - (3x - 4)
5 - 2x
15 - 6x - 3x + 4
=
5 - 2x
19 - 9x
=
5 - 2x
8.9 Exercises
1.
Differentiate
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
x 3 ] 2x + 3 g
] 3x - 2 g ] 2 x + 1 g
3x ] 5x + 7 g
4x 4 ^ 3x 2 - 1 h
2x ^ 3x 4 - x h
x 2 ] x + 1 g3
4x ] 3x - 2 g5
3x 4 ] 4 - x g3
] x + 1 g ] 2x + 5 g4
^ x 3 + 5x 2 - 3 h ^ x 2 + 1 h 5
x 2-x
5x + 3
(l)
2x - 1
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
2.
7.
3.
8.
4.
9.
5.
6.
Quotient Rule
u
Differentiating the quotient of two functions y = v gives the result.
dy
dx
du
dv
-u
dx
dx
v2
Proof
u
y= v
Given that dy, du and dv are small changes in y, u and v.
u + du
y + dy =
v + dv
u + du u
u
` dy =
- v a since y = v k
v + dv
v (u + du) u (v + dv)
=
v (v + dv)
v (v + dv)
v (u + du) - u (v + dv)
=
v (v + dv)
vu + vdu - uv - udv
=
v (v + dv)
vdu - udv
=
v (v + dv)
du
dv
v
-u
dy
dx
dx
=
v (v + dv)
dx
As dx " 0, dv " 0
485
486
lim
dx " 0
dy
dx
dy
dx
R
S v du - u dv
S dx
dx
= lim S
dx " 0
v ( v + d v)
T
du
dv
v
-u
dx
dx
=
v2
V
W
W
W
X
u lv - v lu
.
v2
u
u lv - v lu
If y = v , y l =
v2
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. 3x - 5
5x + 2
Solution
u
y = v where u = 3x - 5 and v = 5x + 2
ul = 3
vl = 5
yl =
=
u lv - v lu
v2
3 (5x + 2) - 5 (3x - 5)
(5x + 2) 2
15x + 6 - 15x + 25
=
(5x + 2) 2
31
=
(5x + 2) 2
2. 4x 3 - 5x + 2
x3 - 1
Solution
u
y = v where u = 4x 3 - 5x + 2 and v = x 3 - 1
u l = 12x 2 - 5
v l = 3x 2
u l v - v lu
yl =
v2
(12x 2 - 5) (x 3 - 1) - 3x 2 (4x 3 - 5x + 2)
=
(x 3 - 1 ) 2
12x 5 - 12x 2 - 5x 3 + 5 - 12x 5 + 15x 3 - 6x 2
=
(x 3 - 1 ) 2
10x 3 - 18x 2 + 5
=
(x 3 - 1) 2
8.10
1.
Exercises
Differentiate
1
2x - 1
(b) 3x
x+5
x3
(c)
2
x -4
(d) x - 3
5x + 1
(e) x - 7
x2
(f) 5x + 4
x+3
x
(g)
2
2x - x
(h) x + 4
x-2
(i) 2x + 7
4x - 3
(j) x + 5
3x + 1
(k) x + 1
3x 2 - 7
2x 2
(l)
2x - 3
2
(m) x + 4
x2 - 5
3
(n) x
x+4
3
(o) x + 2x - 1
x+3
2
(p) x - 2x - 1
3x + 4
3
x
+x
(q)
2
x -x-1
2x
(r)
1
(x + 5) 2
3
(s) (2x - 9)
5x + 1
x-1
(t)
(7x + 2) 4
5
(u) (3x + 4)
(a)
(2x - 5) 3
(v) 3x + 1
x+1
(w)
x-1
2x - 3
(x)
x2 + 1
(x - 9) 2
2.
3.
If f (x) =
4.
5.
Given f (x) =
f l(x) =
4x + 5
evaluate f l(2).
2x - 1
2x
find x if
x+3
1
.
6
6.
7.
487
488
tan i =
m1 - m2
1 + m1 m2
EXAMPLE
Find the acute angle formed at the intersection of the curves y = x 2 and
y = (x - 2) 2 .
Solution
m1 - m2
1 + m1 m2
2 - (-2)
1 + 2 (-2)
4
=
3
i = 53c 08l
=
8.11
Exercises
1.
6.
2.
7.
8.
9.
3.
4.
5.
489
490
Test Yourself 8
1.
6.
7.
8.
(b)
(b)
5
4
3
2
1
2.
3.
Differentiate
(a) 7x 6 - 3x 3 + x 2 - 8x - 4
(b) 3x - 4
2x + 1
(c)
-4 -3 -2 -1-1
5.
1 2 3 4
-2
-3
-4
-5
dv
if v = 2t 2 - 3t - 4.
dt
Find
5
4
3
2
1
(c) (x 2 + 4x - 2) 9
(d) 5x(2x - 1) 4
(e) x 2 x
5
(f) 2
x
4.
-44 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
y
9.
Differentiate
(a) f ] x g = 2 ] 4x + 9 g4
5
(b) y =
x-3
(c) y = x ] 3x - 1 g2
4
(d) y = x
(e) f (x) = 5 x
19. Differentiate s = ut +
dS
if S = 4rr 2.
dr
Challenge Exercise 8
1.
2.
If A =
3.
dA
5h + 3
, nd
when h = 1.
7h - 1
dh
dx
Given x = 2t 4 + 100t 3, nd
and nd
dt
dx
values of t when
= 0.
dt
4.
5.
491
492
6.
7.
Differentiate (5x + 1) 3 (x - 9) 5 .
8.
9.
3x - 2 .
2x + 1
.
(4x - 9) 4
90c
180c 270c
360c
3x - 2
.
2x 3
29. Find
493
494
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
15. Sketch y = x 2 - 5x + 4.
16. Simplify sin 2 i - sin 2 i cos 2 i.
17. Find the perpendicular distance from
^ -2, 3 h to the line 5x - 12y + 20 = 0.
18. Find the equation of the straight line
through ^ 1, 2 h parallel to the line
through ^ -3, 4 h and ^ 5, 5 h .
19. Solve cos i = -
1
for 0c # i # 360c.
2
10. Sketch 5x - 2y - 10 = 0.
11. On the number plane, shade in the region
given by x 2 + y 2 # 9 and x - y $ 2.
12. A soccer goal is 8 m wide. A man shoots
for goal when he is 9 m from one post
and 11 m from the other. Within what
angle must a shot be made in order to
score a goal?
25. Solve 3x - 7 1 2.
26. If f ] x g = 9 - 2x 2, find the value of f ] -1 g .
27. Find the value of x if f ] x g = 7 where
f ] x g = 2 x - 1.
28. Find the exact value of tan 300c.
29. Show that 3x - 4y + 10 = 0 is a tangent
to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4.
3-x
if x 2 1
30. If g ] x g = )
2x
if x # 1
(a) find g ] 2 g and g ] -3 g
(b) sketch the graph of g ] x g.
3x 2 h - 4xh + 2h 2
.
h "0
h
9 - 9 sin 2 i .
2x - 7 .
495
496
5x
.
x+1
65. Simplify
i
1 - t2
where t = tan
2
2
1+t
(b) cos i cos b - sin i sin b
(a)
(c)
2 tan 7a
1 - tan 2 7a
3x 3 + x
.
x3 - 2
3
1 5.
x-4
54. If f ] x g = 2x - 5x + 4x - 1, nd f ] -2 g
and f l ] -2 g .
1
.
8
x
.
x-2
(c) y = - 4 - x 2
1
3
(c) sin x =
3
.
2
a
7
52 + 42 - 72
2#5#4
sin i
sin a
(b)
=
4
5
sin i
sin a
(c)
=
5
4
2
5 + 72 - 42
(d) cos i =
2#5#7
(a) cos i =
8x
if x 2 3
76. If f ] x g = * 3x 2 - 2
if 0 # x # 3
9
if x 1 0
evaluate f ] 3 g + f ] 1 g + f ] -1 g
(a) 35
(b) 226
(c) 233
(d) 53
3
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
sin 2 x - cos 2 x
cos 2 x - sin 2 x
2 sin 2 x - 1
2 cos 2 x - 1
497
9
Properties of
the Circle
TERMINOLOGY
Arc: Part of a curve, most commonly a portion of the
distance around the circumference of a circle
Chord: A straight line joining two points on the
circumference of a circle
Concentric circles: Circles that have the same centre
Concyclic points: Points that lie on the circumference of
the same circle
Cyclic quadrilateral: A cyclic quadrilateral is a figure
whose four vertices are concyclic points. The four vertices
lie on the circumference of a circle
INTRODUCTION
IN CHAPTER 4, YOU STUDIED the geometry of angles, triangles, quadrilaterals
and other polygons. This chapter shows you some properties of the circle.
Parts of a Circle
An arc is a part of the circumference.
499
500
501
Proof
Let two equal arcs have lengths l 1 and l 2, and subtend angles of a and b at the
centre of the circle.
Using l = ri , l 1 = ra and l 2 = rb
But l 1 = l 2
` ra = rb
`
a=b
The converse is also true:
EXAMPLE
Solution
Since arc CB = arc BD,+COB = +DOB
Let
+COB = +DOB = x
Then +AOC = 180c - +COB
= 180c - x
Also +AOD = 180c - +DOB
= 180c - x
`
+AOC = +AOD
502
Proof
OA = OC
OB = OD
AB = CD
` by SSS, DOAB / DOCD
`
+AOB = +COD
(equal radii)
(similarly)
(given)
(corresponding +s in congruent Ds)
Equal angles subtended at the centre of the circle cut off equal chords.
EXAMPLE
503
Solution
Since
AB = CD, +AOB = +COD
Let +AOB = +COD = x
Then +BOC = 180c - (x + x)
= 180c - 2x
OB = OC
` D OBC is isosceles with +OBC = +OCB
+OBC + +OCB + 180c - 2x = 180c
+OBC + +OCB = 2x
`
+OBC = +OCB = x
`
+OBC = +AOB
(+AOD is a straight +)
(equal radii)
(+ sum of DOBC)
Proof
(equal radii)
504
` +OBA = x
= +BAO
OA = OC
(base +s of isosceles D)
` +OCA = y
= +CAO
(base +s of isosceles D)
(equal radii)
+BOD = x + x
= 2x
(exterior + of DOBA)
+COD = y + y
= 2y
+BOC = +BOD + +COD
= 2x + 2y
= 2 (x + y )
= 2+BAC
(exterior + of DOCA)
EXAMPLES
1. Find the values of x and y.
Solution
x = 40
(+ at centre is twice the + at the circumference)
Reflex +BOC = 360c - 80c (+ of revolution)
= 280c
`
y = 140
(+ at centre is twice the + at the circumference)
2. Prove +BOC is twice the size of +OCA.
Solution
Let +OAC = x
+BOC = 2+OAC
= 2x
`
`
OA = OC
^ equal radii h
+OCA = +OAC = x (base +s of isosceles D)
+BOC = 2+OCA
Proof
505
506
EXAMPLE
Prove D ABC and D DEC are similar. Hence nd the value of y correct to
1 decimal place.
Solution
+ABC = +DEC
+BCA = +ECD
Proof
+AOB = 180c
+AOB = 2+ACB
` +ACB = 90c
(straight +)
(+ at centre is twice the + at the circumference)
EXAMPLE
AB is a diameter of the circle below. If BC = 2 m and AB = 9 m, nd the
exact length of AC.
Solution
+ACB = 90c
` AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2
9 2 = AC 2 + 2 2
81 = AC 2 + 4
77 = AC 2
` AC =
77 m
9.1 Exercises
1.
(b)
507
508
(c)
3.
(d)
(b)
(e)
(c)
(f)
(d)
2.
(e)
(f)
4.
(g)
(b)
(h)
(c)
(i)
(d)
(j)
509
510
(e)
(f)
(j)
5.
6.
7.
(g)
(h)
(i)
8.
9.
O y
A
x
38c
B
33c
114c
511
512
Chord Properties
A perpendicular line from the centre of a circle to a chord
bisects the chord.
Proof
(given)
(equal radii)
OD is common
` by RHS DOAD / DOBD
`
AD = BD
So OD bisects AB
The converse is also true:
A line from the centre of a circle that bisects a chord is perpendicular
to the chord.
EXAMPLES
1. Line OC is perpendicular to chord AB. If the radius of the circle is
6 cm and the chord is 11 cm long, nd the length of OC, correct to
1 decimal place.
Solution
AB = 11
` AC = 5.5
Also OA = 6
OA = AC + OC
6 2 = 5.5 2 + OC 2
36 = 30.25 + OC 2
5.75 = OC 2
2
OC = 5.75
= 2.4 cm
CONTINUED
513
514
Solution
+OYX = 90c
(+ sum of DOXY)
Proof
Let CD = AB
+OEB = +OFD = 90c
OB = OD
AB = CD
(given)
(equal radii)
(given)
1
AB
2
1
DF = CD
2
BE = DF
BE =
`
`
Class Exercise
Prove that chords that are equidistant from the centre are equal.
EXAMPLE
In the circle below, with centre O, OE = 35 mm, DE = 56 mm and
OC = 21 mm. Show that AB = DE.
Solution
EF = 28 mm
OE = EF + OF
35 2 = 28 2 + OF 2
35 2 - 28 2 = OF 2
441 = OF 2
2
`
`
So
OF = 441
= 21 mm
OF = OC
AB = DE.
515
516
AE: EB = DE: EC
Proof
+AED = +CEB
+DAE = +ECB
+ADE = +EBC
EXAMPLE
Solution
AE = AB - EB
= 12.3 - 2.7
= 9 .6
AE: EB = DE: EC
9.6 # 2.7 = 10.6 # EC
9 .6 # 2 .7
`
EC =
10.6
= 2.4 cm
9.2 Exercises
1.
(d)
(a)
(e)
(b)
(f)
(c)
517
518
(g)
3.
4.
5.
Show AB = CD.
6.
AC = 20 cm and AD = 26 cm.
Find OB, correct to 1 decimal
place.
(h)
(i)
(j)
2.
7.
9.
8.
Show that CD =
2r + 4r 2 - x 2
.
2
A
10.
E
C
D
Concyclic Points
Concyclic points are points that lie on the circumference of a circle.
519
520
Cyclic quadrilaterals
A cyclic quadrilateral is a gure whose 4 vertices are concyclic points.
Proof
Join B and D to O.
Obtuse +DOB = 2+A
Reflex +DOB = 2+C
Obtuse +DOB + reflex +DOB = 360c
`
2+A + 2+C = 360c
`
+A + +C = 180c
(+ at centre is doubl e
+at circumference)
(+ of revolution)
521
522
Proof
Let
Then
`
+A = x
+BCD = 180c - x
(opposite +s supplementary
in cyclic quadrilateral)
(+DCE straight angle)
EXAMPLE
Evaluate a, b and c.
Solution
OB = OD
`
+ODB = 20c
a + 20c + 20c = 180c
`
a = 180c - 40c
= 140c
b = 70c
c = 180c - 70c
= 110c
(equal radii)
(base + s of isosceles D equal)
(+ sum of D)
9.3 Exercises
1.
(e)
(a)
(f)
(b)
(g)
(c)
(h)
(d)
(i)
523
524
(e)
(j)
118c
yc
xc
O
46c
2.
(f)
Find the values of all
pronumerals.
(a)
(g)
(b)
(h)
(c)
(i)
(d)
(j)
xc
111c
3.
58c C
C
B 58c
(b)
(c)
525
A
E
Tangent Properties
The perpendicular
distance is the shortest
distance any other
distance would be greater
than the radius.
526
Proof
Join OB
+A = +C = 90c
OB is common
OA = OC
` by RHS, DOAB / DOCB
`
AB = CB
(tangent = radius)
(equal radii)
(corresponding sides in congruent Ds)
EXAMPLE
A circle with centre O and radius 10 cm has a tangent AB drawn to it
where OB = 26 cm. Find the length of AB.
527
Solution
OA = 10
+OAB = 90c
(radius)
(tangent = radius)
` OB 2 = OA 2 + AB 2
26 2 = 10 2 + AB 2
676 = 100 + AB 2
576 = AB 2
` AB = 576
= 24 cm
Proof
(tangent = radius)
(similarly)
528
EXAMPLE
Two circles touch at A and the larger circle has centre O. Prove
(a) TABC and TAOD are similar
(b) CB < DO
(c) BC = 2DO.
Solution
(a) OA is a diameter of small circle
` +ODA = 90c
Since AB is a diameter of the larger circle,
+BCA = 90c
(similarly)
` +BCA = +ODA
+A is common
` D ABC ;;; D AOD
(b) +BCA = +ODA
These are equal corresponding angles.
` CB < DO
(c)
AB
AB
`
OA
AB
`
OA
` BC
= 2 OA
[from (a)]
(OA radius)
=2
AC
BC
=
=2
AD
DO
= 2DO
=
Proof
(tangent = radius)
(+ in semicircle)
EXAMPLE
Evaluate x and y.
CONTINUED
529
530
Solution
+ABC = 180c - (95c + 50c)
= 35c
` x = 35c
y = 35c
(+ sum of D )
(+ s in alternate segment)
( y and +ABC in same segment)
Proof
+QPR = +PSR
+Q is common
` PQR ;;;D SPQ
PQ
QR
PR
=
=
`
QS
SP
PQ
PQ
QR
`
=
QS
PQ
2
PQ = QR:QS
EXAMPLE
AB is a tangent to the circle and CD = 1.3 cm, BC = 1.7 cm. Find the
length of AB, correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
BD = 1.3 + 1.7
=3
AB 2 = BC: BD
= 1 .7 # 3
= 5 .1
AB = 5.1
= 2.3 cm correct to 1 decimal place.
9.4 Exercises
1.
(b)
531
532
(c)
(h)
(d)
(i)
y
x
38c
O
(e)
(j)
(f)
2.
(g)
(g)
(b)
(h)
(c)
(i)
(d)
xc
63c
yc
(j)
9 cm
15
cm
13 cm
(e)
y
P
(f)
533
534
3.
4.
6.
(b)
(c)
5.
(e)
(i)
(f)
(j)
(g)
7.
(h)
(b)
535
536
(c)
(h)
(d)
(i)
(e)
(j)
(f)
8.
(g)
Test Yourself 9
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
537
538
9.
Challenge Exercise 9
1.
2.
539
540
3.
5.
4.
6.
7.
8.
3r
, find the shaded
2
9.
541
10
The Quadratic
Function
TERMINOLOGY
Axis of symmetry: A line about which two parts of
a graph are symmetrical. One half of the graph is a
reflection of the other
Coefficient: A constant multiplied by a pronumeral in an
algebraic term e.g. in ax3 the a is the coefficient
Discriminant: Part of the quadratic formula, the algebraic
expression b 2 - 4ac is called the discriminant as its value
determines the number and nature of the roots of a
quadratic equation
Equations reducible to quadratics: Equations that can be
reduced to the form: ax 2 + bx + c = 0
Indefinite: A quadratic function where f(x) can be both
positive and negative for varying values of x
543
INTRODUCTION
THE SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC equations is important in many fields,
Solution
(a) For the y-intercept, x = 0
i.e. y = 0 2 - 4 (0)
=0
For the x-intercept, y = 0
i.e. 0 = x 2 - 4x
= x (x - 4)
` x = 0 or x - 4 = 0
x=4
CONTINUED
544
Class Investigation
1. How would you find the axis of symmetry for a graph with no
x-intercepts?
2. How would you find the axis of symmetry of a graph where the
x-intercepts are irrational numbers?
Proof
The axis of symmetry lies midway between the x-intercepts.
For the x-intercepts, y = 0
i.e. ax 2 + bx + c = 0
x=
- b ! b 2 - 4ac
2a
i.e.
- b - b 2 - 4ac
- b + b 2 - 4ac
+
2a
2a
x=
2
- 2b
2a
=
2
- 2b
=
4a
b
=2a
Minimum value
545
546
b
m
2a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the minimum value of
the quadratic function y = x 2 - 5x + 1.
Solution
The equation of the axis of symmetry is given by
b
2a
(- 5 )
x=i.e.
2 ( 1)
5
=
2
1
` Equation is x = 2
2
5 2
5
Minimum value: y = c m - 5 c m + 1
2
2
25 25
=
+1
4
2
1
= -5
4
x=-
a 2 0 gives a minimum
value.
1
So minimum value is - 5 .
4
2. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the maximum value of
the quadratic function y = - 3x 2 + x - 5.
Solution
The equation of the axis of symmetry is given by
b
2a
1
x=i.e.
2 (- 3 )
1
=
6
1
` Equation is x =
6
1 2
1
Maximum value: y = - 3 c m + c m - 5
6
6
1
1
=+ -5
12 6
11
= -4
12
x=-
a 1 0 gives a maximum
value.
So maximum value is - 4
11
.
12
Class Investigation
Examine the graph of y = - 3x 2 + x - 5 from the above example. Are
there any solutions for the quadratic equation - 3x 2 + x - 5 = 0?
EXAMPLE
(a) Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the
vertex of the parabola y = 2x 2 - 12x + 7.
(b) Find the y-intercept and sketch the graph.
Solution
(a) Axis of symmetry:
b
x=2a
- 12
=2#2
=3
When x = 3
y = 2 ] 3 g 2 - 12 ] 3 g + 7
= - 11
y = 2 ] 0 g 2 - 12 ] 0 g + 7
=7
(3, -11)
10.1 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
547
548
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
f ] x g = x 2 + 4x - 3
y = x 2 - 2x
f ] x g = x 2 - 4x - 7
f ] x g = 2x 2 + x - 3
y = - x 2 - 2x + 5
y = - 2x 2 + 8x + 3
f ] x g = - 3x 2 + 3x + 7
f ] x g = - x 2 + 2x - 4
549
20. By sketching f ] x g = x 2 + x + 2,
show that x 2 + x + 2 2 0 for all x.
21. Show by a sketch that
- x 2 + 2x - 7 1 0 for all x.
22. Sketch y = - 5x 2 + 4x - 1 and
show that -5x 2 + 4x - 1 1 0 for
all x.
Investigation
Could you tell without sketching the function y = x 2 - x + 5 if
x 2 - x + 5 2 0 for all x? How could you do this?
How could you know that - x 2 + 2x - 7 1 0 for all x without sketching
the graph of f ] x g = - x 2 + 2x - 7?
Quadratic Inequalities
You looked at solving quadratic inequations in Chapter 3 using the number
line. You can also solve them using the graph of a parabola.
550
y
a20
ax2 + bx + c 2 0
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 + bx + c 1 0
y
a10
ax 2 + bx + c 2 0
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 + bx + c 1 0
EXAMPLES
1. Solve x 2 - 3x + 2 $ 0.
Solution
First sketch y = x 2 - 3x + 2 showing x-intercepts (a 2 0 so it is concave
upwards).
For x-intercepts, y = 0
0 = x 2 - 3x + 2
= ]x - 2g]x - 1g
x - 2 = 0, x - 1 = 0
x = 2,
x=1
Solution
First sketch y = 4x - x 2 showing x-intercepts (a 1 0 so it is concave
downwards).
For x-intercepts, y = 0
0 = 4x - x 2
= x ]4 - x g
x = 0,
4-x=0
x = 0,
4=x
y
CONTINUED
551
552
3. Solve x 2 - 25 1 0.
Solution
First sketch y = x 2 - 25 showing x-intercepts (a 2 0 so it is concave
upwards).
For x-intercepts, y = 0
0 = x 2 - 25
= ]x + 5 g]x - 5 g
x + 5 = 0, x - 5 = 0
x = - 5,
x=5
y
-5
Further inequations
You learned how to solve inequations involving the pronumeral in the
denominator by using the number line in Chapter 3. Here we use quadratic
inequalities to solve them.
553
EXAMPLES
1. Solve
1
$ 2.
x+1
Solution
x ! -1
We dont know whether x + 1 is positive or negative, but ] x + 1 g 2 is
always positive. We can multiply both sides of the inequation by ] x + 1 g 2
without changing the inequality sign.
1
$2
x+1
1
# ]x + 1 g2 $ 2 # ]x + 1 g 2
x+1
x + 1 $ 2 ]x + 1 g2
0 $ 2 ]x + 1 g2 - ]x + 1 g
$ ]x + 1 g62 ]x + 1 g - 1 @
$ ] x + 1 g ] 2x + 2 - 1 g
$ ] x + 1 g ] 2x + 1 g
-1
1
2
2. Solve
4x
1 5.
x-2
Solution
x!2
We multiply both sides of the inequation by ] x - 2 g 2.
CONTINUED
554
4x
15
x-2
4x
# ] x - 2 g 2 1 5# ] x - 2 g 2
x-2
4x ] x - 2 g 1 5 ] x - 2 g 2
0 1 5 ] x - 2 g 2 - 4x ] x - 2 g
1 ] x - 2 g 6 5 ] x - 2 g - 4x @
1 ] x - 2 g ] 5x - 10 - 4x g
1 ] x - 2 g ] x - 10 g
10
10.2 Exercises
Solve
1.
x2 - 9 2 0
6.
2t - t 2 2 0
2.
n2 + n # 0
7.
x 2 + 2x - 8 2 0
3.
a 2 - 2a $ 0
8.
p 2 + 4p + 3 $ 0
4.
4 - x2 1 0
9.
m 2 - 6m + 8 2 0
5.
y 2 - 6y # 0
10. 6 - x - x 2 # 0
555
1
23. x $ 1
11. 2h 2 - 7h + 6 1 0
12. x 2 - x - 20 # 0
1
24. - x $ 2
13. 35 + 9k - 2k 2 $ 0
25.
1
23
x -1
26.
1
#1
x+2
27.
2
$5
x-2
28.
3
2 -1
x+3
20. ] x - 3 g ] x + 1 g $ 5
29.
-1
#3
x-1
1
21. x 1 - 2
30.
14. q 2 - 9q + 18 2 0
15. ] x + 2 g2 $ 0
16. 12 - n - n 2 # 0
17. x 2 - 2x 1 15
18. - t 2 $ 4t - 12
19. 3y 2 2 14y + 5
x
$4
x+2
1
22. x 2 3
The Discriminant
The values of x that satisfy a quadratic equation are called the roots of the
equation.
The roots of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are the x-intercepts of the graph
y = ax 2 + bx + c
a20
a10
x
556
a20
a10
x
a20
a10
x
Investigation
1. Solve the following quadratic equations using the quadratic formula
(a) x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0
(b) x 2 + 4x - 7 = 0
(c) x 2 + x + 5 = 0
(d) x 2 - 6x + 9 = 0
2. Without solving a quadratic equation, can you predict how many
roots it has by looking at the quadratic formula?
b 2 - 4ac
, the expression b 2 - 4ac is called
2a
the discriminant. It gives us information about the roots of the quadratic
equation ax 2 + bx + x = 0.
In the quadratic formula x =
-b !
EXAMPLES
Use the quadratic formula to find how many real roots each quadratic
equation has.
1. x 2 + 5x - 3 = 0
Solution
- b ! b 2 - 4ac
2a
- 5 ! 5 2 - 4 #1# - 3
=
2 #1
- 5 ! 25 + 12
=
2
- 5 ! 37
=
2
There are 2 real roots:
x=
x=
- 5 + 37 - 5 - 37
,
2
2
2. x 2 - x + 4 = 0
Solution
- b ! b 2 - 4ac
2a
- (-1) ! (-1) 2 - 4 #1# 4
=
2 #1
1 ! -15
=
2
x=
3. x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0
Solution
- b ! b 2 - 4ac
2a
- (- 2) ! (- 2) 2 - 4 #1#1
=
2 #1
2! 0
=
2
x=
CONTINUED
557
558
x=
Notice that when there are 2 real roots, the discriminant b 2 - 4ac 2 0.
When there are 2 equal roots (or just 1 real root), b 2 - 4ac = 0.
When there are no real roots, b 2 - 4ac 1 0.
We often use D = b 2 - 4ac.
a20
a10
x
a20
a10
x
a10
a20
x
If T1 0 and a 2 0, it is positive
definite and ax 2 + bx + c 2 0
for all x.
If T1 0 and a 1 0, it is
negative definite and
ax 2 + bx + c 1 0 for all x.
EXAMPLES
1. Show that the equation 2x 2 + x + 4 = 0 has no real roots.
Solution
T = b 2 - 4ac
= 12 - 4 ] 2 g ] 4 g
= 1 - 32
= - 31
10
So the equation has no real roots.
2. Find the values of k for which the quadratic equation 5x 2 - 2x + k = 0
has real roots.
Solution
For real unequal roots, T 2 0.
For real equal roots, T = 0.
So for real roots, T $ 0.
CONTINUED
559
560
T $0
b - 4ac $ 0
2
] -2 g 2 - 4 ] 5 g ] k g $ 0
4 - 20k $ 0
4 $ 20k
1
$k
5
3. Show that x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x.
Solution
If a 2 0 and T1 0, then ax 2 + bx + c 2 0 for all x.
y
a20
x
a =1
20
T = b 2 - 4ac
= ] -2 g 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g
= 4 - 16
= -12
10
Since a 2 0 and T1 0, x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x.
4. Show that the line 4x + y + 4 = 0 is a tangent to the parabola y = x 2.
Solution
For the line to be a tangent, it must intersect with the curve in only
1 point.
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2
-11
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
It is too hard to tell from the graph if the line is a tangent, so we solve
simultaneous equations to find any points of intersection.
]1 g
]2 g
y = x2
4x + y + 4 = 0
Substitute (1) into (2):
4x + x 2 + 4 = 0
x 2 + 4x + 4 = 0
We dont need to find the roots of the equation as the question only asks
how many roots there are. We find the discriminant.
D = b 2 - 4ac
= 42 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g
= 16 - 16
=0
` the equation has 1 real root (equal roots) so there is only one point of
intersection.
So the line is a tangent to the parabola.
10.3 Exercises
1.
(i) - 2x 2 + x + 2 = 0
(j) - x 2 + 4x - 4 = 0
2.
561
562
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
x2 - x - 4 = 0
2x 2 + 3x + 6 = 0
x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0
x 2 + 6x + 9 = 0
2x 2 - 5x - 1 = 0
- x 2 + 2x - 5 = 0
- 2x 2 - 5x + 3 = 0
- 5x 2 + 2x - 6 = 0
-x2 + x = 0
- 2x 2 + 8x - 2 = 0
3.
4.
5.
6.
Evaluate p if px 2 + 4x + 2 = 0 has
no real roots.
7.
8.
9.
Quadratic Identities
When you use the quadratic formula to solve an equation, you compare a
quadratic, say, 3x 2 - 2x + 5 = 0 with the general quadratic ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
563
Proof
If a 1 x 2 + b 1 x + c 1 = a 2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 for more than two values of x, then
(a 1 - a 2) x 2 + (b 1 - b 2) x + (c 1 - c 2) = 0.
That is, a 1 = a 2, b 1 = b 2 and c 1 = c 2 .
EXAMPLES
1. Write 2x 2 - 3x + 5 in the form A (x - 1)2 + B (x - 1) + C.
Solution
A ] x - 1 g2 + B (x - 1) + C = A (x 2 - 2x + 1) + Bx - B + C
= Ax 2 - 2Ax + A + Bx - B + C
= Ax 2 + (- 2A + B) x + A - B + C
For 2x 2 - 3x + 5 / Ax 2 + (- 2A + B) x + A - B + C
A=2
- 2A + B = - 3
A-B+C=5
Substitute (1) into (2):
- 2 ( 2) + B = - 3
- 4 + B = -3
B=1
Substitute A = 2 and B = 1 into (3):
2-1+C=5
1+C=5
C=4
( 1)
(2)
( 3)
` 2x 2 - 3x + 5 / 2 (x - 1) 2 + (x - 1) + 4
CONTINUED
564
Solution
a ] x + 3 g2 + bx + c - 1 = a (x 2 + 6x + 9) + bx + c - 1
= ax 2 + 6ax + 9a + bx + c - 1
= ax 2 + (6a + b) x + 9a + c - 1
2
For x - x / ax 2 + (6a + b) x + 9a + c - 1
a =1
6a + b = -1
9a + c - 1 = 0
Substitute (1) into (2):
6 (1) + b = -1
6 + b = -1
b = -7
Substitute (1) into (3):
9 (1) + c - 1 = 0
8+c=0
c = -8
` a = 1, b = -7, c = - 8
( 1)
( 2)
( 3)
3. Find the equation of the parabola that passes through the points
(-1, -3), (0, 3) and (2, 21) .
Solution
The parabola has equation in the form y = ax 2 + bx + c. Substitute the
points into the equation:
^ -1, -3 h:
-3 = a ] -1 g 2 + b ] -1 g + c
=a-b+c
a - b + c = -3
^ 0, 3 h :
3 = a ]0 g2 + b ]0 g + c
=c
]1 g
]2 g
^ 2, 21 h:
c =3
21 = a ] 2 g 2 + b ] 2 g + c
= 4a + 2b + c
`
4a + 2b + c = 21
Solve simultaneous equations to find a, b and c.
Substitute (2) into (1):
a - b + 3 = -3
a - b = -6
]3 g
( 4)
(5 )
(6 )
10.4 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Evaluate K, L and M if
x 2 / K ] x - 3 g 2 + L ] x + 1 g - 2M.
565
566
8.
9.
EXAMPLE
(a) Solve x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0.
(b) Find the sum of the roots.
(c) Find the product of the roots.
Solution
(a)
x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0
(x - 4) (x - 5) = 0
x - 4 = 0, x - 5 = 0
` x = 4,
x=5
(b) Sum = 4 + 5
=9
(c) Product = 4 # 5
= 20
This relationship with the sum and product of the roots works for any
quadratic equation.
Proof
Suppose the general quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has roots a and b.
Then this equation can be written in the form
567
(x - a ) (x - b) = 0
i.e. x - bx - a x + ab = 0
x 2 - (a + b) x + ab = 0
2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the quadratic equation that has roots 6 and - 1.
Solution
Method 1: Using the general formula
x 2 - (a + b) x + ab = 0 where a = 6 and b = -1
a + b = 6 + -1
=5
ab = 6 # -1
= -6
Substituting into x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab = 0 gives
x 2 - 5x - 6 = 0
Method 2:
If 6 and -1 are the roots of the equation then it can be written as
]x - 6 g]x + 1 g = 0
x 2 + x - 6x - 6 = 0
x 2 - 5x - 6 = 0
2. Find the quadratic equation that has roots 3 + 2 and 3 - 2 .
Solution
Method 1: Using the general formula
a+b=3+ 2+3- 2
=6
ab = (3 + 2 ) # (3 - 2 )
= 3 2 - ( 2 )2
=9-2
=7
Substituting into x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab = 0 gives
x 2 - 6x + 7 = 0
Method 2:
If 3 + 2 and 3 - 2 are the roots of the equation then it can be
written as
_x - "3 + 2 ,i_x - "3 - 2 ,i = 0
^x - 3 - 2 h^x - 3 + 2 h = 0
x 2 - 3x + 2 x - 3x + 9 - 3 2 - 2 x + 3 2 - 2 = 0
x 2 - 6x + 7 = 0
It doesnt matter
which way around we
name these roots.
568
We can find a more general relationship between the sum and product of
roots of a quadratic equation.
Proof
If an equation has roots a and b, it can be written as x 2 - (a + b )x + ab = 0.
But we know that a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
Using quadratic identities, we can compare the two forms of the
equation.
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 bx c
0
a + a +a=a
c
b
x2 + a x + a = 0
c
b
For x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab / x 2 + a x + a
b
- (a + b ) = a
b
`
a + b = -a
c
Also
ab = a
EXAMPLES
1. Find (a) a + b (b) ab (c) a2 + b2 if a and b are the roots of
2x 2 - 6x + 1 = 0.
Solution
b
(a) a + b = - a
==3
(-6)
2
569
c
(b) ab = a
1
=
2
(c)
a 2 + b 2 ! (a + b ) 2
^ a + b h2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2
^ a + b h2 - 2ab = a 2 + b2
] 3 g 2 - 2 c 1 m = a2 + b2
2
9 - 1 = a 2 + b2
8 = a 2 + b2
2. Find the value of k if one root of kx 2 -7x + k + 1 = 0 is - 2.
Solution
If - 2 is a root of the equation then x = -2 satisfies the equation.
Substitute x = - 2 into the equation:
k ] -2 g 2 - 7 ] -2 g + k + 1 = 0
4k + 14 + k + 1 = 0
5k + 15 = 0
5k = - 15
k = -3
3. Evaluate p if one root of x 2 + 2x - 5p = 0 is double the other root.
You could use b
and 2b instead.
Solution
If one root is a then the other root is 2a .
Sum of roots:
b
a + b = -a
2
1
3a = - 2
2
a=3
a + 2a = -
CONTINUED
570
Product of roots:
c
ab = a
- 5p
a # 2a =
1
2
2a = - 5p
2 2
2 c - m = - 5p
3
4
2 c m = - 5p
9
8
= - 5p
9
8
=p
45
10.5 Exercises
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
One root of
3x 2 - 2 (3b + 1) x + 4b = 0 is 8.
Find the value of b.
7.
8.
9.
(d) a2 + b2
3.
1
.
n
Consecutive numbers
are numbers that
follow each other
in order, such as
3 and 4.
571
572
EXAMPLES
1. Solve ] x + 2 g 2 - 3 ] x + 2 g - 4 = 0.
Solution
u=x+2
Let
Then u - 3u - 4
]u - 4 g]u + 1 g
u - 4 = 0, u + 1
u = 4,
u
2
But
=0
=0
=0
= -1
u=x+2
So x + 2 = 4,
x = 2,
x + 2 = -1
x = -3
2
2. Solve x + x = 3 where x ! 0.
Solution
2
x+ x =3
2
x#x+x#x =3#x
x 2 + 2 = 3x
x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0
]x - 2 g]x - 1 g = 0
x - 2 = 0, x - 1 = 0
x = 2,
x=1
3. Solve 9 x - 4.3 x + 3 = 0.
Solution
x
2
9x = ^ 32 h = ^ 3x h
So 9 x - 4.3 x + 3 = 0 can be written as
^ 3 x h2 - 4.3 x + 3 = 0
Let
k = 3x
k 2 - 4k + 3 = 0
]k - 3 g]k - 1 g = 0
k - 3 = 0, k - 1 = 0
k = 1,
k=3
But k = 3 x
So 3 x = 1,
x = 0,
3x = 3
x=1
573
Solution
sin x = u
Let
Then 2u + u - 1 = 0
] 2u - 1 g ] u + 1 g = 0
2u - 1 = 0 or u + 1 = 0
u = -1
2u = 1
2
u=
1
2
But u = sin x
1
So sin x = or sin x = -1
2
1
sin x = has solutions in the 1st and 2nd quadrants
2
1
sin 30c =
2
So x = 30c, 180c - 30c
= 30c, 150c
30c
3
600c
90c
180c
270c
360c
-1
574
10.6 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
Solve
(a) ] x - 1 g 2 + 7 ] x - 1 g + 10 = 0
(b) ^ y - 3 h 2 - ^ y - 3 h - 2 = 0
(c) ] x + 2 g 2 - 2 ] x + 2 g - 8 = 0
(d) ] n - 5 g 2 + 7 ] n - 5 g + 6 = 0
(e) ] a - 4 g 2 + 6 ] a - 4 g - 7 = 0
(f) ^ p + 1 h 2 - 9 ^ p + 1 h + 20 = 0
(g) ] x + 3 g 2 - 4 ] x + 3 g - 5 = 0
(h) ] k - 8 g 2 - ] k - 8 g - 12 = 0
(i) ] t - 2 g 2 + 2 ] t - 2 g - 24 = 0
(j) ] b + 9 g 2 - 2 ] b + 9 g - 15 = 0
Solve (x ! 0) .
6
(a) x - x = 1
6
(b) x + x = 5
20
(c) x + x - 9 = 0
15
(d) x + x = 8
12
(e) 2x + x = 11
(c) 5 2x - 5 x - 20 = 0
(d) 9 x + 3 x - 12 = 0
(e) 4 x - 10.2 x + 16 = 0
5.
6.
7.
4
= 5 ( x ! 0) .
x2
1 2
1
Solve b x + x l + b x + x l - 2 = 0
(x ! 0) .
Solve
1 2
1
n - 9 d x 2 + 2 n + 20 = 0
x2
x
correct to 2 decimal places
(x ! 0) .
d x2 +
8.
Solve
(a) x 4 - 7x 2 - 18 = 0
9.
(b) y 4 - 6y 2 + 8 = 0, giving exact
values
2
(c) ^ x 2 - x h + ^ x 2 - x h - 2 = 0
giving exact values
(d)
^ x 2 + 3x -1 h2 - 7 ^ x 2 + 3x -1 h +10 = 0
correct to 2 decimal places
10.
2
(e) ^ a 2 + 4a h + 2 ^ a 2 + 4a h - 8 = 0
giving exact values.
Solve
(a) 2 2x - 9.2 x + 8 = 0
(b) 3 2p + 3 p - 12 = 0
Solve x 2 +
Test Yourself 10
1.
Solve
(a) x 2 - 3x # 0
(b) n 2 - 9 2 0
(c) 4 - y 2 $ 0
2.
Evaluate a, b and c if 2x 2 - 5x + 7
= 2a(x + 1) 2 + b (x + 1) + c.
3.
Find
(a) the equation of the axis of
symmetry and
(b) the minimum value of the parabola
y = x 2 - 4x + 1.
4.
5.
9.
Find
(a) the equation of the axis of
symmetry and
(b) the maximum value of the quadratic
function y = - 2x 2 - x + 6.
(x ! 0) .
6.
7.
8.
575
576
(d)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3
17
x+1
2n
$1
n-3
2
23
5y - 1
3x
#2
2x + 5
2x + 1
$5
x-4
Challenge Exercise 10
1.
2.
3.
25
= 10.
x2 + 1
4.
Solve x 2 + 1 +
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Solve 2 2x + 1 - 5.2 x + 2 = 0.
1 2
1
14. Solve b x + x l - 5 b x + x l + 6 = 0.
11. Express
577
11
Locus and the
Parabola
TERMINOLOGY
Axis: A line around which a curve is reflected e.g. the axis
of symmetry of a parabola
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER EXPANDS THE work on functions that you have already learned.
Locus
A relation can be described in two different ways. It can be a set of points that
obey certain conditions, or a single point that moves along a path according
to certain conditions.
A locus is the term used to describe the path of a single moving point
that obeys certain conditions.
579
580
EXAMPLES
Describe the locus of the following.
1. A pencil on the end of compasses.
Solution
The path of the pencil is a circle with centre at the point of the
compasses.
2. A person going up an escalator (standing still on one step).
Solution
The body travels along a straight line parallel to the escalator.
3. A doorknob on a closing door.
Solution
If the door could swing right around it would follow a circle. So a door
closing swings through an arc of a circle.
4. A point on the number line that is 3 units from 0.
Solution
Solution
The locus is 2 vertical lines with equations x = !3.
Class Discussion
Describe the path of a person abseiling down a cliff.
11.1 Exercises
Describe the locus of the following:
1.
2.
3.
a child on a swing
4.
5.
581
582
6.
7.
8.
9.
A locus describes a single point P ^ x, y h that moves along a certain path. The
equation of a locus can often be found by using P ^ x, y h together with the
information given about the locus.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it
is always 3 units from the origin.
Solution
You may recognise this locus as a circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h radius 3 units. Its
equation is given by x 2 + y 2 = 9.
Alternatively, use the distance formula.
d=
2
2
_ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
or d 2 = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2
583
Place P anywhere on
the number plane.
Solution
2
PA
=
PB
1
PA = 2PB
PA 2 = ] 2PB g 2
= 4PB 2
[x - ^ - 3 h] 2 + ^ y - 1 h2 = 4 $ ^ x - 2 h 2 + [y - ^ - 2 h] 2 .
^ x + 3 h 2 + ^ y - 1 h2 = 4 [^ x - 2 h 2 + ^ y + 2 h 2 ]
2
x + 6x + 9 + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 4 ^ x 2 - 4x + 4 + y 2 + 4x + 4 h
= 4x 2 - 16x + 16 + 4y 2 + 16y + 16
0 = 3x 2 - 22x + 3y 2 + 18y + 22
or 3x 2 - 22x + 3y 2 + 18y + 22 = 0
i.e.
584
Solution
Solution
11.2 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
585
586
PROBLEM
Can you see 2 mistakes in the solution to this question?
Find the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves so that its perpendicular
distance from the line 12x + 5y - 1 = 0 is always 3 units.
Solution
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus.
d=
3=
=
=
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
a2 + b2
| 5x + 12y - 1|
5 2 + 12 2
| 5x + 12y - 1|
25 + 144
| 5x + 12y - 1|
169
| 5x + 12y - 1|
=
13
` 39 = 5x + 12y - 1
0 = 5x + 12y - 40
Can you find the correct locus?
Circle as a Locus
The locus of point P (x, y) that is always a constant distance from a fixed
point is a circle.
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that is always r units from the
origin.
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that is always r units from point
A ^ a, b h .
587
588
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point that is always 2 units from
the point ^ -1, 0 h .
Solution
This is a circle with radius 2 and centre ^ -1, 0 h . Its equation is in the form
^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r2
i.e. [x - ^ -1 h] 2 + ^ y - 0 h 2 = 2 2
^ x + 1 h 2 + y2 = 4
x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 = 4
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 3 = 0
2. Find the radius and the coordinates of the centre of the circle
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0.
Solution
You learned how to
complete the square in
Chapter 3.
6 2
To complete the square on y 2 - 6y, we add c m = 9.
2
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y = 15
2
x + 2x + 1 + y 2 - 6y + 9 = 15 + 1 + 9
^ x + 1 h 2 + ^ y - 3 h 2 = 25
^ x - ] - 1 g h 2 + ^ y - 3 h 2 = 52
The equation is in the form ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r 2 .
This is a circle, centre ^ -1, 3 h and radius 5.
11.3 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
589
590
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
x2 x2 +
x2 x2 +
x2 +
x2 x2 +
10x + y 2 + 6y - 2 = 0
2x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0
12x + y 2 = 0
6x + y 2 - 8y = 0
20x + y 2 - 4y + 40 = 0
14x + y 2 + 2y + 25 = 0
2x + y 2 + 4y - 5 = 0
Parabola as a Locus
The locus of a point that is equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed line
is always a parabola. The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is
called the directrix.
591
592
The locus of a point that is equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed line
is always in the shape of a parabola.
If the fixed point is (0, a) and the fixed line is y = - a (where a 2 0), then
one of the equidistant points is the origin (0, 0). The distance between the
points (0, 0) and (0, a) is a units.
The point on y = - a directly below the origin is ^ 0, - a h and the distance
from (0, 0) to ^ 0, - a h is also a units.
y
(0, a)
a
x
a
(0, -a)
y =- a
To find the equation of the parabola, we use the general process to find
the equation of any locus. The features of the parabola have special names.
593
PARABOLA x 2 = 4 ay
The locus of point P ^ x, y h moving so that it is equidistant from the point
^ 0, a h and the line y = - a is a parabola with equation
x 2 = 4ay
Proof
Class Investigation
Find the equation of the locus if point P ^ x, y h is equidistant from ^ 0, - a h
and y = a.
594
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus has coordinates ^ 0, 2 h
and whose directrix has equation y = - 2.
Solution
The focus has coordinates in the form ^ 0, a h and the directrix has
equation in the form y = - a, where a = 2.
` the parabola is in the form x 2 = 4ay where a = 2
i.e. x 2 = 4 (2) y
x 2 = 8y
2.
(a) Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of
the parabola x 2 = 20y.
(b) Find the points on the parabola at the endpoints of the latus rectum
and find its length.
Solution
(a) The parabola x 2 = 20y is in the form x 2 = 4ay
4a = 20
` a=5
The focal length is 5 units.
We can find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the
directrix in two ways.
Method 1:
Draw the graph x 2 = 20y and count 5 units up and down from the
origin as shown.
y
x2 = 20y
(0, 5)
5
x
5
(0, -5) y = -5
595
Method 2:
The focus is in the form (0, a) where a = 5.
So the focus is (0, 5).
The directrix is in the form y = - a where a = 5.
So the directrix is y = - 5.
(b) The latus rectum is a focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis of
the parabola as shown
y
x2 = 20 y
(0, 5)
x
The endpoints of the latus rectum will be where the line y = 5 and the
parabola intersect.
Substitute y = 5 into the parabola.
x 2 = 20y
= 20 ] 5 g
= 100
x = ! 100
= !10
So the endpoints are (-10, 5) and (10, 5).
y
x2 = 20 y
(-10, 5)
(0, 5)
(10, 5)
x
CONTINUED
596
Solution
The parabola x 2 = 4y is in the form x 2 = 4ay.
4a = 4
`a=1
The focal length is 1 unit.
The focus is 1 unit up from the origin at (0, 1) and the focal chord also
passes through (- 4, 4).
y
(-4, 4)
x2 = 4y
(0, 1)
x
We can find the equation of the line between (0, 1) and (- 4, 4) by using
either formula
y - y1
y2 - y1
y - y 1 = m _ x - x 1 i or x - x = x - x
1
2
1
y - y1
y2 - y1
x - x1 = x2 - x1
y -1
4 -1
=
x-0
-4 - 0
y -1
3
x = -4
- 4 ^ y - 1 h = 3x
- 4y + 4 = 3x
0 = 3x + 4y - 4
Proof
y
B(x, a)
y=a
x
P(x, y)
A(0, -a)
PA 2 = PB 2
2
^ x - 0 h 2 + 7 y - ^ - a h A = ^ x - x h 2 + ^ y - a h2
x 2 + ^ y + a h2 = ^ y - a h2
2
x + y 2 + 2ay + a 2 = y 2 - 2ay + a 2
x 2 = - 4ay
597
598
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ^ 0, - 4 h and directrix
y = 4.
Solution
If we draw this information, the focus is below the directrix as shown. So
the parabola will be concave downwards (the parabola always turns away
from the directrix).
y
y=4
4
x
4
(0, -4)
Solution
The parabola x 2 = -12y is in the form x 2 = - 4ay.
4a = 12
`a=3
The focal length is 3 units.
The vertex is (0, 0).
We can find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix
in two ways.
Method 1:
Draw the graph x 2 = -12y and count 3 units up and down from the
origin as shown. (The parabola is concave downward.)
y=3
3
x
3
(0, -3)
x2 = -12y
Solution
Vertex ^ 0, 0 h and axis given by x = 0 give a parabola in the form
x 2 = !4ay, since there is not enough information to tell whether it is
concave upwards or downwards.
This gives two possible parabolas.
CONTINUED
599
600
11.4 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
x 2 = 36y
x 2 = 40y
x 2 = 44y
x 2 = 12y
x 2 = 6y
x 2 = 10y
x 2 = 15y
4.
Find
(i) the coordinates of the
focus and
(ii) the equation of the
directrix of
(a) x 2 = - 4y
(b) x 2 = - 24y
(c) x 2 = - 8y
(d) x 2 = - 48y
(e) x 2 = - 20y
(f) x 2 = - 16y
(g) x 2 = - 32y
(h) x 2 = - 40y
(i) x 2 = - 2y
(j) x 2 = - 22y
5.
7.
8.
9.
601
602
Investigation
Sketch the parabola x = y 2. You may like to complete the table below to
help you with its sketch.
x
y
-3
-2
-1
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h, which moves so that it is
equidistant from the point ^ a, 0 h and the line x = - a.
Coordinates of B are ^ - a, y h .
We want
PA = PB
i.e.
PA 2 = PB 2
^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - 0 h 2 = [x - ^ - a h 2 ] 2 + ^ y - y h 2
^ x - a h 2 + y2 = ^ x + a h 2
x 2 - 2ax + a 2 + y 2 = x 2 + 2ax + a 2
y 2 = 4ax
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (7, 0) and directrix
x = - 7.
Solution
If we draw this information, the focus is to the right of the directrix
as shown (the parabola always turns away from the directrix). So the
parabola turns to the right.
y
x=-7
7
(7, 0)
CONTINUED
603
604
Solution
The parabola y 2 = 32x is in the form y 2 = 4ax.
4a = 32
` a=8
The focal length is 8 units.
Method 1:
Draw the graph y 2 = 32x and count 8 units to the left and right from the
origin as shown. (The parabola turns to the right.)
y
x=-8
8
(8, 0)
y2 = 32x
2
PARABOLA y 2 = - 4 ax
The locus of a point P(x, y) moving so that it is equidistant from
the point ^ - a, 0 h and the line x = a is a parabola with equation
y 2 = - 4ax
Proof
y
P(x, y)
B(a, y)
A( - a, 0)
x=a
PA 2 = PB 2
7 x - ^ - a h A + ^ y - 0 h2 = ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - y h 2
^ x + a h 2 + y2 = ^ x - a h 2
2
x 2 + 2ax + a 2 + y 2 = x 2 - 2ax + a 2
y 2 = - 4ax
605
606
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (- 4, 0) and directrix
x = 4.
Solution
Drawing this information shows that the parabola turns to the left.
y
4
x
( - 4, 0)
x=4
Solution
The parabola y 2 = - 2x is in the form y 2 = - 4ax.
4a = 2
` a=
1
2
1
unit.
2
Method 1:
1
Draw the graph y 2 = - 2x and count unit to the left and right from the
2
origin as shown. (The parabola turns to the left.)
y
1
2
- 1, 0
2
1
2
x
)
x=
1
2
1
1
units to the left, the focus is c - , 0 m .
2
2
1
1
Counting units to the right, the directrix has equation x = .
2
2
Counting
Method 2:
1
The focus is in the form (- a, 0) where a = .
2
1
So the focus is c - , 0 m .
2
1
The directrix is in the form x = a where a = .
2
1
So the directrix is x = .
2
11.5 Exercises
1.
2.
607
608
3.
4.
5.
Find
(i) the coordinates of the
focus and
(ii) the equation of the
directrix of
(a) y 2 = 8x
(b) y 2 = 12x
(c) y 2 = 16x
(d) y 2 = 4x
(e) y 2 = 28x
(f) y 2 = 32x
(g) y 2 = 24x
(h) y 2 = 36x
(i) y 2 = x
(j) y 2 = 18x
Find
(i) the coordinates of the
focus and
(ii) the equation of the
directrix of
(a) y 2 = - 8x
(b) y 2 = -12x
(c) y 2 = - 28x
(d) y 2 = - 4x
(e) y 2 = - 24x
(f) y 2 = - 52x
(g) y 2 = - 60x
(h) y 2 = - 2x
(i) y 2 = - 26x
(j) y 2 = - 5x
Find the equation of the parabola
with
(a) coordinates of the focus ^ 5, 0 h
and equation of the directrix
x = -5
(b) coordinates of the focus ^ 1, 0 h
and equation of the directrix
x = -1
(c) coordinates of the focus
^ - 4, 0 h and equation of the
directrix x = 4
(d) coordinates of the focus ^ 3, 0 h
and coordinates of the vertex
^ 0, 0 h
(e) coordinates of the vertex
^ 0, 0 h equation of the axis y = 0
and focal length 9
7.
8.
9.
1
10. Let R c , - 2 m be a point on the
5
parabola y 2 = 20x.
(a) Find the equation of the focal
chord passing through R.
(b) Find the coordinates of the
point Q where this chord cuts the
directrix.
(c) Find the area of DOFQ where
O is the origin and F is the focus.
(d) Find the perpendicular
distance from the chord to the
point P ^ -1, -7 h .
(e) Hence nd the area of DPQR.
609
Application
A parabolic satellite dish receives its signals through the focus. If the dish has
height 12 m and a span of 20 m, find where the focus should be placed, to the
nearest mm.
SOLUTION
The parabola is of the form x 2 = 4ay and passes through (10, 12) and (-10, 12)
Substituting (10, 12) gives
2
10 = 4a (12)
100 = 48a
2.083 = a
So the focus should be placed 2.083 m from the vertex.
1. x 2 = 4ay
y
x2 = 4ay
Focus
(0, a)
x
Directrix
y = -a
This is 2083 mm to
the nearest millimetre.
610
2. x 2 = - 4ay
y
Directrix
y=a
x
Focus
(0, -a)
x 2 = -4ay
3. y 2 = 4ax
y
Directrix
x = -a
Focus
(a, 0)
y 2 = 4a x
4. y 2 = - 4ax
y
Directrix
x=a
Focus
(-a, 0)
y2 = -4ax
General Parabola
When the parabola does not have its vertex at the origin, there is a more
general formula.
Since we use a to mean the focal length, we cannot use (a, b) as the
vertex. We use (h, k) instead.
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola with vertex ^ h, k h and focal length a.
B has coordinates ^ x, k - a h .
We want
PF = PB
i.e.
PF 2 = PB 2
^ x - h h 2 + [ y - ^ k + a h] 2 = ^ x - x h 2 + [ y - ^ k + a h] 2
^x - hh2 + ^ y - k - ah2 = ^ y - k + ah2
^x - hh2 = ^ y - k + ah2- ^ y - k - ah2
= [^ y - k + a h + ^ y - k - a h ] # [^ y - k + a h - ^ y - k - a h ]
^ difference of two squares h
= ^ 2y - 2k h ^ 2a h
= 4ay - 4ak
= 4a ^ y - k h
611
612
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ^ 2, 3 h and directrix with
equation y = - 7.
Solution
Coordinates of B are ^ 2, -7 h .
The vertex is the midpoint of ^ 2, 3 h and ^ 2, -7 h .
` vertex = ^ 2, - 2 h
Focal length is the distance from the focus to the vertex.
`
a=5
From the diagram the parabola is concave upwards.
The equation is in the form
^ x - h h 2 = 4a ^ y - k h
i.e.
^ x - 2 h 2 = 4 ^ 5 h [ y - ^ - 2 h]
= 20 ^ y + 2 h
x 2 - 4x + 4 = 20y + 40
x 2 - 4x - 20y - 36 = 0
2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and the focus, and the equation of
the directrix, of the parabola with equation x 2 + 6x - 12y - 3 = 0.
613
Solution
Complete the square on x.
x 2 + 6x - 12y - 3 = 0
x 2 + 6x = 12y + 3
x 2 + 6x + 9 = 12y + 3 + 9
^ x + 3 h2 = 12y + 12
= 12 (y + 1)
So the parabola has equation ^ x + 3 h2 = 12 ^ y + 1 h .
Its vertex has coordinates ^ - 3, -1 h .
4a = 12
` a=3
The parabola is concave upwards as it is in the form ^ x - h h 2 = 4a ^ y - k h .
Proof
Find the equation of the concave downwards parabola with vertex (h, k) and
focal length a.
It is easy to find
the focus and the
directrix by counting
along the y-axis.
614
y=k+a
P (x, y)
F (h , k - a)
B has coordinates ^ x, k + a h .
We want
PF = PB
PF 2 = PB 2
2
2
^x - hh2 + 7y - ^k - ahA = ^x - xh2 + 7y - ^k + ahA
2
2
2
^x - hh + ^y - k + ah = ^y - k - ah
^x - hh2 = ^y - k - ah2- ^y - k + ah2
= 7^y - k - ah + ^y - k + ahA7^y - k - ah - ^y - k + ahA
(difference of two squares)
= ^ 2y - 2k h ^ - 2a h
= - 4ay + 4ak
= - 4a ^ y - k h
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (- 2, 1) and directrix
y = 3.
Solution
y
1
1
(-2, 1)
y=3
2
1
-2 -1
2
7x - ^ -2 h A = -4 ]1 g^ y - 2 h
^ x + 2h 2 = -4^ y - 2h
x 2 + 4x + 4 = - 4y + 8
x 2 + 4x + 4y - 4 = 0.
2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equation of the
directrix of the parabola x 2 - 8x + 8y - 16 = 0.
CONTINUED
615
616
Solution
Complete the square on x.
x 2 - 8x + 8y - 16 = 0
x 2 - 8x = - 8y + 16
x 2 - 8x + 16 = - 8y + 16 + 16
^ x - 4 h2 = - 8y + 32
= -8^ y - 4h
So the parabola has equation ^ x - 4 h 2 = - 8 ^ y - 4 h .
Its vertex has coordinates (4, 4).
4a = 8
`a=2
The parabola is concave downwards as it is in the form
^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h .
y
y=6
(4, 4)
4
3
2
(4, 2)
2
1
1
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola that turns to the right with vertex (h, k) and
focal length a.
Counting a units to the right from the vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h + a, k h .
Counting a units to the left from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix
D = ^ h - a, k h .
So the equation of the directrix is given by x = h - a.
We find the equation of the locus of P(x, y) that is equidistant from point
F ^ h + a, k h and line x = h - a.
x=h-a
P (x, y)
F (h +a, k)
B has coordinates ^ h - a, y h .
We want
PF = PB
PF 2 = PB 2
2
2
7x - ^h + ahA + ^y - kh2 = 7x - ^h - ahA + ^y - y h2
^x - h - ah2+ ^y - kh2 = ^x - h - ah2
^y - kh2 = ^x - h + ah2- ]x - h - ag2
617
618
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (1, -1) and directrix
x = - 5.
Solution
y
x = -5
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5
(1, -1)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
B
-2
-3
2
7 y - ^ -1 h A = 4 ] 3 g 7 x - ^ - 2 h A
^ y + 1 h 2 = 12 ] x + 2 g
y 2 + 2y + 1 = 12x + 24
y 2 + 2y - 12x - 23 = 0
2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equation of the
directrix of the parabola y 2 + 12y - 4x - 8 = 0.
Solution
Complete the square on y.
y 2 + 12y - 4x - 8 = 0
y 2 + 12y = 4x + 8
y 2 + 12y + 36 = 4x + 8 + 36
^ y + 6 h 2 = 4x + 44
= 4 ^ x + 11 h
So the parabola has equation ^ y + 6 h2 = 4 ^ x + 11 h
or 7 y - ] - 6 g A 2 = 4 6 x - ] -11 g @ .
Its vertex has coordinates (-11, - 6).
4a = 4
` a=1
The parabola turns to the right as it is in the form ^ y - k h 2 = 4a ^ x - h h .
y
x = -12
x
(-11, -6)
1
(-10, -6)
619
620
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola that turns to the left with vertex (h, k) and
focal length a.
Counting a units to the left from the vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h - a, k h.
Counting a units to the right from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix
D = ^ h + a, k h.
So the equation of the directrix is given by x = h + a.
We find the equation of the locus of P(x, y) that is equidistant from point
F ^ h - a, k h and line x = h + a.
y
x=h+a
B
P (x, y)
F (h -a, k)
B has coordinates ^ h + a, y h .
We want
PF = PB
PF 2 = PB 2
2
7x - ^h - ahA + ^y - kh2 = 7x - ^h + ahA + ^y - y h2
^x - h + ah2+ ^y - kh2 = ^x - h - ah2
2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (2, 1) and directrix x = 3.
Solution
y
x=3
1 1
2 2
1
(2, 1)
1
(2 2x, 1)
^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ^ x - h h
1
1
i.e.
^y - 1h2 = -4c m cx - 2 m
2
2
1
2
^y - 1h = -2cx - 2 m
2
y 2 - 2y + 1 = - 2x + 5
y 2 - 2y + 2x - 4 = 0
2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equation of the
directrix of the parabola y 2 + 4y + 8x - 4 = 0.
CONTINUED
621
622
Solution
Complete the square on y.
y 2 + 4y + 8x - 4 = 0
y 2 + 4y = - 8 x + 4
y 2 + 4y + 4 = - 8x + 4 + 4
^ y + 2 h 2 = - 8x + 8
= -8 ]x - 1 g
So the parabola has equation ^ y + 2 h2 = - 8 ] x - 1 g
or 7 y - ] - 2 g A 2 = - 8 ] x - 1 g .
Its vertex has coordinates ^ 1, - 2 h .
4a = 8
` a=2
The parabola turns to the left as it is in the form ^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ^ x - h h
y
x=3
1
-3 -2 -1
1
-1
(-1, -2)
-22
(1, -2)
11.6 Exercises
1.
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
x 2 - 12x - 8y - 20 = 0
x 2 + 14x + 16y + 1 = 0
x 2 - 4x + 4y - 16 = 0
x 2 + 18x - 12y + 9 = 0
x 2 + 2x - 8y - 7 = 0
x 2 - 6 x + 4y + 1 = 0
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
3.
4.
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
x2
x2
x2
x2
+ 2x + 8y - 15 = 0
- 4 x + 4y = 0
- 8x + 12y + 4 = 0
+ 4x + 16y - 12 = 0
5.
Find
(i) the coordinates of the focus and
(ii) the equation of the directrix of
(a) y 2 + 2y - 4x - 3 = 0
(b) y 2 - 8y - 12x + 4 = 0
(c) y 2 - 6y - 8x - 7 = 0
(d) y 2 + 4y - 16x - 12 = 0
(e) y 2 - 2y - 24x + 25 = 0
(f) y 2 + 10y + 8x + 1 = 0
(g) y 2 + 14y + 4x + 1 = 0
(h) y 2 - 12y + 20x - 4 = 0
(i) y 2 - 4y + 32x - 28 = 0
(j) y 2 + 6y + 40x + 29 = 0
6.
7.
8.
9.
623
624
De Witt was well known as the Grand Pensionary of Holland. He took part in the politics
and wars of his time, opposing Louis XIV. When the French invaded Holland in 1672, De Witt
was seized and killed.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola x 2 = 8y at the point
^ 4, 2 h .
Solution
x 2 = 8y
x2
y=
8
dy
2x
=
8
dx
x
=
4
CONTINUED
625
626
dy
4
4
=1
So the gradient of the tangent at ^ 4, 2 h is 1.
At ^ 4, 2 h,
dx
Solution
x 2 = 4y
dy
dx
At (- 8, 16):
x2
4
2x
=
4
x
=
2
-8
=
2
= -4
= - 4.
y=
So
dy
dx
] - 4 g m 2 = -1
m2 =
1
4
1
[x - (- 8)]
4
1
= (x + 8 )
4
4y - 64 = x + 8
0 = x - 4y + 72.
y - 16 =
11.7 Exercises
1.
3.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
627
628
EXAMPLE
Write y = 3x + 1 in parametric form.
Solution
There are many different ways this can be done.
For example: Given parameter p
(a) Let x = p
Then y = 3x + 1
= 3p + 1
So parametric equations are x = p, y = 3p + 1.
(b) Let x = p - 5
Then y = 3x + 1
= 3^ p - 5h + 1
= 3p - 15 + 1
= 3p - 14
So parametric equations are x = p - 5, y = 3p - 14.
There are many different ways to write parametric equations. Can you
find some more for the example above?
We can also change parametric equations back into Cartesian form.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the Cartesian equation of x = 3t + 1, y = 2t - 3.
Solution
We use the process for solving simultaneous equations to eliminate the
parameter.
]1 g
x = 3t + 1
]2 g
y = 2t - 3
From (1)
x - 1 = 3t
x -1
=t
3
Substitute in (2)
y = 2t - 3
x -1
m-3
3
3y = 2 ] x - 1 g - 9
= 2x - 2 - 9
= 2x - 11
0 = 2x - 3y - 11
= 2c
Solution
x = 2q
]1 g
y=q -3
]2 g
From (1)
x = 2q
x
=q
2
Substitute in (2)
y = q2 - 3
x 2
=c m -3
2
x2
=
-3
4
4y = x 2 - 12
0 = x 2 - 4y - 12
Proof
Substitute x = 2at into x 2 = 4ay
^ 2at h2 = 4ay
4a 2 t 2 = 4ay
at 2 = y
` x = 2at and y = at 2 satisfy the equation x 2 = 4ay
Class Investigation
1. How would you write x 2 = - 4ay in parametric form?
2. How would you write y 2 = 4ax in parametric form?
3. How would you write y 2 = - 4ax in parametric form?
629
630
Proof
Substitute x = 2at into x 2 = - 4ay
^ 2at h2 = - 4ay
4a 2 t 2 = - 4ay
at 2 = - y
- at 2 = y
` x = 2at and y = - at 2 satisfy the equation x 2 = - 4ay.
Proof
Substitute y = 2at into y 2
] 2at g2
4a 2 t 2
at 2
= 4ax
= 4ax
= 4ax
=x
Proof
Substitute y = 2at into y 2
] 2at g2
4a 2 t 2
at 2
- at 2
= - 4ax
= - 4ax
= - 4ax
= -x
=x
631
EXAMPLES
1. Given the parabola x = 4t and y = 2t 2, find
(a) its Cartesian equation
(b) the points on the parabola when t = !2.
Solution
(a) x = 4t
x
` 4 =t
Substitute into y = 2t 2:
x 2
y = 2c m
4
2x 2
=
16
x2
=
8
8y = x 2
(b) When t = 2
x = 4^2h
=8
y = 2 ^ 2 h2
=8
When t = - 2
x = 4^-2h
= -8
y = 2 ^ - 2 h2
=8
Solution
Method 1:
We can find the Cartesian equation.
x = -12t
]1g
]2g
y = - 6t
From ] 1 g
x = -12t
x
=t
-12
2
CONTINUED
632
Substitute in (2)
y = - 6t 2
x 2
m
-12
x2
= -6c
m
144
x2
=24
- 24y = x 2
= -6c
y=6
6
x
6
(0, - 6)
Method 2:
The equations x = -12t, y = - 6t 2 are in the form x = - 2at, y = - at 2 .
` a=6
The equations satisfy x 2 = - 4ay
x2 = - 4 ] 6 g y
= - 24y
This is a concave downward parabola with focus ^ 0, - a h and directrix
y = a.
So focus = ^ 0, - 6 h and directrix has equation y = 6.
3. Write x 2 = 32y as a set of parametric equations.
Solution
4a = 32
So a = 8
Equations are in the form x = 2at, y = at 2 .
So x = 2 ] 8 g t, y = 8t 2
x = 16t, y = 8t 2
Solution
4a = 12
a=3
Equations are in the form x = at 2, y = 2at
So x = 3t 2, y = 2 ] 3 g t
x = 3t 2, y = 6t
11.8 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
633
634
7.
8.
9.
1
^ p + q h x + apq = 0
2
Proof
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
=
=
=
ap 2 - aq 2
2ap - 2aq
a _ p2 - q2 i
2a ^ p - q h
a ^ p + qh^ p - qh
2a ^ p - q h
p+q
=
2
Proof
x 2 = 4ay has focus (0, a).
1
PQ has equation y - ^ p + q h x + apq = 0.
2
For PQ to be a focal chord, it passes through (0, a).
1
i.e. a - (p + q) $ 0 + apq = 0
2
a + apq = 0
apq = - a
pq = -1
The tangent to the parabola x 2 = 4ay at the point P(2ap, ap2) has gradient
p and equation given by y - px + ap 2 = 0
Proof
x 2 = 4ay
x2
` y=
4a
dy
2x
=
4
a
dx
x
=
2a
At P ^ 2ap, ap 2 h
dy
2ap
=
2a
dx
=p
The equation formula is
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
`
y - ap 2 = p ^ x - 2ap h
= px - 2ap 2
` y - px + ap 2 = 0
Proof
Equation of tangent at P is
Equation of tangent at Q is
y - px + ap 2 = 0
y - qx + aq 2 = 0
(1)
( 2)
635
636
(1) (2).
- px + qx + ap 2 - aq 2 = 0
x ( q - p ) = a (q 2 - p 2 )
= a (q + p) (q - p)
x = a (q + p)
Substitute in (1):
y - p $ a (q + p) + ap 2 = 0
y - apq - ap 2 + ap 2 = 0
y = apq
` point of intersection is [a ^ p + q h , apq @
1
The normal to the curve x 2 = 4ay at point P _ 2ap, ap 2 i has gradient p
and equation given by x + py = ap 3 + 2ap
Proof
Tangent at P has gradient p.
For perpendicular lines, m 1 m 2 = - 1
1
` normal has gradient - .
p
The equation formula is
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
1
` y - ap 2 = - ^ x - 2ap h
p
p (y - ap 2) = - (x - 2ap)
py - ap 3 = - x + 2ap
x + py = ap 3 + 2ap
Proof
Equation of normal at P is
Equation of normal at Q is
x + py = ap 3 + 2ap
x + qy = aq 3 + 2aq
(1) - (2):
py - qy = ap 3 - aq 3 + 2ap - 2aq
( 1)
(2 )
y ^ p - q h = a _ p 3 - q 3 i + 2a ^ p - q h
= a ^ p - q h _ p 2 + pq + q 2 i + 2a ^ p - q h
y = a _ p 2 + pq + q 2 i + 2a
= a _ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 i
Substitute in (1):
x + p $ a (p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2) = ap 3 + 2ap
x + ap 3 + ap 2 q + apq 2 + 2ap = ap 3 + 2ap
x = - ap 2 q - apq 2
= - apq (p + q)
Solution
When t = 3
x = 2a ^ 3 h
= 6a
When t = 2
x = 2a ^ - 2 h
x = - 4a
y = a ^ 3 h2
= 9a
y = a ^ - 2 h2
= 4a
Solution
x 2 = 8y
x2
` y=
8
637
638
dy
dx
2x
8
x
=
4
=
At (4t, 2t2)
dy
4t
=
4
dx
=t
The equation formula is
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
` y - 2t 2 = t ^ x - 4 t h
= tx - 4t 2
`
0 = tx - y - 2t 2
The equations of the tangent, normal and chord can also be derived from
points in Cartesian form rather than parametric form.
If point A(x1, y1) lies on the parabola x 2 = 4ay, then the equation of the
tangent at A is given by
xx 1 = 2a _ y + y 1 i
Proof
x2
4a
dy
2x
=
4a
dx
x
=
2a
y=
At (x1, y1)
dy
dx
x1
2a
(since x 12 = 4ay 1)
If point A (x1, y1) lies on the parabola x 2 = 4ay, then the equation of the
normal at A is given by
2a
y - y1 = - x _ x - x1 i
1
Proof
x2
4a
dy
2x
=
4a
dx
x
=
2a
y=
At (x1, y1)
dy
dx
x1
2a
For normal, m 1 m 2 = 1
2a
m2 = - x
`
1
The equation formula is
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
2a
` y - y1 = - x ^ x - x1 h
1
Proof
1
^ p + q h x + apq = 0.
2
639
640
(1)
(2)
(3)
EXAMPLE
1
1
Tangents are drawn from the point c , - m to the points P and Q on the
2
2
parabola x 2 = 4y. Find the equation of the chord of contact PQ and the
coordinates of P and Q.
Solution
x 2 = 4y
` 4a = 4
a=1
PQ has equation xx 1 = 2a _ y + y 1 i where x 1 =
1
1
and y 1 = - .
2
2
1
1
x = 2cy - m
2
2
= 2y - 1
x = 4y - 2
` x - 4y + 2 = 0 is the equation of the chord of contact.
To find P and Q, solve simultaneous equations.
x 2 = 4y
x - 4y + 2 = 0
From (2):
x + 2 = 4y
Substitute into (1):
x2 = x + 2
x -x-2=0
(x - 2) (x + 1) = 0
`
x = 2, -1
2
(1)
(2)
( 3)
1
m.
4
11.9 Exercises
1.
Find the
(i) gradient and
(ii) equation of chord AB on the
parabola
(a) x 2 = 16y where
A = _ 8t, 4t 2 i and
B = _ 8n , 4n 2 i
(b) x 2 = 8y where
A = _ 4p, 2p 2 i and
B = _ 4q , 2q 2 i
(c) x 2 = 12y where
A = _ 6m, 3m 2 i and
B = _ 6n , 3n 2 i
(d) x 2 = 20y where
A = _ 10p, 5p 2 i and
B = _ 10q, 5q 2 i
(e) x 2 = 4y where
A = _ 2a, a 2 i and B = _ 2b, b 2 i
(f) x 2 = - 8y where
A = _ 4p, - 2p 2 i and
B = _ 4 q , - 2q 2 i
(g) x 2 = - 24y where
A = _ 12a, - 6a 2 i and
B = _ 12b, - 6b 2 i
(h) x 2 = -16y where
A = _ - 8p, - 4p 2 i and
B = _ - 8q, - 4 q 2 i
(i) x 2 = - 4y where
A = _ 2s, - s 2 i and
B = _ 2t , - t 2 i
Find
(i) the gradient of the tangent,
(ii) the gradient of the normal,
(iii) the equation of the tangent and
(iv) the equation of the normal
to the curve
(a) x 2 = 4y at the point
(2p, p2)
(b) x 2 = 12y at the point
(6q, 3q2)
(c) x 2 = 8y at the point
(4t, 2t2)
(d) x 2 = 20y at the point
(10n, 5n2)
(e) x 2 = 24y at the point
(12p, 6p2)
(f) x 2 = -16y at the point
(8k, - 4k2)
(g) x 2 = - 4y at the point
(- 2q, - q 2)
(h) x 2 = - 8y at the point
(4t, - 2t 2)
(i) x 2 = - 12y at the point
(- 6m, - 3m 2)
(j) x 2 = - 32y at the point
(16a, - 8a2)
641
642
3.
4.
5.
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
x 2 = 12y
x 2 = 20y
x 2 = - 4y
x 2 = - 24y
x 2 = - 8y
x 2 = -16y
x 2 = - 36y
6.
7.
8.
9.
9t 2 n
is given
2
by 2x + 2ty + 9t 3 + 18t = 0.
10. Derive the equation of the
normal to the parabola x 2 = 4ay
at the point _ 2at, at 2 i .
11. Find the equation of the chord of
contact of tangents drawn from
the external point ^ 3, -1 h to the
parabola x 2 = 8y.
12. Show that 3x + 4y + 4 = 0 is
a focal chord of the parabola
x 2 = - 4 y.
13. Show that if PQ is a focal chord
of x 2 = 4ay where P is the point
_ 2ap, ap 2 i and Q is the point
_ 2aq, aq 2 i then pq = -1.
14. Find the point of intersection of
the tangents to the curve
1
x 2 = 12y at ^ - 6, 3 h and c 2, m .
3
The tangents at the end of a focal chord intersect at right angles on the
directrix.
643
644
Proof
Let PQ be a focal chord of x 2 = 4ay where P = _ 2ap, ap 2 i and Q = _ 2aq, aq 2 i .
Then pq = -1
Tangent at P has gradient m 1 = p
Tangent at Q has gradient m 2 = q
pq = -1
i.e. m 1 m 2 = -1
` the tangents are perpendicular
Tangents intersect at [a ^ p + q h , apq @
i.e. y = apq
But pq = - 1
`
y = -a
This is the equation of the directrix.
` tangents intersect on the directrix
EXAMPLE
1
m and Q ^ - 8, - 8 h lie on the parabola x 2 = - 8y.
2
(a) Find the equation of line PQ.
(b) Show that PQ is a focal chord.
(c) Prove that the tangents at P and Q intersect at right angles on the
directrix.
Points P c 2, -
Solution
(a) Equation of PQ
y - y1
y2 - y1
x - x1 = x2 - x1
1
- +8
y+8
2
=
x+8
2+8
3
=
4
4y + 32 = 3x + 24
0 = 3x - 4y - 8
(1)
(b)
x 2 = - 8y
` 4a = 8
a=2
Focus = (0, - 2)
x2
8
dy
x
=4
dx
dy
2
=At P,
4
dx
1
=2
y=-
x + 2y - 1 = 0
At Q ,
dy
dx
=-
]-8g
4
=2
0 = 2x - y + 8
P has gradient m 1 = -
1
2
Q has gradient m 2 = 2
1
#2
2
= -1
m1 m2 = -
]1 g
]2 g
]3 g
645
646
10 = 5y
2=y
Substitute in (1)
x+4-1=0
x = -3
` point of intersection is ^ - 3, 2 h
The directrix has equation y = a
i.e.
y=2
The point ^ - 3, 2 h lies on the line y = 2
` the tangents meet on the directrix.
Proof
FP = PR ^ definition of a parabola h
PR = PS + SR
= ap 2 + a
` FP = ap 2 + a
Tangent PQ has equation y - px + ap 2 = 0
At Q , x = 0
y - 0 + ap 2 = 0
y = - ap 2
`
Q = _ 0, - ap 2 i
FQ = FO + OQ
= a + ap 2
= FP
Application
This property of the parabolathat is, that the tangent at P is equally inclined to
the axis of the parabola and the focal chord through Pis used in many practical
applications, including telescopes, headlights and radar.
Class Investigation
Explore the use of the parabola in everyday life. You could go on an
excursion to the Observatory, the physics section of a university, an optics
manufacturer, an engineering company or a camera manufacturer.
Write about the use of the parabola in any of the above applications, or
any others you can think of.
647
648
Locus Problems
EXAMPLES
1. Find the locus of the midpoints of the chords in the parabola x 2 = 4ay
that pass through (0, 2).
Solution
Equation of chord PQ where P = _ 2ap, ap 2 i and Q = _ 2aq, aq 2 i is given by
1
y - ^ p + q h x + apq = 0.
2
If PQ passes through (0, 2):
2-
1
(p + q) 0 + apq = 0
2
apq = - 2
]1 g
]2 g
]3 g
1 ; b x l2
a a - 2pq E
2
x2
2y = a - 2apq
x2
= a +4
2ay = x 2 + 4a
x 2 = 2ay - 4a
= 2a ( y - 2)
y=
6 from ] 1 g @
a
.
2
2. Points P(2ap, ap2) and Q(2aq, aq2) lie on the parabola x 2 = 4ay and
chord PQ passes through ^ 0, - 4a h. Find the locus of the intersection of
the normals drawn from P and Q.
649
Solution
1
^ p + q h x + apq = 0.
2
PQ passes through ^ 0, - 4a h
1
` - 4a - (p + q) 0 + apq = 0
2
apq = 4a
pq = 4
PQ has equation y -
( 1)
x = - apq ^ p + q h
= - 4a ^ p + q h
[from (1)]
x
=p+q
- 4a
y = a ^ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 h
= a ^ p2 + 4 + q2 + 2 h
(2)
= a _ p2 + q2 + 6 i
y
2
2
a =p +q +6
= ^ p + q h2 - 2pq + 6
= ^ p + q h2 - 8 + 6
= ^ p + q h2 - 2
x2
=
-2
16a 2
y
x2
a + 2 = 16a 2
16ay + 32a 2 = x 2
[from (2)]
16a ^ y + 2a h = x 2
11.10 Exercises
1.
2.
4.
650
6.
7.
8.
9.
(a) Show pq = 4.
(b) Find the equation of the locus
of the midpoint of PQ.
(c) Show that this locus is a
parabola, and find its vertex and
focal length.
13. Find the locus of the midpoint
of PF where P is the point
(2ap, ap2) on the parabola
x 2 = 4ay and F is its focus.
14. (a) Find the point of intersection
T of the tangents at P(2ap, ap2)
and Q(2aq, aq2) on the parabola
x 2 = 4ay.
(b) Given that PQ passes through
(0, 6a), find the equation of the
locus of T.
15. Normals to the parabola
x = 2at, y = at 2 from points
P(2ap, ap2) and Q(2aq, aq2)
intersect at N. Find the equation
of the locus of N if PQ passes
through the point (0, 3a).
Class Investigation
Can you spot 6 mistakes in the solution to this question?
Find the equation of the normal to the parabola x 2 = 4ay at the point
P(2ap, ap2).
SOLUTION
x 2 = 4ay
x2
y=
`
4a
dy
x
=4a
dx
dy
ap 2
At P,
=
4a
dx
p2
m1 =
`
4
For normal, m 1 m 2 = - 1
p2
m = -1
4 2
4
m2 = 2
p
if y - y 1 = m _ x - x 1 i
4
y - 2ap = 2 _ x - ap 2 i
p
p 2 y - 2ap 2 = 4 _ x - ap 2 i
= 4x - 4ap 2
`
p 2 y = 4x + 2ap 2
i.e.
651
652
Test Yourself 11
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Find
(a) the equation of the directrix and
(b) the coordinates of the focus of the
parabola x 2 = - 8y.
8.
9.
Challenge Exercise 11
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
653
654
8.
9.
Solve m 2 - 5m + 6 $ 0.
2.
3.
10.
4.
6.
7.
8.
Solve ] x + 3 g + 5(x + 3) + 6 = 0.
9.
655
656
17.
25.
i
0
32c
9 - x2 .
38.
47.
51. Sketch y =
44. Solve 2x - 7 2 1.
x
.
2x + 1
55. Solve
y
$ 5.
y+1
657
658
x+1 x+2
= 7.
2
3
73. Simplify
] sec i + 1 g ] sec i - 1 g .
74. Differentiate ] 2x + 5 g (x 2 - 1) 4.
x-2
.
x2 - 4
76. Find the equation of the locus of point
P(x, y) if PA is perpendicular to PB, given
A = ^ 3, -2 h and B = ^ -5, 5 h .
a3 ^ b2 h
2
4
if a = and b = .
3
9
^ a - 1 h2 b 7
4
61. Simplify
1
62. Solve cos 2x = - for 0c # x # 360c .
2
64. Solve 5y - 3 = 5 - y.
65. Find the size of each internal angle in a
regular 20-sided polygon.
66.
(d) ^ x - 1 h + ^ y + 3 h = 16
2
1
11
2
1
12
2
1
2
2
1
10
2
(d) y - 4y + 8x - 4 = 0
2
84
(a) x = 42c
(b) x = 168c
(c) x = 84c
(d) x = 96c
87. Find the Cartesian equation
for x = 8t, y = 4t 2 .
(a) x 2 = 32y
(b) x 2 = 4y
(c) x 2 = 16y
(d) x 2 = 8y
88. The equation of the normal to
the curve x 2 = 20y at the point
(10p, 5p2) is
(a) x + py = 5p 3 + 10p
(b) x - py = 5p 3 - 10p
(c) px + y = 15p 2
(d) px - y + 15p 2 = 0
659
660
A
D
C
B
AB
BD
=
AB
BC
CD
AB
(b)
=
AB
BC
(a)
(c) AB 2 = BC $ CD
(d) AB 2 = BC $ BD
(d) a 1 0, b 2 - 4ac 1 0
12
Polynomials 1
TERMINOLOGY
Coefcient: A constant multiplied by a pronumeral in an
algebraic term e.g. in ax3 the a is the coefficient
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
663
INTRODUCTION
POLYNOMIALS ARE AN IMPORTANT part of algebra and are used in many
branches of mathematics. Some examples of polynomials that you have
already studied are linear and quadratic functions.
In this chapter you will study some properties of polynomials in general,
and relate polynomial expressions to equations and graphs.
Definition of a Polynomial
A polynomial is a function defined for all real x involving positive powers of x
in the form:
P ] x g = p 0 + p 1 x + p 2 x 2 + f + p n - 1 x n - 1 + p n x n where n is a
positive integer or zero.
p n x n + p n - 1 x n - 1 + p n - 2 x n - 2 + f + p 2 x 2 + p 1 x + p 0 is called a polynomial
expression
P ] x g = p n x n + p n - 1 x n - 1 + p n - 2 x n - 2 + f + p 2 x 2 + p 1 x + p 0 has degree n
where p n ! 0
p n, p n - 1, p n - 2, f p 0 are called coefficients
pnxn is called the leading term and pn is the leading coefficient
p0 is called the constant term
If p n = 1, P ] x g is called a monic polynomial
If p 0 = p 1 = p 2 = f = p n = 0 then P(x) is the zero polynomial
664
EXAMPLES
1. Which of the following are polynomial expressions?
(a) 4 - x + 3x 2
(b) 3x 4 - x 2 + 5x - 1
(c) x 2 - 3x + x -1
Solution
(a) and (b) are polynomials but (c) is not, since it has a term x -1 that is
not a positive power of x.
2. For the polynomial P ] x g = x 6 - 2x 4 + 3x 3 + x 2 - 7x - 3
(a) Find the degree.
(b) Is the polynomial monic?
(c) State the leading term.
(d) What is the constant term?
(e) Find the coefficient of x4.
Solution
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Polynomial equation
P ] x g = 0 is a polynomial equation of degree n
The real values of x that satisfy the equation are called the real
roots of the equation or the real zeros of the polynomial.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the zeros of the polynomial P ] x g = x 2 - 5x.
Solution
To find the zeros of the polynomial, we solve P ] x g = 0.
x 2 - 5x = 0
x ]x - 5 g = 0
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
x = 0, x - 5 = 0
x=5
So the zeros are 0, 5.
2. Find the roots of the polynomial equation x 3 - 2x 2 - 3x = 0.
Solution
x 3 - 2x 2 - 3x = 0
x ^ x 2 - 2x - 3 h = 0
x ]x - 3 g]x + 1 g = 0
x = 0, x - 3 = 0, x + 1 = 0
x = 3,
x = -1
The roots are x = 0, 3, -1.
3. Show that the polynomial p ] x g = x 2 - x + 4 has no real zeros.
Solution
We look at the polynomial equation p ] x g = 0.
x2 - x + 4 = 0
The discriminant will show whether the polynomial has real zeros.
b 2 - 4ac = ] -1 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g
= 1 - 16
= -15
10
So the polynomial has no real zeros.
4. For the polynomial P ] x g = ax 5 - 3x 4 + x 3 - 7x + 1
(a) Evaluate a if the polynomial is monic.
(b) Find the degree of the derivative Pl(x) .
Solution
(a) For a monic polynomial, a = 1
(b) P l^ x h = 5ax 4 - 12x 3 + 3x 2 - 7
Pl(x) has degree 4 (highest power).
665
666
12.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
Exercises
5.
6.
7.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
8.
9.
Given P (x) = 2x + 5,
Q (x) = x 2 - x - 2 and
R (x) = x 3 + 9x, find
(a) any zeros of P (x)
(b) the roots of Q (x) = 0
(c) the degree of P (x) + R (x)
(d) the degree of P (x) $ Q (x)
(e) the leading term of Q (x) $ R (x)
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
P ] x g = 2x 2 + x + 3
P ] x g = 3x 2 - 5x - 2
P ]x g = x ]x - 1 g]x + 4 g]x + 6 g
P ]x g = ]x + 1 g]x - 2 g]x - 5 g
Division of Polynomials
You would have learned how to do long division in primary school, but have
probably forgotten how to do it! We use this method to divide polynomials.
Class Investigation
Here are two examples of long division.
1. Divide 5715 by 48.
119 r3
48 g 5715
48
91
48
435
432
3
This means
3
5715
= 119 +
48
48
3
5715
# 48 = 119 # 48 +
# 48
48
48
So
5715 = 48 # 119 + 3
The number 5715 is called the dividend, the 48 is the divisor, 119 is the
quotient and 3 is the remainder.
2. Divide 4871 by 35.
139 r6
35 g 4871
35
137
105
321
315
6
CONTINUED
667
668
This means
4871
6
= 139 +
35
35
or
4871 = 35 #139 + 6
The number 4871 is called the dividend, the 35 is the divisor, 139 is the
quotient and 6 is the remainder.
Use long division to divide other numbers and write them in the form
above.
For example:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2048 '
5876 '
3546 '
2992 '
8914 '
15
17
21
33
19
Proof
If we divide a polynomial P(x) by A(x), we can write P(x) in the form of
P (x)
R (x)
= Q (x) +
where Q(x) is the quotient and R(x) is the remainder.
A (x)
A (x)
P (x)
R (x )
# A (x ) = Q ( x ) # A ( x ) +
# A ( x)
A (x )
A (x )
P ]x g = A ]x g $ Q ]x g + R ]x g
The division continues until the remainder can no longer be broken down
further by division.
Proof
Suppose the degree of R(x) is higher than the degree of A(x).
This means that R(x) can be divided by A(x).
R 1(x)
R (x )
= Q 1 (x) +
A (x )
A (x )
R ] x g = A ] x g $ Q1] x g + R1] x g
So
= R2] x g
This gives P ] x g = A ] x g $ Q ] x g + R 2 ] x g .
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
669
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Divide P (x) = 3x 4 - x 3 + 7x 2 - 2x + 3 by x - 2.
(b) Hence write P (x) in the form P (x) = A (x) Q (x) + R (x) .
(c) Show that P (2) is equal to the remainder.
Solution
(a) Step 1: Divide the leading term by x.
i.e. 3x 4 ' x = 3x 3
3x 3
x - 2 g 3 x 4 - x 3 + 7x 2 - 2x + 3
670
The quotient is
3
2
3x + 5x + 17x + 32.
i.e.
i.e. P (x) = A (x) Q (x) + R (x) where A (x) is the divisor, Q (x) is the quotient
and R (x) is the remainder.
(c) P (2) = 3 (2) 4 - 2 3 + 7 (2) 2 - 2 (2) + 3
= 48 - 8 + 28 - 4 + 3
= 67
` P (2) is equal to the remainder.
2. Divide x 3 - 3x 2 + x + 4 by x 2 - x.
Solution
x-2
x 2 - x g x 3 - 3x 2 + x + 4
x3 - x2
- 2x 2 + x
- 2x 2 + 2x
-x + 4
This means that
(x 3 - 3x 2 + x + 4) ' (x 2 - x) = (x - 2), remainder - x + 4
x 3 - 3x 2 + x + 4
-x + 4
=x-2+ 2
i.e.
2
x -x
x -x
or
x 3 - 3x 2 + x + 4 = (x - 2) (x 2 - x) + (- x + 4)
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
671
3. Divide x 5 + x 3 + 5x 2 - 6x + 15 by x 2 + 3.
Solution
x 3 - 2x + 5
x + 3 g x 5 + x 3 + 5x 2 - 6 x +
x 5 + 3x 3
- 2x 3 + 5x 2 - 6x
- 2x 3
- 6x
2
5x
+
2
5x
+
2
15
15
15
0
R (x) = 0, so there is no
remainder.
12.2
Exercises
2.
(x 2 - 7x + 4) ' (x - 1)
3.
( x + x + 2 x - 1) ' ( x - 3 )
4.
5.
(x - 5x + x + 2) ' (x + 3x)
6.
(x + x - x - 3) ' (x - 2)
7.
(5x - 2x + 3x + 1) ' (x + x)
8.
(x - x - 2x + x - 3) ' (x + 4)
9.
(2x 4 - 5x 3 + 2x 2 + 2x - 5) '
(x 2 - 2x)
12. (x 4 - 2x 3 - x 2 - 2) ' (x 2 - x)
13. (3x 5 - 2x 4 - 3x 3 + x 2 - x - 1) '
(x + 2 )
1.
14. (x 2 + 5x - 2) ' (x + 1)
15. (x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x + 4) ' (x - 3)
16. (2x 4 - x 3 + 5) ' (x 2 - 2x)
17. (x 3 - 3x 2 + 3x - 1) ' (x 2 + 5)
18. (2x 3 + 4x 2 - x + 8) ' (x 2 + 3x + 2)
19. (x 4 - 2x 3 + 4x 2 + 2x + 5) '
(x 2 + 2x - 1)
20. (3x 5 - 2x 3 + x - 1) ' (x + 1)
672
Remainder theorem
Proof
The degree of R(x) is less than
the degree of A(x).
P ] x g = A ] x g $ Q ] x g + R ] x g where A ] x g = x - a
P ]x g = ]x - a gQ ]x g + R ]x g
The degree of A(x) is 1, so the degree of R(x) must be 0.
So
R ] x g = k where k is a constant
`
P ]x g = ]x - a gQ ]x g + k
Substituting
x = a:
P ]a g = ]a - a gQ ]a g + k
= 0 $ Q ]x g + k
=k
So P ] a g is the remainder.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the remainder when 3x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x + 1 is divided by x - 2.
Solution
The remainder when P(x) is divided by x - a is P(a).
The remainder when P(x) is divided by x - 2 is P(2).
P ] 2 g = 3 ] 2 g4 - 2 ] 2 g2 + 5 ] 2 g + 1
= 51
So the remainder is 51.
2. Evaluate m if the remainder is 4 when dividing 2x 4 + mx + 5 by x + 3.
Solution
x + 3 = x - (- 3) .
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
167 - 3m = 4
167 = 3m + 4
163 = 3m
54
1
= m.
3
Factor theorem
The factor theorem is a direct result of the remainder theorem.
Proof
P ] x g = A ] x g $ Q ] x g + R ] x g where A ] x g = x - a
P ]x g = ]x - a gQ ]x g + R ]x g
The remainder when P(x) is divided by x - a is P(a).
So P ] x g = ] x - a g Q ] x g + P ] a g
But if P ] a g = 0:
P ]x g = ]x - a gQ ]x g + 0
= ]x - a gQ ]x g
So x - a is a factor of P(x).
The converse is also true:
For a polynomial P(x), if x - a is a factor of the polynomial, then P ] a g = 0
Proof
If x - a is a factor of P(x), then we can write:
P ]x g = ]x - a gQ ]x g
This means that when P(x) is divided by x - a, the quotient is Q(x) and there is
no remainder.
So P ] a g = 0
673
674
EXAMPLE
(a) Show that x - 1 is a factor of P ] x g = x 3 - 7x 2 + 8x - 2.
(b) Divide P(x) by x - 1 and write P(x) in the form P ] x g = ] x - 1 g Q ] x g.
Solution
(a) The remainder when dividing the polynomial by x - 1 is P(1)
P ] 1 g = 1 3 - 7 ] 1 g2 + 8 ] 1 g - 2
=0
So x - 1 is a factor of P(x).
(b)
x 2 - 6x +
x - 1 g x 3 - 7x 2 +
x3 - x2
- 6x 2 +
- 6x 2 +
Notice that x 2 - 6x + 2
wont factorise.
2
8x - 2
8x
6x
2x - 2
2x - 2
0
3
2
]
g
So P x = x - 7x + 8x - 2
= ] x - 1 g ^ x 2 - 6x + 2 h
Proof
If a1 is a zero of P(x) then (x - a 1) is a factor of P(x).
If a2 is a zero of P(x) then (x - a 2) is a factor of P(x).
If a3 is a zero of P(x) then (x - a 3) is a factor of P(x).
Similarly, if a k is a zero of P(x) then (x - a k) is a factor of P(x).
` P ] x g = (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a k) g ] x g
So (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a k) is a factor of P ] x g .
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
Proof
Since a 1, a 2, a 3, ... a n are zeros of P(x), (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n) is a
factor of the polynomial.
So P ] x g = (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n)Q(x)
But (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n) has degree n and P(x) has degree n so
Q(x) must be a constant.
` P ] x g = p n (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n)
Proof
P(x) has degree n
So P ] x g = p n x n + p n - 1 x n - 1 + p n - 2 x n - 2 + f + p 2 x 2 + p 1 x + p 0 where p n ! 0
Suppose P(x) has more than n distinct zeros, say n + 1
Then (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n + 1) is a factor of P(x).
So P ] x g = (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n + 1) Q ] x g.
But this gives P(x) at least degree n + 1, and P(x) only has degree n.
So the polynomial cannot have more than n distinct real zeros.
This also means that the polynomial equation cannot have more than n real roots.
EXAMPLE
If a polynomial has degree 2, show that it cannot have 3 zeros.
Solution
Let P ] x g = p 2 x 2 + p 1 x + p 0 where p 2 ! 0
Assume P(x) has 3 zeros, a1, a2 and a3
Then _ x - a 1 i _ x - a 2 i _ x - a 3 i is a factor of the polynomial.
` P (x) = (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) Q (x)
But this polynomial has degree 3 and P(x) only has degree 2.
So P(x) cannot have 3 zeros.
Proof
Let P(x) be a polynomial of degree n with zeros a 1, a 2, a 3, ... a n
Then P ] x g = (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n) k
675
676
If two polynomials of degree n are equal for more than n distinct values
of x, then the coefficients of like powers of x are equal.
That is, if a 0 + a 1 x + a 2 x 2 + ... + a n x n / b 0 + b 1 x + b 2 x 2 + ... + b n x n
then a 0 = b 0, a 1 = b 1, a 2 = b 2, ... a n = b n
Proof
Let A ] x g = a 0 + a 1 x + a 2 x 2 + ... + a n x n
and B ] x g = b 0 + b 1 x + b 2 x 2 + ... + b n x n
where A ] x g = B ] x g for more than n distinct x values.
Let P ] x g = A ] x g - B ] x g
Then P ] x g = (a 0 - b 0) + (a 1 - b 1) x + (a 2 - b 2) x 2 + ... + (a n - b n) x n
and P(x) has degree n.
If A ] x g = B ] x g for more than n distinct x values, then A ] x g - B ] x g = 0 for more
EXAMPLE
Write x 3 - 2x 2 + 5 in the form ax 3 + b ] x + 3 g2 + c ] x + 3 g + d.
Solution
ax 3 + b ] x + 3 g2 + c (x + 3) + d = ax 3 + b ^ x 2 + 6x + 9 h + c ] x + 3 g + d
= ax 3 + bx 2 + 6bx + 9b + cx + 3c + d
= ax 3 + bx 2 + ] 6b + c g x + 9b + 3c + d
For
x 3 - 2x 2 + 5 / ax 3 + b ] x + 3 g2 + c ] x + 3 g + d
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
677
]1 g
a=1
b = -2
6b + c = 0
9b + 3c + d = 5
]2 g
]3 g
]4 g
=5
=5
=5
= -13
` x 3 - 2x 2 + 5 / x 3 - 2 ] x + 3 g2 + 12 ] x + 3 g - 13.
Proof
Let P ] x g = p n x n + p n - 1 x n - 1 + p n - 2 x n - 2 + f + p 2 x 2 + p 1 x + p 0 where p n ! 0
If x - a is a factor of P(x) we can write
P ] x g = ] x - a g Q ] x g where Q(x) has degree n - 1.
P ] x g = ] x - a g _ q n - 1 x n - 1 + q n - 2 x n - 2 + g + q 2 x 2 + q 1 x + q 0 i where q n - 1 ! 0
= xq n - 1 x n - 1 + xq n - 2 x n - 2 + g + xq 1 x + xq 0
- aq n - 1 x n - 1 - aq n - 2 x n - 2 - g - aq 2 x 2 - aq 1 x - aq 0
= q n - 1 x n + q n - 2 x n - 1 + g + q 1 x 2 + q 0 x - aq n - 1 x n - 1 - aq n - 2 x n - 2 - g
- aq 2 x 2 - aq 1 x - aq 0
= q n - 1 x n + _ q n - 2 - a i x n - 1 + g + _ q 1 - a i x 2 + _ q 0 - a i x - aq 0
` p 0 = - aq 0
So a is a factor of p0.
678
EXAMPLE
Factorise x 2 + 2x - 15.
Solution
Factors of -15 are - 3# 5, 3# - 5, -1#15, 1# -15.
We choose - 3# 5 since - 3x + 5x = 2x, the middle term.
So x 2 + 2x - 15 = ] x - 3 g ] x + 5 g.
To factorise polynomials in general, we also look for factors of the constant term.
Class Investigation
Why are factors of the polynomial factors of the constant term? Use the
knowledge you have of trinomials to help you in your discussion.
EXAMPLES
1. Find all factors of f (x) = x 3 + 3x 2 - 4x - 12.
Solution
Try factors of - 12 (i.e. !1, !2, !3, !4, !6, !12) .
e.g. f (1) = 1 3 + 3 (1) 2 - 4 (1) - 12
= -12
!0
` x - 1 is not a factor of f (x)
x - 2 is called a linear
factor as it has degree 1.
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
679
` f (x) = (x - 2) (x 2 + 5x + 6)
= (x - 2) (x + 2) (x + 3)
2. Find all factors of P (x) = x 3 + 3x 2 + 5x + 15.
Solution
Try factors of 15 (i.e.!1, !3, !5, !15) .
e.g. P (- 3) = (- 3) 3 + 3 (- 3) 2 + 5 (- 3) + 15
=0
` x + 3 is a factor of f (x)
We divide P (x) by x + 3 to find other factors:
+5
x2
x + 3 g x + 3x + 5x + 15
x 3 + 3x 2
0 + 5x + 15
5x + 15
3
` P (x) = (x + 3) (x + 5)
2
12.3 Exercises
1.
(b) (x 2 + 5x + 3) ' (x + 2)
(c) (2x 3 - 4x - 1) ' (x + 3)
(d) (3x 5 + 2x 2 - x + 4) ' (x - 5)
(e) (5x 3 + 2x 2 + 2x - 9) ' (x - 1)
3.
4.
(f) (x - x + 3x - x - 1) ' (x + 2)
4
680
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The polynomial
P (x) = x 3 + ax 2 + bx + 2 has
factors x + 1 and x - 2. Find the
values of a and b.
(a) The remainder, when
f (x) = ax 4 + bx 3 + 15x 2 + 9x + 2
is divided by x - 2, is 216, and
x + 1 is a factor of f (x) . Find a
and b.
(b) Divide f (x) by x + 1 and
write the polynomial in the form
f (x) = (x + 1) g (x) .
(c) Show that x + 1 is a factor
of g (x) .
(d) Write f (x) as a product of its
factors.
(g) x 3 - 7x 2 + 16x - 12
(h) x 4 + 6x 3 + 9x 2 + 4x
(i) x 3 + 3x 2 - 4
(j) x 3 - 7x - 6
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
(i) - 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 1 /
2ax 3 + b ] x - 1 g2 + cx + d
(j) - x 3 - 4x 2 + x + 3 /
a ] x - 2 g3 + b ] x - 2 g2 +
c ]x - 2 g + d + 1
22. A monic polynomial of degree
3 has zeros - 3, 0 and 4. Find the
polynomial.
23. Polynomial
P ] x g = ax 3 - bx 2 + cx - 8 has
zeros 2 and - 1 and P ] 3 g = 28.
Evaluate a, b and c.
24. A polynomial with leading term
2x4 has zeros - 2, 0, 1 and 3. Find
the polynomial.
25. Show that a polynomial of degree
3 cannot have 4 zeros.
Graph of a Polynomial
We can use the graphing techniques that you have learned to sketch the graph
of a polynomial.
Using intercepts
Finding the zeros of a polynomial or the roots of the polynomial equation
helps us to sketch its graph.
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Write the polynomial P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 6x as a product of its factors.
(b) Sketch the graph of the polynomial.
Solution
(a) P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 6x
= x ^ x2 + x - 6 h
= x ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g
(b) For the graph of P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 6x
For x-intercepts: y = 0
CONTINUED
681
682
0 = x 3 + x 2 - 6x
= x ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g
x = 0,
x + 3 = 0, x - 2 = 0
x = - 3,
x=2
So x-intercepts are 0, - 3 and 2.
For y-intercepts: x = 0
P ] 0 g = 0 3 + ] 0 g2 - 6 ] 0 g
=0
So y-intercept is 0.
y
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 0
-1
-2
-3
-4
We look at which parts of the graphs are above and which are below the
x-axis between the x-intercepts.
Test x 1 - 3, say x = - 4:
P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 6x
= x ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g
P ]-4 g = -4 ]-4 + 3 g]-4 - 2 g
= -4 ]-1 g]-6 g
= - 24
10
So the curve is below the x-axis.
Test - 3 1 x 1 0, say x = - 1:
P ] - 1 g = - 1 ] - 1 + 3 g ] -1 - 2 g
= -1 ]2 g]-3 g
=6
20
So the curve is above the x-axis.
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
683
Test 0 1 x1 2, say x = 1:
P ]1g = 1]1 + 3g]1 - 2g
= 1]4g]-1g
= -4
10
So the curve is below the x-axis.
Test x 2 2, say x = 3:
P ]3g = 3]3 + 3g]3 - 2g
= 3]6g]1g
= 18
20
So the curve is above the x-axis.
We can sketch the polynomial as shown.
y
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 0
-1
-2
-3
-4
Solution
(a) Factors of - 3 are ! 1 and ! 3.
P ] -1 g = ] -1 g3 - ] -1 g2 - 5 ] -1 g - 3
=0
CONTINUED
684
1 g ^ x 2 - 2x - 3 h
1 g]x - 3 g]x + 1 g
1 g2 ] x - 3 g
y
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 0
-1
P ] 0 g = 0 3 - ] 0 g2 - 5 ] 0 g - 3
= -3
-2
So y-intercept is - 3.
-4
-3
We look at which parts of the graphs are above and which are below the
x-axis between the x-intercepts.
Test x 1 -1, say x = - 2:
P ] x g = x 3 - 3x 2 - x + 3
= ] x + 1 g2 ] x - 3 g
P ] - 2 g = ] - 2 + 1 g2 ] - 2 - 3 g
= ] - 1 g2 ] - 5 g
= -5
10
So the curve is below the x-axis.
Test -11 x 1 3, say x = 0:
P ] 0 g = ] 0 + 1 g2 ] 0 - 3 g
= ] 1 g2 ] - 3 g
= -3
10
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
-3
-2
-1 0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
12.4 Exercises
1.
2.
(c) p ] x g = - x ] x - 1 g ] x - 3 g
(d) f ] x g = x ] x + 2 g2
(b) f ] x g = - x 3 - 4x 2 + 5x
(c) P ] x g = x 4 + 3x 3 + 2x 2
(d) A ] x g = 2x 3 + x 2 - 15x
(e) g ] x g = ] 5 - x g ] x + 2 g ] x + 5 g
(e) P ] x g = - x 4 + 2x 3 + 3x 2
685
686
3.
4.
5.
(a) P ] x g = x 3 + 3x 2 - 10x - 24
(b) P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 9x - 9
(c) P ] x g = 12 - 19x + 8x 2 - x 3
(d) P ] x g = x 3 - 13x + 12
(e) P ] x g = - x 3 + 2x 2 + 9x - 18
(f) P ] x g = x 3 + 2x 2 - 4x - 8
(g) P ] x g = x 3 - 5x 2 + 8x - 4
(h) P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 5x + 3
(i) f (x) = 16x + 12x 2 - x 4
(j) P ] x g = x 4 - 2x 2 + 1
Class Investigation
The graphs in the examples above are not very accurate, as we dont know
where they turn around. We can use calculus to help find these points.
You will look at the
applications of calculus in
sketching graphs in the HSC
Course.
You used the axis of symmetry to find the minimum and maximum
values of quadratic functions in Chapter 10. You can also use calculus to
find the minimum or maximum turning points of functions.
Notice that the graph below has both a maximum and minimum turning
point. We can find these by looking at the gradient of the tangents
dy
around the curve, or
.
dx
y
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
dy
dx
= 0.
The maximum turning point has a zero gradient at the point itself but
notice that it has a positive gradient on the left-hand side and a negative
gradient on the right-hand side.
dy
dy
So
2 0 on the LHS and
1 0 on the RHS.
dx
dx
Minimum turning point:
The minimum turning point has a zero gradient at the point itself but it
has a negative gradient on the left-hand side and a positive gradient on
the right-hand side.
dy
dy
So
1 0 on the LHS and
2 0 on the RHS.
dx
dx
CONTINUED
687
688
There is also another type of point that you see in graphs such as f ] x g = x 3.
dy
dx
= 0.
However, the gradient has the same sign on both the LHS and RHS.
These three types of points are called stationary points.
We can use them to sketch the graph of a polynomial. Here is an example.
Sketch the polynomial P ] x g = 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 12x - 7 showing any stationary
points.
dy
dx
= 6x 2 + 6x - 12
dy
dx
= 0:
6x 2 + 6x - 12 = 0
6 ^ x2 + x - 2 h = 0
6 ]x - 1 g]x + 2 g = 0
x - 1 = 0, x + 2 = 0
x = 1,
x = -2
So there are two stationary points when x = 1, - 2.
] 1 g When x = 1
P ] 1 g = 2 ] 1 g3 + 3 ] 1 g2 - 12 ] 1 g - 7
= -14
So there is a stationary point at ^ 1, -14 h.
We can check the gradient on the LHS and RHS of this point to determine
if it is a maximum or minimum turning point.
When x = 0
dy
= 6 (0) 2 + 6 (0) - 12
dx
= -12
When x = 2
dy
= 6 (2) 2 + 6 (2) - 12
dx
= 24
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
dy
-12
24
dx
Since
dy
dx
turning point.
dy
dx
] 2 g When x = - 2
P ] - 2 g = 2 ] - 2 g3 + 3 ] - 2 g2 - 12 ] - 2 g - 7
= 13
So there is a stationary point at ^ - 2, 13 h.
Check the gradient on the LHS and RHS of this point.
When x = - 3
dy
= 6 (- 3) 2 + 6 (- 3) - 12
dx
= 24
When x = -1
dy
= 6 (-1) 2 + 6 (-1) - 12
dx
= -12
x
dy
dx
Since
dy
dx
-3
-2
-1
24
-2
dy
dx
turning point.
Now we look for intercepts.
For x-intercepts: y = 0
0 = 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 12x - 7
The expression 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 12x - 7 will not factorise so we cannot find
the x-intercepts.
For y-intercept: x = 0
P ] x g = 2 ] 0 g3 + 3 ] 0 g2 - 12 ] 0 g - 7
= -7
So the y-intercept is - 7.
CONTINUED
Factors of - 7 are !1
and !7 and none of
these factors will satisfy
the polynomial equation.
689
690
x
-7
(1, -14)
Can you sketch the following polynomials using calculus to find their
stationary points?
1. P ] x g = x 2 + 6x - 3
2. P ] x g = - x 2 + 4x + 1
3. p ] x g = x 3 - 5
4. f ] x g = x 4 + 2
5. g ] x g = 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 1
6. P ] x g = 2x 3 - 21x 2 + 72x - 12
7. f ] x g = - 2x 3 + 9x 2 - 12x + 4
8. P ] x g = x 3 - 3x 2 + 3x - 5
9. A ] x g = x 4 + 8x 3 - 18x 2 - 7
10. Q ] x g = - 3x 4 + 20x 3 - 48x 2 + 48x - 3
You may have noticed some of these properties while sketching the graphs of
polynomials.
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or graphing computer software to explore the
behaviour of polynomials as x becomes large (both negative and positive
values).
For example, sketch f ] x g = 2x 5 + 3x 2 - 7x - 1 and f ] x g = 2x 5 together.
What do you notice at both ends of the graphs where x is large? Zoom
out on these graphs and watch the graph of the polynomial and the
graph of the leading term come together.
Try sketching other polynomials along with their leading term as
different graphs. Do you find the same results?
So the leading term shows us what its limiting behaviour will be.
If the degree of a polynomial P(x) is even and the leading coefficient is
positive, then the polynomial will be positive as x becomes large.
This means that for any polynomial with a positive leading coefficient
and even degree, P ] x g " 3 as x " !3.
On the graph, both ends of the graph will go up as shown by the
examples below.
y
691
692
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
693
694
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
695
696
If P(x) has even degree, the ends of the graph both go the same way.
y
Leading coefficient 2 0
y
Leading coefficient 1 0
If P(x) has odd degree, the ends of the graph both go different ways.
Leading coefficient 2 0
y
Leading coefficient 1 0
This comes from the results above. A polynomial with odd degree will go
up at one end and down the other as x becomes large. This means that it must
cross the x-axis at least once.
` the polynomial must have at least one real zero.
You can see this on a graph. If there are two distinct real zeros of a
polynomial, then they will show up on the graph as two x-intercepts since the
zeros make P ] x g = 0.
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
When the graph passes through one x-intercept, say x1, it must turn
around again to pass through the other x-intercept x2 as shown in the
examples below. So there must be at least one maximum or minimum value
between the zeros.
y
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
Multiple roots
In quadratic functions, you saw that if a quadratic expression is a perfect
square, it has equal roots (and the discriminant is zero).
697
698
EXAMPLE
Solve x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0.
Solution
x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0
]x - 1g]x - 1g = 0
] x - 1 g2 = 0
x - 1 = 0,
x = 1,
x -1= 0
x =1
The solution is x = 1 but we say that there are two equal roots.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch the graph of f ] x g = ] x + 2 g2.
Solution
This graph is f ] x g = x 2 translated 2 units to the left.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0
-1
-2
-3
-4
See class investigations
on pages 686690.
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
699
Solution
This is the graph of F ] x g = x 3 translated 1 unit to the right.
y
8
6
4
2
-4
-3
-2
-1 0
-2
-4
-6
-8
See class investigations
on pages 686690.
Generally, a graph cuts the x-axis at a single root but touches the x-axis at
a multiple root in a special way.
EXAMPLE
(a) Examine the polynomial P ] x g = ] x + 2 g2 ] x - 1 g close to the roots.
(b) Describe the behaviour of the polynomial as x becomes very large.
(c) Draw a sketch of the polynomial showing its roots.
Solution
(a) P ] x g = ] x + 2 g2 ] x - 1 g has roots when P ] x g = 0.
] x + 2 g2 ] x - 1 g = 0
x + 2 = 0, x - 1 = 0
x = - 2,
x=1
700
When x = 1.1
P ] 1.1 g = ] 1.1 + 2 g2 ] 1.1 - 1 g
= +#+
=+
So the curve is above the x-axis on the RHS.
Look at the sign of P(x) close to x = - 2:
When x = - 2.1
P ] - 2.1 g = ] - 2.1 + 2 g2 ] - 2.1 - 1 g
= +#=So the curve is below the x-axis on the LHS.
When x = - 1.9
P ] - 1.9 g = ] - 1.9 + 2 g2 ] - 1.9 - 1 g
= +#=So the curve is below the x-axis on the RHS.
At the single root x = 1, the curve passes through the root from
below the x-axis to above the x-axis.
At the double root x = - 2, the curve touches the x-axis from below
and turns around and continues to be below the x-axis.
(b) Expanding P ] x g = ] x + 2 g2 ] x - 1 g gives x3 as the leading term.
P ] x g = ] x + 2 g2 ] x - 1 g
= ^ x 2 + 4x + 4 h ] x - 1 g
There is no need to expand
the brackets fully as we only
need the leading term.
= x 3 - x 2 + 4x 2 - 4x + 4 x - 4
So the polynomial has degree 3 since the highest power is x3.
Also the leading coefficient is 1.
Since P(x) has odd degree and a positive leading coefficient, as x becomes
a larger positive number, P ] x g "3 and as x becomes a larger negative
number, P ] x g " -3.
(c)
-2
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
701
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or graphing computer software to draw graphs
with multiple roots.
(a) Examine values close to the roots.
(b) Look at the relationship between the degree of the polynomial, the
leading coefficient and its graph.
Here are some examples of polynomials but you could choose others to
examine.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
P ]xg = ]x + 1g]x - 3g
P ]xg = ]x + 1g2]x - 3g
P ]xg = -]x + 1g3]x - 3g
P ]xg = -]x + 1g4]x - 3g
P ]xg = ]x + 1g]x - 3g2
P ]xg = ]x + 1g]x - 3g3
P ]xg = -]x + 1g]x - 3g4
P ]xg = -]x + 1g2]x - 3g2
P ]xg = -]x + 1g2]x - 3g3
P ]xg = ]x + 1g3]x - 3g2
dy
dx
= 0 at that point.
Proof
P ] x g = ] x - a gn Q ] x g
P ] a g = ] a - a gn Q ] a g
= 0n $ Q ] x g
=0
See class
investigation on
pages 686690.
702
P l (x) = u lv + v lu
= n (x - a) n - 1 $ 1 $ Q (x) + Ql(x) $ (x - a) n
= n (x - a) n - 1 Q (x) + (x - a) n Ql(x)
P l (a) = n (a - a) n - 1 Q (a) + (a - a) n Ql(a)
= n $ 0 n - 1 $ Q (a) + 0 n $ Ql(a)
=0
` P (a) = P l (a) = 0
EXAMPLES
1. Draw a sketch of P ] x g = - x ] x - 3 g3 .
Solution
Roots of the polynomial equation P ] x g = 0:
- x ] x - 3 g3 = 0
x = 0, x - 3 = 0
x=3
There is a single root at x = 0 so the curve crosses the x-axis at this point.
There is a triple root at x = 3. Since n is odd, there is a point of inflexion
at x = 3.
P ] x g = - x ] x - 3 g3
There is no need to fully expand
the polynomial as we only want
to find the leading term.
= - x ^ x 3 - 9x 2 + 27x - 27 h
= - x4 f
Since x 4 is the leading term, P(x) has degree 4 and the leading coefficient
is negative.
So as x becomes large (both negative and positive) the value of
P ] x g " -3.
y
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
703
Solution
(a) If P(x) has a double root at x = 5, then ] x - 5 g 2 is a factor
So P ] x g = ] x - 5 g 2Q ] x g
(b) P ] x g = ] x - 5 g 2Q ] x g
P ] 5 g = ] 5 - 5 g 2Q ] 5 g
= 02 #Q ] 5 g
=0
To find P l (5), first we differentiate P(x) using the product rule.
P l (x) = u lv + v lu
= 2 (x - 5) 1 $ 1 $ Q (x) + Q l (x) $ (x - 5) 2
= 2 ( x - 5 ) Q ( x ) + ( x - 5 ) 2 Q l (x )
2
P l ( 5 ) = 2 (5 - 5 ) Q ( 5 ) + (5 - 5 ) Q l ( 5 )
2
= 2 # 0 # Q (5 ) + 0 # Q l ( 5 )
=0
3. A monic polynomial has degree 5 and has a double root at a1 and a
triple root at a2. Draw a sketch of the polynomial where a 1 1 a 2 .
Solution
Since P(x) is monic and has degree 5, the leading term is x5.
We could write P ] x g = _ x - a 1 i 2 _ x - a 2 i 3.
Since the polynomial has odd degree and a positive leading coefficient, as
x becomes a positive large value, P ] x g " 3 and as x becomes a negative
large value, P ] x g " - 3.
The double root at x = a 1 gives a maximum or minimum turning point
and the triple root at x = a 2 means a point of inflexion.
Putting all this information together gives the graph below.
y
a1
a2
704
12.5 Exercises
1.
(c)
(d)
2.
(e)
(b)
(f)
x
x
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
(g)
Polynomial
P ] x g = x 3 - 7x 2 + 8x + 16 has a
double root at x = 4.
(a) Show that ] x - 4 g 2 is a factor
of P(x).
(b) Write P(x) as a product of its
factors.
(c) Prove P ] 4 g = P l(4) = 0.
6.
Polynomial
f ] x g = x 4 + 7x 3 + 9x 2 - 27x - 54
has a triple root at x = - 3.
(a) Show that ] x + 3 g3 is a factor
of f(x).
(b) Write f (x) as a product of its
factors.
(c) Prove f ] - 3 g = f l(- 3) = 0 .
7.
8.
9.
(h)
(i)
(j)
3.
4.
705
706
Quadratic equation
The quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 can be written in monic form as
c
b
x2 + a x + a = 0
If the quadratic equation has roots a and b, then the equation can be
written in monic form as
( x - a ) (x - b ) = 0
x 2 - bx - a x + ab = 0
x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab = 0
i.e.
c
b
x 2 + a x + a / x 2 - (a + b) x + ab
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
Cubic equation
The cubic equation ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 can be written in monic form as
d
c
b
x 3 + a x 2 + a x + a = 0.
If the cubic equation has roots a, b and c then the equation can be
written in monic form as
(x - a ) (x - b ) (x - c) = 0
(x 2 - bx - a x + ab ) (x - c) = 0
x 3 - cx 2 - bx 2 + bcx - a x 2 + acx + abx - abc = 0
x 3 - (a + b + c) x 2 + (ab + bc + ac) x - abc = 0
d
c
b
x 3 + a x 2 + a x + a / x 3 - (a + b + c) x 2 + (ab + bc + ac) x - abc
This gives the results below:
Quartic equation
The quartic equation ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0 can be written in monic form
d
c
e
b
as x 4 + a x 3 + a x 2 + a x + a = 0.
707
708
If the quartic equation has roots a, b, c and d then the equation can be
written in monic form as
(x - a ) (x - b) (x - c) (x - d) = 0
[x - (a + b + c) x + (ab + bc + ac) x - abc] (x - d) = 0
x - dx - (a + b + c) x 3 + d (a + b + c) x 2 +
(ab + bc + ac) x 2 - d (ab + bc + ac) x - abcx + abcd = 0
x 4 - (a + b + c + d) x 3 + (ad + db + dc + ab + bc + ac) x 2 (abd + bdc + adc + abc) x + abcd = 0
e
b 3 c 2 d
4
` x + ax + ax + ax + a
3
/ x 4 - (a + b + c + d) x 3 + (ad + db + dc + ab + bc + ac) x 2
- (abd + bdc + adc + abc) x + abcd
This gives the results below:
Class Investigation
Can you find results for sums and products of roots for equations of
degree 5, 6 and so on?
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
EXAMPLES
1. If a, b, c are the roots of 2x 3 - 5x 2 + x - 1 = 0, find
(a ) (a + b + c) 2
(b) (a + 1) ( b + 1) (c + 1)
(c)
1 1 1
+ + .
a b c
Solution
b
a + b + c = -a
=-
(- 5)
2
5
2
c
ab + ac + bc = a
1
=
2
=
d
abc = - a
==
(-1)
2
1
2
5 2
1
(a) (a + b + c) 2 = c m = 6
4
2
(b) (a + 1) ( b + 1) (c + 1)
= (a + 1) ( bc + b + c + 1)
= abc + ab + ac + a + bc + b + c + 1
= abc + (ab + ac + bc) + (a + b + c) + 1
5
1
1
= + + +1
2
2
2
1
=4
2
bc + ac + ab
(c) 1
1
1
+ + =
a
c
b
abc
1
2
=
1
2
=1
CONTINUED
709
710
Solution
Roots are a, b, c where, say, c = 4.
b
a + b + c = -a
`
a+b+4 =1
a + b = -3
d
abc = - a
ab (4) = 3
3
ab =
4
Solution
Let the roots be a, a and b.
b
a + a + b = -a
`
2a + b = -
32
12
(1)
c
aa + ab + ab = a
15
`
a 2 + 2ab =
12
d
aab = - a
9
`
a2 b =
12
(2)
(3)
From (1):
b=-
32
- 2a
12
Substitute in (2):
32
15
a 2 + 2a c - 2a m =
12
12
32
2
12a + 24a c - 2a m = 15
12
12a 2 - 64a - 48a 2 = 15
0 = 36a 2 + 64a + 15
= (2a + 3) (18a + 5)
2a + 3 = 0
18a + 5 = 0
2a = - 3
18a = - 5
-5
1
a = -1
a=
2
18
(4)
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
Substitute in (4):
32
1
1
a = -1 : b = - 2 c -1 m
12
2
2
1
=
3
32
5
5
a=- :b=- 2cm
12
18
18
1
= -2
9
Substitute in (3):
9
1
1
1 2 1
a = - 1 , b = : c- 1 m c m =
2
3
2
3
12
3
3
=
4
4
5
5 2
9
1
1
a = - , b = - 2 : cm c- 2 m =
18
9
18
9
12
This is impossible as LHS is negative and RHS is positive.
` the roots are -1
1
1
and
2
3
12.6 Exercises
1.
2.
Find
(i) a + b + c,
(ii) ab + ac + bc, and
(iii) abc, where a, b and c are
the roots of the equation, for the
following cubic equations.
(a) x 3 + x 2 - 2x + 8 = 0
(b) x 3 - 3x 2 + 5x - 2 = 0
(c) 2x 3 - x 2 + 6x + 2 = 0
(d) - x 3 - 3x 2 - 11 = 0
(e) x 3 + 7x - 3 = 0
3.
4.
711
712
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
Test Yourself 12
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
713
714
Challenge Exercise 12
1.
Write P (x) = x 5 + 2x 4 + x 3 - x 2 - 2x - 1
as a product of its factors.
8.
2.
9.
Solve
tan 4 i - tan 3 i - 3 tan 2 i + 3 tan i = 0
for 0c# i # 360c.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
-1
13
Permutations and
Combinations
TERMINOLOGY
Arrangements: Different ways of organising objects
Combinations: Arrangements of objects without
replacement or repetition when order is not important.
The notation used is nC r for selecting r objects from n
where order doesnt matter
Factorial: A factorial is the product of n consecutive
positive integers from n down to one. For example
6! = 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
Fundamental counting principle: If one event can occur in
p ways and a second independent event can occur in q
ways, then the two successive events can occur in p x q
different ways
Ordered selections: Selections that are taken in a
particular position
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER IS AN introduction to some of the concepts you will meet in
probability in the HSC Course. Probability is the study of how likely it is
that something will happen. It is used to make predictions in different areas,
ranging from games of chance to business decision-making.
In this chapter you will study general counting techniques based on
the fundamental counting principle. These will lead on to the study of
permutations and combinations. These have applications in finding the size
of the sample space, or the ways that certain events can happen in probability.
It can also tell us the number of postcodes a state can have, the number of
telephone numbers that is possible in a city and the number of combinations
making up serial numbers for appliances.
717
718
EXAMPLES
1. Alison buys 5 raffle tickets and 100 are sold altogether. What is the
probability that Alison (a) wins (b) doesnt win first prize in the raffle?
Solution
(a) The size of the sample space, or total number of outcomes is 100,
since there are 100 tickets altogether.
Alison has 5 tickets so has 5 different ways of winning the raffle.
5
100
1
=
20
(b) There are 100 - 5 or 95 other tickets that could win if Alison loses.
P (Win) =
95
100
19
=
20
Or, if we know that the sum of all probabilities is 1, we could say
P (Loss) =
P (Loss) = 1 - P (Win)
=1=
1
20
19
20
2. There are 56 books on music at the school library and there are
2000 books altogether. If Anthony selects a book at random, find the
probability that it will be a book on music.
Solution
The size of the sample space is 2000 and there are 56 ways that Anthony
could select a music book.
56
P (Music book) =
2000
7
=
250
13.1 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
7.
8.
9.
4.
5.
6.
A multiple of 10 is
a number that is
divisible by 10.
719
720
Counting techniques
In the HSC Course you will learn about multi-stage events (events where
there are two or more events such as rolling two dice or tossing two coins).
The counting can become quite difficult, which is why we introduce counting
techniques in the Preliminary Course.
Class Discussion
Break up into pairs and try these experiments with one doing the activity
and one recording the results.
1. Toss two coins as many times as you can in a 5-minute period and
record the results in the table:
Result
Two heads
Two tails
Tally
Compare your results with others in the class. What do you notice? Is this
surprising?
2. Roll two dice as many times as you can in a 5-minute period, find
the total of the two uppermost numbers on the dice and record the
results in the table:
Total
10
11
12
Tally
Compare your results with others in the class. What do you notice? Is this
surprising?
Why dont these results appear to be equally likely?
721
722
Investigation
1. To travel to work, Cassie needs to catch a bus and a train. She lives
near a bus stop and there are three different buses she could catch
into town. When she arrives in town, she needs to catch one of four
trains to work.
If there are three buses and four trains possible for Cassie to catch, in
how many ways is it possible for her to travel to work?
Buses
Cassies
house
Trains
A
B
C
1
2
3
4
2. At a restaurant, there are three entrees, four main meals and two
desserts. Every time Rick eats at the restaurant he chooses to eat a
different combination of courses. How many times would he need to
go to the restaurant to cover all possible combinations?
EXAMPLES
1. A personal identification number (PIN) has 4 letters followed by
3 numbers. How many different PINs of this type are possible?
Solution
There are 26 letters and 10 numbers (0 9) possible for the positions in
the PIN.
723
Solution
(a) Total number of combinations = 5#12 # 6
= 360
3
360
1
=
120
EXAMPLES
1. To win a trifecta in a race, a person has to pick the horses that come
first, second and third in the race. If a race has 9 horses, how many
different combinations could be a trifecta?
Solution
The probabilities will
be different for where
each horse will come
in the race, but the
number of possible
different trifecta
combinations will be
the same.
724
Solution
Any of the 15 people can receive the first pass.
There are 14 people left who could receive the second pass.
Similarly there are 13 people that could receive the third pass.
Total number of possibilities = 15#14 #13
= 2 730
3. In Lotto, a machine contains 45 balls, each with a different number
from 1 to 45.
(a) In how many ways can 6 balls be randomly drawn?
(b) To win first prize in Lotto, a person must choose all 6 numbers
correctly. Lisa has 3 tickets in the same draw of Lotto. What is the
probability that she will win first prize?
Solution
(a) The first ball could be any of the 45 balls.
The second could be any of the remaining 44 balls and so on.
The number of ways = 45# 44 # 43# 42 # 41# 40
= 5 864 443 200
3
(b) P ^ first prize h =
5 864 443 200
1
=
1 954 814 400
13.2 Exercises
1.
2.
A motorcycle numberplate is
made up of 2 letters followed
by 2 numbers. How many
numberplates of this type are
available?
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
725
726
Factorial notation
Counting outcomes when repetition or replacement is allowed is quite
straightforward, even when the numbers become very large.
EXAMPLE
A card is drawn randomly from a set of 25 cards numbered 1 to 25 in
turn and then replaced before the next is selected. How many possible
outcomes are there if 25 cards are chosen this way? Answer in scientic
notation, correct to 3 signicant gures.
727
Solution
Each time there is a card drawn, there are 25 possibilities.
Total number = 25# 25# 25#. . .# 25
] 25 times g
= 25
= 8.88 #10 34
25
EXAMPLE
A card is drawn randomly from a set of 25 cards numbered 1 to 25 in
turn without replacing it before the next is drawn. How many possible
outcomes are there if all 25 cards are drawn out? Answer in scientific
notation, correct to 3 significant figures.
Solution
First card: there are 25 possibilities.
Second card: there are only 24 possibilities since one card has already
been drawn out.
Third card: there are 23 possibilities and so on.
Total number = 25# 24 # 23## 3# 2 #1
= 1.55#10 25
This calculation is
quite tedious!
n! = n ] n - 1 g ] n - 2 g ] n - 3 g ] n - 4 g . . . 3# 2 #1
0! = 1
Check 0! on your
calculator.
728
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate
(a) 4!
(b) 7!
(c) 25! (answer in scientific notation correct to 3 significant figures.)
Solution
4! = 4 # 3 # 2 #1
= 24
(b) 7! = 7 # 6 # 5 # 4 # 3 # 2 # 1
= 5040
(c) 25! = 1.55#10 25
(a)
Solution
(a) The first number could be assigned 9 ways.
The second number could be assigned 8 ways and so on.
Total ways = 9!
= 362 880
(b) One of the group is given the first ticket (this can only happen in one
way)
The second number could be assigned 8 ways and so on.
Total ways = 1# 8!
= 40 320
13.3 Exercises
1.
Evaluate
(a) 6!
(b) 10!
(c) 0!
(d) 8! - 7!
(e) 5# 4!
7!
(f)
4!
12!
5!
13!
(h)
4!9!
8!
(i)
3!5!
11!
(j)
4!7!
(g)
2.
8.
9.
4.
5.
6.
7.
729
730
11!
= 11#10 # 9 # 8 #7
6!
n!
r!
= n ]n - 1 g]n - 2 g]n - 3 g
(c)
... ] r + 1 g where n 2 r
n!
(n - r) !
= n ]n - 1 g]n - 2 g]n - 3 g
... ] n - r + 1 g where n 2 r
(d)
Permutations
Factorial notation is useful for finding the number of possible outcomes when
arranging all objects in order without replacement. However, sometimes we
need to find the number of possible outcomes when arranging only some of
the objects in order without replacement.
It is easy to arrange objects with replacement.
EXAMPLE
In how many ways can 5 cards be selected from a total of 20 cards if each
one is replaced before selecting the next one?
Solution
Each selection can be made in 20 possible ways.
Total = 20 # 20 # 20 # 20 # 20
= 20 5
= 3 200 000 ways.
EXAMPLE
In how many ways can 5 cards be selected from a total of 20 cards if there
is no replacement?
Solution
The 1st card can be selected in 20 different ways.
The 2nd card can be selected in 19 different ways as the first card is no
longer being used.
The 3rd card can be selected in 18 different ways, and so on.
Total = 20 #19 #18 #17 #16
= 1 860 480 ways
731
732
EXAMPLE
If there are 20 cards and 13 cards are chosen in order at random without
replacement, find the possible number of ways the cards can be chosen in
scientific notation correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
The first card can be any of the 20 numbers.
The second card can be any of the remaining 19 numbers.
The third can be any of the remaining 18 numbers.
The number of ways the cards can be chosen = 20 #19 #18 #17 #f# 8
= 4.8 #1014
You can nd a
n
Pr key on most
scientic calculators.
Proof
n
Pr = n ] n - 1 g ] n - 2 g ] n - 3 g f ] n - r + 1 g
= n ]n - 1g]n - 2g]n - 3g f ]n - r + 1g #
n!
]n - r g!
Pn = n!
733
Proof
n!
]n - r g!
n!
` n Pn =
]n - n g!
n!
=
0!
n!
=
1
= n!
n
Pr =
EXAMPLES
You can evaluate this on a
calculator.
1. Evaluate 9 P4
Solution
9
9!
]9 - 4 g!
9!
=
5!
9$8$7$6$5$4$3$2$1
=
5$4$3$2$1
=9$8$7$6
P4 =
= 3024
2. (a) Find the number of arrangements of 3 digits that can be formed
using the digits 0 to 9 if each digit can only be used once.
(b) How many 3 digit numbers greater than 700 can be formed?
Solution
(a) There are 10 digits from 0 to 9.
The 1st digit can be any of the 10 digits.
The 2nd digit can be any of the remaining 9 digits.
The 3rd digit can be any of the remaining 8 digits.
Total permutations = 10 # 9 # 8
= 720
10!
or 10P3 =
] 10 - 3 g !
10!
=
7!
= 720
CONTINUED
734
There are some special examples that need very careful counting, such
as arrangements around a circle. Others involve counting when there are
identical objects.
EXAMPLES
1. (a) In how many ways can 6 people sit around a circular table?
(b) If seating is random, find the probability that 3 particular people
will sit together.
Solution
(a) The 1st person can sit anywhere around the table so we only need to
arrange the other 5 people.
(b) The 3 people can sit anywhere around the table together in 3# 2 #1
or 3! ways.
The remaining 3 people can sit together in 3! ways.
Total arrangements = 3!# 3!
= 36
36
P (3 sit together) =
120
3
.
=
10
2. In how many ways can the letters of the word EXCEPTIONAL be
arranged?
Solution
EXCEPTIONAL has 11 letters with the letter E repeated.
If each E was different, i.e. E1 and E2, then there would be 11!
arrangements.
However, we cannot tell the difference between the 2 Es. Since there are
2! ways of arranging the Es, then there are 2! arrangements of the word
EXCEPTIONAL that are identical. We need to divide by 2! to eliminate
these identical arrangements.
11!
Total arrangements =
2!
= 19 958 400.
EXAMPLE
Find the number of ways that the word ANAETHEMA can be arranged.
Solution
There are 9 letters, including 3 As and 2 Es. There are 9! ways of arranging
the letters, with 3! ways of arranging the As and 2! ways of arranging the Es.
9!
Total arrangements =
3!2!
= 30 240
735
736
EXAMPLES
A bag contains 5 balls of different coloursred, yellow, blue, green and
white. In how many ways can these 5 balls be arranged
(a) with no restrictions
(b) if the yellow ball must be first
(c) if the first ball must not be red or white
(d) if blue and green must be together
(e) if red, blue and green must be together?
Solution
(a) The 1st can be any of the 5 balls.
The 2nd can be any of the remaining 4 balls and so on.
Total arrangements = 5!
= 120
(b) The 1st ball must be yellow, so there is only 1 way of arranging this.
The 2nd ball can be any of the remaining 4 balls.
The 3rd ball can be any of the remaining 3 balls and so on.
Total arrangements = 4!
= 24
(c) The 1st ball could be yellow, blue or green so there are 3 possible
arrangements.
The 2nd ball could be any of the remaining 4 balls and so on.
Total arrangements = 3# 4!
= 72
(d) When two objects must be together, we treat them as a single object
with 2! possible arrangements.
So we arrange 4 balls in 4! ways: R, Y, BG and W.
But there are 2! ways in which to arrange the blue and green balls.
Total arrangements = 4!# 2!
= 48
(e) When three objects are together, we treat them as a single object with
3! possible arrangements.
We are then arranging 3 balls in 3! ways: RBG, Y, W.
But there are 3! ways in which to arrange the red, blue and green balls.
Total arrangements = 3!# 3!
= 36
737
13.4 Exercises
1.
6.
(c) 8 P3
(d)
10
P7
(e) P6
(f)
P5
(g) P6
2.
3.
4.
(h)
11
(i)
P1
(j)
P6
P8
7.
8.
9.
738
739
740
Combinations
The permutation n Pr is the number of arrangements possible for an ordered
selection of r objects from a total of n objects.
When the order is not important, for example when AB is the same as BA,
the number of arrangements is called a combination.
EXAMPLES
1. A committee of 2 is chosen from Scott, Rachel and Kate. In how many
ways can this be done?
Solution
Number of ordered arrangements = 3 P2
=6
However, a committee of Scott and Rachel is the same as a committee
of Rachel and Scott. This is the same for all other arrangements of the
committee. There are 2! ways of arranging each committee of two people.
To get the number of unordered arrangements, we divide the number of
ordered arrangements by 2!
3
P2
Total arrangements =
2!
=3
2. There are 3 vacancies on a school council and 8 people who are
available. If the vacancies are filled randomly, in how many ways can this
happen?
Solution
Number of orderedarrangements = 8 P3
However, order is not necessary here, since the 3 vacancies filled by, say,
Hamish, Amie and Marcus, would be the same in any order.
There are 3! different ways of arranging Hamish, Amie and Marcus.
8
P3
So total arrangements =
3!
= 56
objects from n is
Pr
r!
n!
] n - r g ! r!
741
Proof
n
n
Combination n Cr or a r k is the number of ways of making
unordered selections of r objects from a total of n objects.
n!
n
Cr =
] n - r! g r !
EXAMPLES
1. A bag contains 3 white and 2 black counters labelled W1, W2, W3 and
B1, B2. If two counters are drawn out of the bag, in how many ways can
this happen if order is not important?
Solution
Possible arrangements (unordered) are:
W1 W2
W1 W3
W1 B1
W1 B2
W2 W3
W2 B1
W2 B2
W3 B1
W3 B2
B1 B2
CONTINUED
742
Solution
The order is not important.
There are 12 C7 ways of tossing 7 tails from 12 coins
12
12!
(12 - 7)!7!
12!
=
5!7!
= 792
C7 =
Solution
(a) The order of the committee is not important.
l
Number of arrangements = b 15
5
= 3003
l
(b) 3 senior students can be chosen in b 9
3 or 84 ways.
l
2 junior students can be chosen in b 6
2 or 15 ways.
9
6
Total number of arrangements = c m # c m
3
2
= 84 #15
= 1260
4. A team of 6 men and 5 women is chosen at random from a group of
10 men and 9 women. If Kaye and Greg both hope to be chosen in the
team, find the probability that
(a) both will be chosen
(b) neither will be chosen.
Solution
The number of possible teams = 10 C 6 # 9 C 5
= 210 #126
= 26 460
(a) For Kaye to be chosen, then 4 out of the other 8 women will be chosen
i.e. 8 C 4
For Greg to be chosen, 5 out of the other 9 men will be chosen i.e. 9 C5
743
Number of combinations = 8 C4 # 9 C5
= 70 # 126
= 8820
8820
26 460
1
=
3
Probability =
(b) For Kaye and Greg not to be included, then 5 out of the other
8 women and 6 out of the other 9 men will be chosen.
Number of combinations = 8 C5 # 9 C6
= 56 #84
= 4704
4704
Probability =
26 460
8
=
45
13.5 Exercises
1.
2.
10
C4
(e)
11
C5
(a) Evaluate
(i) 10 C 0
(ii)
C0
l
(iii) b 14
0
(iv)
C9
11
m
11
(b) Hence complete
(i) n C 0 =
(v)
(ii)
3.
Cn =
5.
744
6.
7.
8.
9.
745
k a 13 k
26. Show that a 13
7 = 6
l b9 l b9 l
27. Show that b 10
4 = 4 + 3
n
n l
28. Prove that b l = b n r
r
29. Prove that n Pr = r! nC r
n
- 1 l bn - 1 l
30. Prove that b l = b n
k -1 + k
k
746
Test yourself 13
1.
8.
2.
9.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Challenge Exercise 13
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
747
748
7.
Prove that n Pr = r! nC r
8.
9.
2.
Write P ^ x h = x 3 + 4x 2 - x - 4 as a
product of its factors.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
13. Evaluate 10 C 3.
14. Solve x 2 - 4 2 0.
15. A polynomial P (x) has a double root at
x = 2. Show that P (2) = Pl(2) = 0.
16. If a , b, c and d are the roots of the
equation x 4 - 3x 3 + 2x + 1 = 0, find
(a) a bcd
(b) a + b + c + d
(c) ab and a + b
if c = -2 and d = 5.
17. In how many different ways can a
committee of 4 people be selected from a
group of 9 people?
18. Find the remainder if
P ^ x h = 3x 5 - 4x 3 + 2x 2 - 7x - 3 is
divided by x + 1.
749
750
19.
54. Solve y 1
-2
y+3
751
752
3
12
and tan y =
, express
5
5
cos (x - y) as a fraction.
55. If sin x =
x-1
.
x2 - 5
x-1
(b) Sketch y = 2
.
x -5
(b)
(e) a 2 + b2 + c2
63. By dividing the polynomial
P ] x g = x 3 - 2x 2 + x + 3 by
x - 2 , write P(x) in the form
P ]x g = ]x - 2 gQ ]x g + R ]x g.
(c)
(a)
(d)
(b)
753
754
(c)
(a)
12
C 11
(b) 11!
(c) 12!
x
-3
(d)
12
P11
(d)
-3
(b)
Pr
(n - r) !
(c) r! n Pr
n
(d)
Pr
r!
755
756
Answers
Chapter 1: Basic arithmetic
8.
o (b) 0.07
oo (c) 0.13
oo (d) 0.16
o
(a) 0.83
o
oo
o
(g) 0.142857 or 0. 142857 (h) 1.18
oo
(f) 0.15
o
(e) 0.6
Problem
9.
Exercises 1.1
1.
2.
(e) - 4.3
3.
(c) Rational
(g) Irrational
19
20
(i) 2
(j) 3
(d) Irrational
(h) Rational
(f) 1
(g) 2
7
15
1
3
8.
600
5. 950
16. 1.7
6. 3000
(j) 8.16
(i)
5
8
24. (a) 7.95 (b) 30.03 (c) 0.37 (d) 5.74 (e) 0.52 25. 0.2
(b) 2
6.
- 1.2
10. - 2
15. 5
3. - 56
8.
8. - 35.52
9. 6.57
(a)
11. - 7
12. 23
13. 10
16. 3
16
25
(b)
17. 1
14. 1
51
1000
(c) 5
1
20
(d) 11
4
5
7
20
3
(e)
5
o
(a) 0.4 (b) 1.875 (c) 0.416
3.
(a)
4.
5.
1
(a) 35% (b) 33 %
3
6.
7.
(a) 0.52;
(b)
13
25
(d) 1.09; 1
(e)
o
(c) 0.73
oo
(d) 0.68
8
11
7
18
(c)
67
99
(f)
6
11
(g)
7
45
(d) 2
oo
(e) 1.72
4
45
(e)
14. 17.5%
15. 41.7%
1
20
7
4. $547.56 5. 714.3 g 6.
24
2.
3
28
17
20
3. (a)
(b)
7
10
(c) 1
7. $65
179 cm 9. (a) 11.9 (b) 5.3 (c) 19 (d) 3.2 (e) 3.5
(f) 0.24 (g) 0.000 18 (h) 5720 (i) 0.0874 (j) 0.376
14. 5.9%
15. 402.5 g
19. 573
12. 1152.125 g
16. 41.175 m
13. $10.71
17. $30.92
20. $2898
3
8
(c)
1
1000
Exercises 1.5
(d) 1
(a) 500
(b) 145
(c)
2.
(a) 13.7
(b) 1.1
(c) 0.8
3.
(a) a 17
(e) 0.434;
(c) 0.168;
217
500
(h) x 21
4.
21
125
(f) 0.1225;
(h) p - 1
5.
49
400
(a) x14
(a) p5q15
(f) x4y10
(d) 3
(d) 2.7
(c) a - 4
(i) 4x 10
(d) w
(j) 81y - 8
(o) x -3
(n) p 5
(q) x - 5 y 2 or
(b) y 0 = 1
(m) w 10
97
1000
(d) 0.1%
1
64
1.
oo
(d) 0.63
2
(c) 226 %
3
(b) 0.07;
9
100
5
minutes after 1 oclock.
11
(g) y 6
2.
1
50
7
9
37
495
11. 54.925 mL
Exercises 1.3
1.
(j) 1
10. $52.50
5. - 4
4. 10
7. - 7.51
4
15
(d) 3
Problem
2. - 11
1.
1
8
5
9
13. 77.5%
18. 3.2 m
Exercises 1.2
217
990
(b) 7.4
3
20
(d)
23. $3.20
(c) 1
Exercises 1.4
13
60
11. (a)
1.
7. 11 000
21. $281.93
(h)
2
9
(b)
o
10. (a) 0.5
11. 844 km
8
9
12. 74%
(a) 16.36 (b) 21.87 (c) 8.80 (d) 22.71 (e) - 13.20
4.
(a)
(e) 2
(e) - 2.6
(e) x 5
(k) a
(p) a - 2 b 3 or
(f) 0.5
(f) p 10
(l)
x 10
b3
y 45
a2
x5
(b) a -7
(f) x
(g) mn2
a8
8
b
2k 23
(g)
27
(c)
64a 3
b 12
ANSWERS
6.
1
2
7. 324
8. 2
10
27
9. (a) a3b
1
25
(b)
1
2
5.
(a) x 2
6.
(a) x + x 2 + 2x 2
(b) x
(c) x 3
(d) x 3
(e) x 4
7
(b)
32
2 2
10. (a) pq r
14.
1
81
4
11.
9
1
108
15.
1
12.
18
1
12
16.
4
13.
27
5 22
17.
49
3888
18.
2 58
(d) x + x - 1 + 2
7.
Exercises 1.6
1.
2.
3.
(d)
1
1
1
1
1
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f) 1
4
27
343
10 000
256
1
1
1
1
1
1
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m) 1
7
64
9
32
81
81
1
1
1
1
(n)
(o)
(p)
(q)
(r) 1
36
125
100 000
128
1
1
(s)
(t)
64
64
1.
(e) x
1
2
- 3x
^ y - 3 h2
(e)
3 4 ^ x + y h5
(b)
a - 2b
3
2
+x
(c)
5
2
4
7
] 6a + 1 g4
6
7 9 ] 3x + 8 g2
(a) m - 3
(b) x - 1
-4
(h) 3y
(c) p - 7
2
2.
1
z- 6
(i) z - 6 or
2
2
2x - 1
(k)
7
2y - 7
5m
(m)
(n) ] 3x + 4 g- 2 (o) ] a + b g- 8
2
3
(p) ] x - 2 g- 1 (q) ^ 5p + 1 h- 3 (r) 2 ] 4t - 9 g- 5
]x + 1g
4
(a)
(h)
1
5
t
5
x7
(m)
(t)
1
(b)
(c)
x
1
(i)
5 ] a + 3b g
9
1
y
1
n
(e)
1
w
(k)
2
x
(f)
10
(g)
1
(l)
8y + z
] x + 1 g6
(n)
]k - 3g
(d)
1
(j)
4n
8x 3
^ 3x + 2y h
x-y
3x + y 7
o
(s)
(t) e
x+y
2w - z
(r) ] a + b g2
3
m
(a) 2.19 (b) 2.60 (c) 1.53 (d) 0.60 (e) 0.90 (f) 0.29
3.
(a) 3 y
(b) 3 y 2 or _ 3 y i
(c)
(f) 3 6q + r
(g)
1
x
(d)
1
] x + 7 g2
2x + 5
or
(b) y 5
(c) x 2
(d) ] 9 - x g 3
(e) ] 4s + 1 g 2
(i) ] x - 2 g
2
3
1
2
(g) ^ 5x - y h
3
2
(j)
1
(l)
(f) 4.16 # 10 5
(h) 1.376 # 10
(a) 5.7 # 10 - 2
-4
-6
(i) 2 # 10 7
(b) 5.5 # 10 - 5
(e) 2 #10
-6
(h) 2.3#10
(j) 8 #10 4
(c) 4 # 10 - 3
(f) 8#10 - 8
-1
(i) 8.5#10 - 3
(j) 7#10 - 11
(a) 36 000 (b) 27 800 000 (c) 9 250 (d) 6 330 000
(e) 400 000 (f) 0.072 3 (g) 0.000 097
(h) 0.000 000 038 (i) 0.000 007 (j) 0.000 5
4.
(a) 240 000 (b) 9 200 000 (c) 11 000 (d) 0.36
(e) 1.3 (f) 9.0 (g) 16 (h) 320 (i) 2900 (j) 9.1
5.
(a) 6.61
6.
1.305 # 10 10
(b) 0.686
(c) 8.25
(d) 1.30
7. 6.51 # 10 - 10
Exercises 1.9
1.
5.
(a) | a + b | = 6
(b) | a + b | = 3
(c) | a + b | = 1
(d) | a + b | = 1
(e) | a + b | = 10
6.
(a)
x2 = | x | = 5
(b)
x2 = | x | = 2
(d)
x2 = | x | = 4
(e)
x2 = | x | = 9
2a 2
2
y - 1k
3
|a | + | b |= 6 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
|a | + | b |= 3 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
|a | + | b |= 5 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
|a | + | b |= 9 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
| a | + | b | = 10 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
(c)
x2 = | x | = 3
7.
8.
x = !3
1
^ 5 x + 7 h2
(a) t 2
(f) ] 2t + 3 g
(e) 8.67 # 10 9
3.
2.
(g) 7.6#10
3x - 1
(c) 6.19 # 10 4
Exercises 1.7
(e)
(b) 1.23#10 6
-7
- 11
(s)
(a) 3.8 # 10 3
(g) 9 #10
(l)
4.
(c) p 2 + p - 1 + 2p 2
Exercises 1.8
1
11
1
(a) 1 (b) 16 (c) 1
(d) 1
(e) 1 (f) 125 (g) 1
2
25
3
3
13
19
1
(h) 49 (i) 3
(j) 32 (k) 2
(l) 1 (m) 1
(n) 1
8
3
36
81
5
16
7
(o) 1 (p) 16 (q) - 15
(r) (s) 1 (t)
8
23
25
-6
1.
1
3
(a)
(g) 2x
4.
(a)
(b) a 3 - b 3
(h) ] 3x + 1 g 2
1
1
^ y + 7 h 2 (k) 5 ] x + 4 g 3
2
3
3
4
(m) _ x 2 + 2 i
5
9. !1
10. !1, x ! 2
757
758
Test yourself 1
1.
(a)
9
20
(f) 73.3%
3.
2. (a)
1
49
(b)
157
200
1
(c)
3
(d)
1
5
Exercises 2.1
(e) 1.2%
(a) 8.83 (b) 1.55 (c) 1.12 (d) 342 (e) 0.303 4. (a) 1
(e) - 10 (f) - 1 (g) 4 5. (a) x 9
8x 18
29
(b) 25y 6 (c) a 11 b 6 (d)
(e) 1 6. (a)
27
40
1
1
1
(b) 3
(c) 12 (d) 2
(e) 12
7. (a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 19
7
2
2
1
1
(d)
(e) 4 (f) 3 (g)
(h) 2 (i) 1 (j) 4
7
64
(b) 1 (c) 39 (d) 2
8.
30 18
(a) a
(b) x y
(c) p
(g)
1 -3
x
2
36
11
(d) 16b
(d) ] x + 1 g
(b) x - 5 (c) ^ x + y h- 1
(f) 2x - 1
(e) 8x y
1
4
9. (a) n
1
(i) ] 5x + 3 g 7
3
4
1
] 4t - 7 g4
1
1
(f) 5 a + b (g)
(h) 4 b 3 (i) 3 ] 2x + 3 g4 (j)
3
x
x3
11. | a + b | = 2 | a | +| b | = 8 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
10. (a)
a5
(b) 4 n
1
13.
192
12. 1
(c)
(d)
(c) ] x + 3 g 6
(b) y - 1
(b) 1.23 # 10 11
b 5
(c) c m
a
1
(c)
8
7
(d) ] 2x - 3 g- 11
(e)
7
14. 689 mL 15. (a) 6 h (b)
12
22. (a)
(b)
1
2a + 5
21. (a)
7
9
(e) y 3
(b)
41
330
23. 14 500
1.
4.
1
1
53 % 5.
3
16
9.
18 h
11.
2. 1
11
18
3. 0.502, 51%,
6. 3.04 # 10
14
51
o
, 0. 5
99
3271
7. 83% 8. 1
9990
10. 1.98
LHS = 2 ^ 2 k - 1 h + 2 k + 1
= 2k+1 - 2 + 2k+1
= 2:2 k + 1 - 2
= 2 ^ 2k+1 - 1 h
= RHS
` 2 ^ 2k - 1 h + 2k+1 = 2 ^ 2k+1 - 1 h
o , 0,
12. 24 35 13. - 0.34, 2, 1. 5
3
7
2
14. 6 %
3
1
1
15.
when x 2 - 1,
when x 1 - 1 16. 0.73
x-1
1-x
17. 0.6%
7.
-y
3. z
8. 5x
13. - m
9. 0
14. - x
19. 6x - 6y
4. 6a
10. 3k
15. 0
20. a - 3b
23. m 2 - 6m + 12
26. - 2ab + 10b
5. 3b
6. 3r
11. 9t
16. 5b
12. 10w
17. 11b
21. 4xy + 2y
24. p 2 - 2p - 6
27. 2bc - ac
29. x 3 - 2xy 2 + 3x 2 y + 2y 3
18. - 10x
22. - 6ab 2
25. 8x + 3y
28. 2a 5 - 9x 3 + 1
30. 3x 3 + x 2 - 7x - 6
4. - 6wz
3. 10p 2
1.
10b
2. 8xy
5.
9.
12a3
10. - 27y3
13. - 10a 3 b 2
12. 6a 2 b 3
14. 21p 3 q 4
16. - 8n 10 17. k 3 p 3
15. 5a 3 b 3
19. - 14m
11. 32x10
11
20. 24x y
18. 81t 12
Exercises 2.3
1.
6x
3. 4a 2
2. 2
4. 8a
5. 4a
6.
7. 3p
ab
4
1
-2
9.
10. - 3x 3 11. 3a 12.
13.
qs
3y
2
3ab 2
4 7
6
2
a b
2
z
b
14.
15.
16. 6p 4 q 17.
18.
4c
2a
3c 2 d
2x 2
8.
19. -
x3 z3
3y
a 13
20.
2b 6
Exercises 2.4
Challenge exercise 1
278
303
2. 3a
(d) 33.3%
19. (a) x 2
x+1
1
x-y
(j) m
7x
Exercises 2.2
(e) ] a + b g 7
(h) x 3
1
2
1.
20. | a + b | = | a | + | b | when a 2 0, b 2 0 or a 1 0, b 1 0;
| a + b | 1 | a | + | b | when a 2 0, b 1 0 or a 1 0, b 2 0;
` | a + b | # | a + b | for all a, b
1.
2x - 8
5.
x 2 - 2x 6. 6a 2 - 16ab 7. 2a 2 b + ab 2 8. 5n 2 - 20n
2. 6h + 9
3. - 5a + 10
9.
3x3 y2 + 6x2 y3
10. 4k + 7
11. 2t - 17
12. 4y + 11y
13. - 5b - 6
15. - 3m + 1
16. 8h - 19 17. d - 6
19. 3x - 9x - 5
2
22. - 7y + 4
14. 8 - 2x
20. 2ab - 2a b + b
2
23. 2 b
4. 2xy + 3x
24. 5t - 6
18. a 2 - 2a + 4
21. 4x - 1
25. 2a + 26
Exercises 2.5
1.
a 2 + 7a + 10
2. x 2 + 2x - 3
4.
m 2 - 6m + 8
5. x 2 + 7x + 12
7.
2x 2 + x - 6
8. h 2 - 10h + 21
3. 2y 2 + 7y - 15
6. y 2 - 3y - 10
9. x 2 - 25
14. n 2 - 4
17. a 2 - 4b 2
21. 9a 2 - 1
15. 4x 2 - 9
18. 9x 2 - 16y 2
22. 4z 2 - 49
19. x 2 - 9
ANSWERS
Exercises 2.8
25. x + 8
1.
]x + 4g]2 + bg
4.
]m - 2g]m + 3g
5. ] d - c g ] a + b g 6. ] x + 1 g ^ x 2 + 3 h
7.
] 5a - 3 g ] b + 2 g
8. ^ 2y - x h ^ x + y h
26. a - 27
27. a + 18a + 81
28. k - 8k + 16
29. x + 4x + 4
32. 4t 2 - 4t + 1
38. a - 2ab + b
30. y - 14y + 49
31. 4x 2 + 12x + 9
36. a - b
39. a + b
10. ] x + 5 g ] x - 1 g
37. a + 2ab + b
40. a - b
3
2. ^ y - 3 h ] a + b g
9. ^ y + 1 h ] a + 1 g
11. (y + 3) (1 + a)
13. ^ x + 5y h ^ 2x - 3y h
3. ] x + 5 g ] x + 2 g
12. (m - 2) (1 - 2y)
14. ^ a + b h ] ab - 4 g
2
15. ] 5 - x g ] x + 3 g 16. (x + 7) (x 3 - 4)
17. ] x - 3 g ^ 7 - y h
18. ] d + 3 g ] 4 - e g 19. ] x - 4 g ^ 3 + y h
Exercises 2.6
1.
t + 8t + 16
4.
y 2 + 16y + 64
7.
n 2 + 2n + 1
2. z - 12z + 36
3. x - 2x + 1
23. ] x - 2 g ^ 3x 2 - 5 h
5. q 2 + 6q + 9
6. k 2 - 14k + 49
25. ^ y + 7 h ] x - 4 g
8. 4b 2 + 20b + 25
9. 9 - 6x + x 2
10. 9y - 6y + 1
11. x + 2xy + y
16. p 2 - 1
27. a 2 -
15. x 2 - 9
28. x 2 - ^ y - 2 h2 = x 2 - y 2 + 4y - 4
a2
29. 5 (y - 3) (1 + 2x)
30. ] r + 2 g ] rr - 3 g
23. x 4 - 4
4
26. x + 4 + 2
x
28. 3 (a + 2b) (a + 3)
19. 4a 2 - 9
22. 49 - 9x 2
25. 9a b - 16c
26. (x - 4) (x 3 - 5)
18. x 2 - 100
24. ] a - 3b g ] 4 + c g
12. 9a - 6ab + b
21. 16a 2 - 1
24. x + 10x + 25
4
14. t - 16
17. r 2 - 36
20. x 2 - 25y 2
22. ^ q - 3 h ^ p + q h
21. (x - 3) (x 2 + 6)
20. ] a + 3 g ] 2 - b g
Exercises 2.9
1.
]x + 3g]x + 1g
4.
] t + 4 g2
7.
]v - 3g]v - 5g
2. ^ y + 4 h ^ y + 3 h
5. ] z + 3 g ] z - 2 g
8. ] t - 3 g
3. ] m + 1 g2
6. ] x + 1 g ] x - 6 g
9. ] x + 10 g ] x - 1 g
10. ^ y - 7 h ^ y - 3 h
11. ] m - 6 g ] m - 3 g
30. ] x + 1 g2 - 2 ] x + 1 g y + y 2 = x 2 + 2x + 1 - 2xy - 2y + y 2
12. ^ y + 12 h ^ y - 3 h
13. ] x - 8 g ] x + 3 g
32. 32 - z
31. 12a
34. x 2 + 3xy + y 2 - 2x
33. 9x + 8x - 3
2
14. ] a - 2 g
35. 14n 2 - 4
37. x
38. x - 2x y + y
4
15. ] x - 2 g ] x + 16 g
16. ^ y + 4 h ^ y - 9 h
17. ] n - 6 g ] n - 4 g 18. ] x - 5 g 2
19. ^ p + 9 h ^ p - 1 h
20. ] k - 2 g ] k - 5 g 21. ] x + 4 g ] x - 3 g
22. ] m - 7 g ] m + 1 g 23. ^ q + 10 h ^ q + 2 h
24. ] d - 5 g ] d + 1 g 25. ] l - 9 g ] l - 2 g
Problem
Exercises 2.10
a = 2, b = 7, c = 9, d = 4, e = 3, f = 8, g = 0, h = 6, i = 1
1.
(2a + 1) (a + 5) 2. ^ 5y + 2 h ^ y + 1 h
3.
6.
(7x - 2) (x - 1) 7. ^ 3y - 1 h ^ y + 2 h
9.
^ 5p - 2 h ^ p + 3 h 10. ] 3x + 5 g ] 2x + 1 g
Exercises 2.7
2. 5 ] x - 2 g 3. 3 ] m - 3 g 4. 2 ] 4x + 1 g
1.
2^y + 3h
5.
6 ^ 4 - 3y h
9.
6. x ] x + 2 g 7. m ] m - 3 g 8. 2y ^ y + 2 h
12. 3mn ^ n 2 + 3 h
16. q 2 _ 3q 3 - 2 i
15. x ^ 5x - 2 + y h
18. 3a b ] 2b - a g 19. (m + 5) (x + 7)
2
20. ^ y - 1 h ^ 2 - y h
21. (7 + y) (4 - 3x)
22. ] a - 2 g ] 6x + 5 g
23. ] 2t + 1 g ^ x - y h
24. ] 3x - 2 g ] a + 2b - 3c g
25. 3x ] 2x + 3 g
2
28. 4x 2 ] x - 6 g
26. 3q _ pq 2 - 2 i
3
29. 5m 2 n ^ 7mn 3 - 5 h
27. 3ab ^ 5a 3 b 2 + 1 h
35. (a 2 + 1) (4ab - 3)
33. (x + 4) (y 2 + 2)
8. ] 2x + 3 g ] x + 4 g
11. (2y + 1) (y - 6)
12. ] 5x - 1 g ] 2x + 1 g
15. ^ 6y - 1 h ^ y + 8 h
16. ] 4n - 3 g ] n - 2 g
17. ] 4t - 1 g ] 2t + 5 g 18. ^ 3q + 2 h ^ 4q + 5 h
19. ] 4r - 1 g ] 2r + 6 g = 2 ] 4r - 1 g ] r + 3 g
20. ] 2x - 5 g ] 2x + 3 g
21. ^ 6y - 1 h ^ y - 2 h
22. ^ 2p - 3 h ^ 3p + 2 h
23. (8x + 7) (x + 3)
24. ] 3b - 4 g ] 4b - 9 g
25. (6x + 1) (x - 9)
26. ] 3x + 5 g2
27. ^ 4y + 3 h2
29. ] 6a - 1 g2
30. ] 7m + 6 g2
28. ] 5k - 2 g2
759
760
Exercises 2.11
1.
^y - 1h
5.
(x - 6)
9.
] 5x - 4 g2
Exercises 2.14
2. (x + 3)
3. (m + 5)
6. ] 2x + 3 g
8. ] 3a + 2 g
7. ] 4b - 1 g
10. ^ 7y + 1 h2
2
13. ] 5x + 1 g
14. ] 9a - 2 g
12. ] 4k - 3 g
11. ^ 3y - 5 h
15. ] 7m + 6 g2
1 2
19. c x + m
x
4. (t - 2)
16. d t +
1
n
2
17. d x -
2
n
3
18. d 3y +
1
n
5
2 2
20. d 5k - n
k
(a + 2) (a - 2)
2. (x + 3) (x - 3)
4.
]x + 5g]x - 5g
5. (2x + 7) (2x - 7)
7.
(1 + 2z) (1 - 2z) 8. ] 5t + 1 g ] 5t - 1 g 9. ] 3t + 2 g ] 3t - 2 g
3. (y + 1) (y - 1)
6. (4y + 3) (4y - 3)
10. ] 3 + 4x g ] 3 - 4x g
12. ^ 6x + y h ^ 6x - y h
13. ] 2a + 3b g ] 2a - 3b g
18. ] z + w + 1 g ] z - w - 1 g
1
1
19. d x + n d x - n
2
2
+ 1oe
5 ] a - 1 g2 6. - ] 2x - 3 g ] x - 4 g 7. 3z ] z + 5 g ] z + 4 g
8.
ab ] 3 + 2ab g ] 3 - 2ab g 9. x ] x + 1 g ] x - 1 g
10. 2 ] 3x - 2 g ] x + 2 g 11. ] m - 5 g ] 3 + n g
12. - 7 ] 2x + 1 g
14. ] x - 1 g ] x + 2 g ^ x 2 - 2x + 4 h
13. ^ y + 5 h ^ y + 4 h ^ y - 4 h
19. 3 ] 2 - b g ^ 4 + 2b + b 2 h
20. 3 ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 5 g 21. 3 ] x - 1 g2
23. z ] z + 3 g2
22. (x + 2) (x + 5) (x - 5)
24. ] x + 1 g ] x - 1 g ] 2x + 3 g ] 2x - 3 g
27. 5x ] 2 - x g ^ 4 + 2x + x 2 h
28. (a + 2) (a - 2) (a + 3) (a - 3)
29. 4k (k + 5) 2
30. 3 (x + 1) (x - 1) (x + 3)
Exercises 2.15
- 1 o 21. ^ x + 2y + 3 h ^ x - 2y + 1 h
22. (x 2 + 1) (x 2 - 1) = (x 2 + 1) (x + 1) (x - 1)
23. _ 3x 3 + 2y i _ 3x 3 - 2y i 24. _ x 2 + 4y 2 i ^ x + 2y h ^ x - 2y h
25. (a 4 + 1) (a 2 + 1) (a + 1) (a - 1)
1.
x 2 + 4x + 4 = ] x + 2 g2
2. b 2 - 6b + 9 = ] b - 3 g2
3.
x 2 - 10x + 25 = ] x - 5 g2
5.
m - 14m + 49 = ] m - 7 g
7.
x 2 + 2x + 1 = ] x + 1 g2
9.
x 2 - 20x + 100 = ] x - 10 g2
4. y 2 + 8y + 16 = ^ y + 4 h2
6. q 2 + 18x + 81 = ^ q + 9 h2
8. t 2 - 16t + 64 = ] t - 8 g2
Exercises 2.13
2. ] x + 3 g ^ x 2 - 3x + 9 h
1.
(b - 2) (b 2 + 2b + 4)
3.
]t + 1g^t - t + 1h
5.
(1 - x) (1 + x + x )
7.
(y + 2z) (y 2 - 2yz + 4z 2)
9.
^ 2x + 3y h _ 4x 2 - 6xy + 9y 2 i 10. ] ab - 1 g ^ a 2 b 2 + ab + 1 h
6. ^ 2 + 3y h _ 4 - 6y + 9y 2 i
12. d
x
x 2 3x
- 3ne +
+ 9o
4
2
2
10 1 100 10
1
13. d
+ ne 2 + o
a
b
ab b 2
a
15. ^ 5xy + 6z h _ 25x y - 30xyz + 36z i
2
14. a 2 + a +
15. x 2 + 9x +
81
9 2
= dx + n
4
2
16. y 2 -
17. k 2 -
11k 121
11
n
+
= dk 4
2
16
5y
2
1
1 2
= da + n
4
2
25
5 2
= dy - n
4
16
16. - 9 ^ a - a + 1 h
2
Exercises 2.16
x
x x
ne1 + + o
9
3
3
18. ^ x + y + 3 h _ y 2 - 3y - xy + 9 + 6x + x 2 i
19. ^ x + y - 1 h _ x 2 + 4x - xy + y 2 - 5y + 7 i
20. (2a + 6 - b) (4a + 24a + 2ab + 6b + b + 36)
2
49
7 2
= dx - n
4
2
3 2
9
= dy + n
4
2
14. ^ x + 1 - y h _ x 2 + 2x + 1 + xy + y + y 2 i
2
13. x 2 - 7x +
12. y 2 + 3y +
4. (a - 4) (a + 4a + 16)
17. d 1 -
5.
26. 4a (a + 3) (a - 3)
15. ] 2a + 9b g ] 2a - 9b g
17. (a + b - 3) (a - b + 1)
20. e
25. 2 ] x + 2 g ] x - 2 g ^ x + y h _ x 2 - xy + y 2 i
16. ^ x + 2 + y h ^ x + 2 - y h
3.
16. x ] x + 2 g ] x - 5 g 17. ] x + 3 g (x - 3) 2
1.
2 ] x + 3 g ] x - 3 g 2. 3 ^ p + 3 h ^ p - 4 h
15. ] x + 1 g ^ x 2 - x + 1 h ] x - 1 g ^ x 2 + x + 1 h
Exercises 2.12
1.
1.
a+2
2. 2t - 1
6.
1
y-4
7.
10.
14.
p+5
3
2 ] b - 2a g
a-3
11.
a+1
a+3
p-2
4p - 2p + 1
2
3.
15.
4y + 1
3
s-1
s+3
8.
12.
4.
4
2d - 1
9.
3+y
x + 2x + 4
a+b
2a - b
5.
x
5x - 2
b2 + b + 1
b+1
13. x - 3
ANSWERS
Exercises 2.17
1.
2.
(a)
(a)
(d)
3.
5x
4
(b)
Exercises 2.20
13y + 3
b
2a - 1
(b)
a+8
12
(d)
^ p - 2 h _ q2 - q + 1 i
4p + 3
ab
(a)
^y + 2h^y + 3h^y - 1h
x2 ] x + 2 g
(b)
8 _ y 2 - 3y + 9 i
(e)
3p 2 + 5pq - 2q 2
pq ^ p + q h ^ p - q h
10. 4 5
13. - 3
14.
15. 5 7
16.
10 ] 2b - 1 g
18. - 9 10
23. 7 6 + 3 5
- ] 5x + 22 g
(j)
]x + 4g]x - 4g]x + 3g
1.
21
2.
15
7. - 12 55
3. 3 6
8. 14
15y
7-5 2
21.
24. - 2 - 2 3
11. 2 48 = 8 3
12. 15 28 = 30 7
14. - 84
16. 28
18. - 2 105
17.
30
30.
a 2 - 2ab - b 2 + 1
]a + bg]a - bg
3 10
3
31.
2 2
27.
32.
6. 30
15. 2
19. 18
21. 2 6
26.
5. - 6 6
12 = 2 3
10.
13. 2 20 = 4 5
25. 2 3
22. 4 3
28.
2 5
9
2 5
33.
23. 1
29.
3 5
5
34.
2 2
24.
1
2
2
3
35.
5
7
Exercises 2.22
1.
(a)
10 + 6
(b) 2 6 - 15
(c) 12 + 8 15
(d) 5 14 - 2 21
(e) - 6 + 4 18 = - 6 + 12 2
^x + yh^x - yh
(f) 5 33 + 3 21
(g) - 6 - 12 6
(i) 6 + 30
(a) - 7.1
(b) - 6.9
5.5 7. 377
3. - 7
2. 47
3
4
(m) 10 6 - 120
5. - 196
4. 375
8. 284 9. - 40
14.
(e) 0.6
3
4
2.
(h) - 1
(f) 15 - 15 + 18 10 - 6 6
(i) - 12
Exercises 2.19
(g) 4
1.
(e) 6 2
(m) - 6
(j) 3 6
(q) 57 + 12 15
(b) 3 7
(c) 2 6
(d) 5 2
(f) 10 2
(g) 4 3
(h) 5 3
(i) 4 2
(k) 4 7
(l) 10 3
(m) 8 2
(n) 9 3
(p) 6 3
(q) 3 11
(r) 5 5
(a) 6 3
(b) 20 5
(c) 28 2
(f) 8 14
(a)
18
(f)
160
(g) 72 5
(b)
(g)
20
117
(d) 4 7
(h) 30 2
(c)
176
(h)
98
(i) 14 10
128
(e)
75
(i)
363
(j)
1008
(j) 43
(k) 3
(o) 11 - 4 6
(l) - 241
(p) 25 + 6 14
(r) 27 - 4 35
(t) 53 + 12 10
3.
(a) 18
(d) 19 + 6 2
4.
(a) a = 21, b = 80
5.
(a) a - 1
6.
k = 25
9.
a = 107, b = - 42
(j) 24 5
(d)
(n) 7 + 2 10
(s) 77 - 12 40 = 77 - 24 10
(o) 7 5
(e) 16 5
(o) 4 3 - 12
(a) 10 + 3 6 + 3 5 + 9 3
(b) 10 - 35 - 2 + 14
(e) 52 - 13 10
(a) 2 3
(l) 210 - 14 15
(n) - 10 - 2 2
(c) 2 10 - 6 + 10 15 - 15 6
(d) 12 20 + 18 60 - 8 10 - 12 30 =
24 5 + 36 15 - 8 10 - 12 30
15. 15 16. 10
(h) 5 - 5 15
(j) 2 54 + 6 = 6 6 + 6
(k) - 8 + 12 12 = - 8 + 24 3
(d) - 37.7
(c) 48.1
17. 2 3
4.
17. 13 6
4. 10 14
9. 60
20. 30 50 = 150 2
13. 1838.8
3.
12. 5 3
Exercise 2.21
2]x - 1g
(f)
]x + 1g]x - 3g
12. 22.4
2.
20. 5 2 - 2 3
19. 47 3
y ^x + y + 1h
11.
6. 3 6
25. - 17 5 + 10 2
2x
(d)
x+2
Exercises 2.18
1.
5. - 3 5
4. 3 3
9. - 4 2
^y + 2h^y + 1h
(d)
3. 6 3
8. 8 5
x 2 + 10x - 24
3b 2 - 5b - 10
(d)
(e) x
2 ]x - 3g]x - 4g
2b ] b + 1 g
3x - 13
3 - 5x
(a)
(b)
]x - 5g]x - 2g]x + 3g
]x + 2g]x - 2g
(c)
7. - 7 2
(c)
5.
2.
b 2 ^ x + 2y h
a+2
(h)
] a + 1 g2
2 _ 3y 2 + 14y + 13 i
1. 3 5
22. - 2 3 - 4 5
a+b+3
(c)
a+b
-x + 2
(b)
x ]x - 1g
- 3x + 8
(g)
]x + 2g]x - 2g
4.
x - 13
6
]x - 3g]x - 1g
(e)
]x - 5g]x - 2g
^ p + qh^ p - qh + 1
p2 - q2 + 1
=
(e)
p+q
p+q
(i)
(e)
6
(c)
q+1
x 2 - xy + y 2
5
(a)
x
(c)
15
(b) 108 2
(c) 432 2
(e) 9
(b) a = 19, b = - 7
(b) 2p - 1 - 2 p ^ p - 1 h
7. 2x - 3y - 5 xy
8. a = 17, b = 240
10. 9 + 5 units 2
761
762
Exercises 2.23
1.
(a)
(e)
(h)
2.
7
7
8.
6
4
(b)
3+ 6
3
(f)
3 14 - 4 7
14
(c)
2 15
5
(d)
12 - 5 2
2
(i)
6 14
3 14
=
5
10
(g)
(a) 4 3 - 4 2 = 4 ^ 3 - 2 h
(b)
(j)
4 15 - 2 10
35
6 15 - 9 6 + 2 10 - 6
2
3.
So rational
9.
1.
2.
(j)
(l)
4.
(i)
2-1
28 - 2 6 - 7 3
13
(b) a = 1, b = 8
8
5
(d) a = - 1 , b = 9
9
(k)
2 15 + 2 10 - 2 6 - 3 - 5
2
(a) a = 45, b = 10
5.
4 6+9 3
21
15 30 - 30 5 - 4 3
30
+
2+1
2-1
2
2-1
2+1
2-1
^ 2 - 1h^ 2 - 1h
+
+
4
2
(a) 4 (b) 14
7.
3 5 - 2 - 15 - 3
3
4 2
2
^ 2 h2 - 1 2
2- 2- 2+1
=
+2 2
2-1
3-2 2
=
+2 2
1
=3-2 2+2 2
=3
So rational
6.
1
1
(c) a = - , b =
2
2
(e) a = 5, b = 32
x = -^ 3 + 2h
10.
b+4 b+4
b-4
2
2
(a) - 2y
(b) a + 4
(f) 6 2
(g) 4 5
(c) - 6k 5
(d)
5x + 3y
(e) 3a - 8b
15
(a) ] x + 6 g ] x - 6 g
(d) (y - 3) (5 + x)
(e) 2 ^ 2n - p + 3 h
(f) (2 - x) (4 + 2x + x 2)
3.
20 12 + 19 6 + 25 3 - 6
19 6 + 65 3 - 6
(g)
=
15
15
6+9 2+2 3
6
Test yourself 2
(a) 2 2
(b) - ^ 2 + 6 - 3 2 + 3 3 h = - 2 - 6 + 3 2 - 3 3
22 5 + 14 2
(c)
39
^
(d) - 6 6 - 16 - 3 84 + 8 14 h
10
- 3 6 + 8 + 3 21 - 4 14
=
5
(e) - 4 (f) 4 2
(h)
6-4 2
+4 2
9-4#2
6-4 2
=
+4 2
1
=6-4 2+4 2
=6
(c)
(f)
2
3-2 2
8
=
#
+
#
3+2 2
3-2 2
2
2^3 - 2 2 h 8 2
+
=
2
2
32 - ^ 2 2 h
=
-^ 6 + 7 3 h
47
- ^ 2 15 - 4 18 h
- 2 ^ 15 - 6 2 h
=
19
19
- ^ 19 - 8 3 h
8 3 - 19
=
(d)
(e) 6 + 2 + 5 3 + 5 2
13
13
5 + 2 10
5
8 5 + 3 10
20
2
3+2 2
(b) 2x 2 + 5x - 3
(a) 4b - 6
5.
V = 157.464
(f) - 1 - 7a
(h) 3 3 - 6 + 21 - 2 7
4.
(c) 4m + 17
(e) p 2 - 25
(b)
b 2 ^ a 2 + 3a + 9 h
6. (a) 17
15
] m - 2 g2
(b)
6 15 - 9
17
4x + 5
8. (a) 36 (b) - 2
]x + 3g]x - 2g
1
9. (a)
(b) 8 10. d = 11.25
5
2 3
2+ 6
11. (a)
(b)
15
2
7.
12. (a) 3 6 - 6 - 4 3 + 4 2
(c) 2
(d) 216
(b) 11 + 4 7
(b) 6 ] x - 3 g ] x + 1 g
13. (a) 3 (x - 3) (x + 3)
(c) 5 ^ y + 2 h _ y 2 - 2y + 4 i
14. (a)
x3
(b)
3y 4
15. (a) 99
1
3x - 1
(b) 24 3
16. (a) a 2 - b 2
(b) a 2 + 2ab + b 2
17. (a) ] a - b g2
(b) ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h
18.
3 3+1
2
20.
21 5 - 46 - 2
7
(c) 16
19. (a)
4b + 3a
ab
(c) a 2 - 2ab + b 2
(b)
3x - 11
10
(e) 2
ANSWERS
(b) - 8 6
21. (a) 6 2
(f)
24. (a)
(d)
3 7
7
6
15
5+1
2
(c)
(e)
x + 10
10
17a - 15
21
1
k-1
(b)
(e)
20 + 3 15 + 4 10 + 3 6
53
(c)
3 - 2x
(x + 1) (x - 1)
15 - 6 - 15 3 - 15 2
3
(b) n = 175
(d) n = 5547
(c) n = 392
(e) n = 1445
32. (b)
28. (d)
33. (a)
34. (d)
30. (c)
35. (b)
4.
x2 +
(b) y 4 - 4
2
3.
or
4
2 2
b
b2
b 2
n
x + 2 = dx +
a
a
2
4a
4x 2 + 12x + 9 = ] 2x + 3 g2
]a + 1g
a2 - a + 1
12. t = 30
15. x = - 0.4
13. x = 14
16. p = 3
5. k = 5
5
8
24. y = 1
14. x = - 1
17. t = 8.2
20. x = - 3
10. d
1.
t = 8.5
6.
r = 6.68
21. b = 0.8
2
25. t = - 1
3
18. x = - 9.5
22. a = - 0.375
7.
y+1
2]x - 1g
2x 1
1 2
+ = dx + n
9
3
3
21. s = 2 + 6 3
3
4 r
3 r
4r
12. r = 0.072
20. r = 3.3
9. y 1 = 3
2
3
(b) w = 69.66
13. x 1 = - 9
17. r = 10.46
14. t = 2.14
18. x = 1.19
1.
(a) x 2 3
(b) a =
-3
-2
-1
-2
-1
(b) y # 4
2.
16. x = 2
71
121
8. n = 15
19. x = 5.5
-4
(a) 3
7. x = 6.44
16. r = 2.12
-4
- 66 6 + 4 2 - 15 + 4 5 - 65 3
13
20. r =
5. y = 4
Exercises 3.4
8. 2 5
13. x 3 - 7x 2 + 15x - 9
18.
4. a = 41
(d) ] b - 2 g ] a + 2 g ] a - 2 g
3x + 4
(b)
] 2x - 1 g2
400 - 59 5
10
3. b = 8
15. x = ! 2
2 a 2 a
+ nd - n
x b x b
2. l = 122
(c) h = 1.94
]x - 3g]x + 3g]x - 2g
1
2
9
35
3x 3 - 6x 2 + 3x + 4xy - 6y
19. i = 1
4. x = 1
6.
10. h = 3.7
17.
2. x = 35 3. y = 4
4
9
b =3
(a) ] x + 4 g ] x + 9 g
15. x 2 +
1
3
1.
Exercises 3.3
(b) _ x 2 - 3y i _ x 2 + 2y i = (x + 3 y) (x - 3 y) _ x 2 + 2y i
14.
30. x Z 4.41
2.
11.
29. p = 5
23. x = 3
(a) 2a 2 b - 8ab 2 + 6a 3
17 3 + 2 5 + 20
17
9.
19. q = 22
6.
t = -5
11. w = 13
71
121
5.
2. z = - 5.6 3. y = 1 4. w = 6.7 5. x = 12
1
8. b = 35 9. n = - 16 10. r = 4
6. x = 4 7. y =
15
11. y = 9 12. k = 6 13. d = 2 14. x = 5 15. y = 15
1.
Exercises 3.2
Challenge exercise 2
1.
Chapter 3: Equations
Exercises 3.1
12 - 2 6
15
31. (c)
(e) 30a 2 b
(b) 10 14 - 5 21 - 6 10 + 3 15
(b)
25. (a) n = 48
26. 3
(d) 43 (e) 65 - 6 14
(c) 7
(d)
(d)
(g) 2x - 3y
3n 4
22. (a) 2 6 + 4
23. (a)
(c) 2 3
17
14
, b=23
23
-3
(f) a $ - 1
(g) y $ - 2
(j) y 1 12
(k) b 1 - 18
(l) x 2 30
(n) m 2 14
2
3
1
4
(o) b $ 16
(h) x 1 - 2
(i) a # - 6
(m) x # 3
(p) r # - 9
3
4
(q) z 2 8
763
764
(r) w 1 2
4
5
(s) x $ 35
2
3
(v) x 2 - 1
(t) t $ - 9
(w) b # - 11
(u) q 2 - 6
2
5
(i) y = ! 3.81
1
4
3.
(a) 1 1 x 1 7
3.
4.
(b) - 2 # p 1 5
-3
-2
-1
(c) 1 1 x 1 4
-3
-2
-1
-3
-2
-1
1
2
(e) 1 y 1 1
6
3
-1
-2
5
6.
Exercises 3.5
1.
2.
(a) x = ! 5
(b) y = ! 8
(c) - 4 1 a 1 4
(d) k $ 1, k # - 1
(e) x 2 6, x 1 - 6
(f) - 10 # p # 10
(g) x = 0
(i) - 12 1 y 1 12
(j) b $ 20, b # - 20
(a) x = 5, - 9
(g) - 3
8.
(c) a 2 2, a 1 - 2
5
(f) x = 5, -4
7
(e) x = 3, -6
1
1y 12
2
(a) x = 1
1
4
(h) x $ 9, x # - 6
(i) x = ! 12
9.
(b) a = 3, -
1
3
(c) b = 2
(a) x = 2, -
1
2
(d) x = 4, -7
5.
1
3
2
(a) t = 3, -1
5
-3
-2
-1
2
7
(b) y = 3, 2
1
3
2
3
(j) No solutions
(c) a = - 10, 1
2.
(a) x = 3
(e) n =
2
3
(b) y = ! 8
(e) p = 10
(f) x = ! 5
(i) n = ! 4
(j) q = - 2
(c) n = ! 2
(g) y = ! 3
(c) y =
(j) b = ! 1
(d) x = !
1
7
1
2
1
1
1
1
(b) x = 6
(c) a =
(d) k =
4
512
81
625
19
1
(e) x =
(f) x = 4 (g) y = 8 (h) n = 7
8
32
127
(i) b = 8 (j) m = 1
216
(a) x =
(a) n = 4
(b) y = 5
(c) m = 9
(f) x = 3
(g) x = 2
(h) x = 2
(a) x = 2
1
2
(a) m =
(b) x =
1
3
2
3
(f) n =
(i) k = -
1
6
(j) x = 1
(a) x = - 1
(c) x =
3
4
(e) k = -
(d) x = 5
(i) x = 1
1
3
(g) x = 1
(d) k = -
1
2
(h) n =
2
3
1
2
(b) x = - 1
1
3
(c) k = - 4
(f) x = -
2
3
(g) x = - 4
1
2
10. (a) m =
1
4
(b) k = - 2
(e) n =
1
18
(f) n = 1
7
(e) m = 0
(j) k = 2
2
3
(j) x = 18
(i) x = - 1
1
2
(h) y = 27
(b) a =
4
5
(e) d = 4, -5
(g) b = 216
1
5
(i) x = 1
3
5
2
(b) - 1 1 t 1 3
5
1
2
(d) t = 8
(a) x =
(e) x = - 2
(f) x = 7 (g) m = 5, 1
4
, -2
5
(i) y =
1
3
3
4
1
2
(c) x = 2
(g) x =
4
5
3
8
(d) n = 3
1
2
(h) x = - 1
(d) k = 1
1
2
(h) b = - 3
1
6
7
11
(j) m = 5
Puzzle
3
Exercises 3.6
1.
(j) t = 81
(f) x = 6
(j) 2 # a # 10
3.
(i) a = 128
(h) a 2 14, a 1 - 14
(b) n = 4, -2
(d) 4 # x # 6
7.
(c) x = 32
(f) m = 625
5
5.
(b) t = 16
(e) p = 243
(i) x = !
(d) - 3 # y # 5
-3
(a) n = 27
(j) y = 3.01
(d) x = ! 2 5
(h) w = 2
1.
4.
16 each time
5. Friday
Exercises 3.7
1.
y = 0, -1
5.
x = -2, -7
2. b = 2, -1
6. q = !3
3. p = 3, -5
7. x = !1
4. t = 0, 5
8. a = 0, -3
ANSWERS
9.
x = 0, - 4
12. y = 1, -1
16. x = 1, 2
10. x = !
1
2
20. x = 3, 4
11. x = -1, -1
3 1
,
4 2
13. b =
1
2
1
2
17. x = 0, 5
10. x 1 2, x 2 2
14. x = 5, -2 15. x = 0,
18. y = - 1, 2
21. m = - 6, 1
23. y = 1, -5, -2
1
3
2
3
19. n = 3, 5
22. x = 0, -1, -2
24. x = 5, -7
12. 1
14.
1
6
5
1
1x 1
9
2
15. y 1 - 2, y 2 - 1
7
16. x # - , x 2 4
8
25. m = 8, -1
Exercises 3.8
(a) x = ! 5 - 2
(b) a = ! 7 + 3
(d) x = ! 13 - 1
(c) y = ! 23 + 4
(e) p = ! 44 - 7 = ! 2 11 - 7
(f) x = ! 28 + 5 = ! 2 7 + 5
(g) y = ! 88 - 10 = ! 2 22 - 10 = 2 ^ ! 22 - 5 h
(h) x = ! 2 + 1
(j) y =
2.
(i) n = ! 137 - 12
! 5+3
2
- 1 ! 17
2
(c) q =
4 ! 28
= 2! 7
2
(b) x =
(e) s =
8 ! 40
4 ! 10
=
6
3
(f) x =
- 11 ! 133
2
(j) x =
(i) x = 1, - 6
5 ! 13
6
(g) d =
2 ! 32
=1!2 2
2
4.
01m #
7.
11x 11
2
7
1
4
-3 1 x 1 0
4.
x # - 2, x $ 2
- 5 ! 73
12
1
2
7.
c 1 - 1, c 2 2
3
5. x 1 - , x > 0
5
8. - 3
1
2
9. 2 1 x # 2
3
4
3. n # 0, n $ 1
6. - 5 # n # 3
8. - 4 # x # - 2
1
2
2
5
9. 4 1 x 1 5
11. a 1 - 1, a 2
13. x #
15. - 1
1
3
2
,x $1
3
1
1
#x #2
3
17. x 1 - 4, x 2 4
18. - 1 # a # 1
19. - 2 1 x 1 3
20. x # - 1, x $ 3
21. 0 1 x 1 2
1
2
23. y # - 2, y $
1
2
4
5
4
5
25. 1 # x # 1
27. x 1 0, x $
28. y 1 - 1, y 2 -
6. - 2 # b 1 0
1
1 z 1 -3
5
2
4
1x 17
3
16. - 4 # y # 3
26. 0 1 x 1
1! 5
2
3. x 1 0, x 2 1
29. x 1 - 4, -
5. n 1 - 1, n 2 1
30. x # - 8, x 2 - 5
2. 0 1 x 1
27. x $ 3, - 1 # x 1 2
2. 0 1 y 1 4
2
1
24. m 1 - 1 , m 2 1
3
2
Exercises 3.10
y 2 1, y 1 0
1.
22. 1 # a # 1
(i) t =
25. x # - 1, 3 1 x # 4
1
,11x #7
2
14. b 1 - 3, b 2
7 ! 41
4
1.
1
2
#x 1
2
3
10. b # - 2, b $ -
- 12 ! 128
-3 ! 2 2
(d) h =
=
8
2
(h) x =
24. m # - 2, - 1 1 m # 6
1
12. y 1 - 1 , y 2 2
2
(a) x =
23. x 2 5, - 3 1 x 1 0
Exercises 3.11
22. 0 1 n # 2, n $ 4
30. x #
(b) x = 1, 1.5
(h) x = 0, 7
1
1 p 1 26
2
1
2
2
19. t # , t 2 2
5
5
3
28. n 1 - 1, 3 1 n 1 5
(d) x = 1, - 0.5
17. 4
8
1 m 1 0 21. x 1 - 5, 0 1 x 1 1
9
26. x # - 2,
Exercises 3.9
1.
20. -
5
# x 1 -4
9
1
1
13. a 1 - 3 , a 2 - 2
4
2
1
7
1x 11
3
15
18. x # - 1, x 2 1.
11. - 4
1
2
29. 3 1 n # 3
31. x 1
1
3
1
2
3
2
,x 2
5
7
1
32. x # 4 , x 2 5
5
1
33. x # - 1 , x 2 - 1
4
34. x 1 - 3, x 2 2
35. -
3
3
#x 14
5
765
766
Exercises 3.12
1.
a = 1, b = 3
4.
x = 6, y = 17
7.
x = - 3, y = 2
10. m = 2, n = 3
2. x = 2, y = 1
3. p = 2, q = - 1
5. x = - 10, y = 2
6. t = 3, v = 1
8. x = - 64, y = - 39
11. w 1 = - 1, w 2 = 5
13. p = - 4, q = 1
9. x = 3, y = - 4
15. x = - 1, y = - 4 16. s = 2, t = - 1
18. k = - 4, h = 1
19. v 1 = - 2, v 2 = 4
(a) x 2 - 8x + 16 = ] x - 4 g2
4.
(a) x = - 2, y = 5
5.
(a) x = 2
6.
(a) b = 2, -1
7.
(a) A = 36
20. x = 2, y Z 1.41
9.
-1 1 y # 3
1
3
1
4
(b) g = 2,
(b) b = 12
1
4
(c) x $ 4, x # 3
8. x =
1
,1
2
Problem
23 adults and 16 children.
(b) r = 2.9
13. x 1 2, x 2 9
Exercises 3.13
(b) r = 3.9
1.
x = 0, y = 0 and x = 1, y = 1
2.
x = 0, y = 0 and x = - 2, y = 4
3.
x = 0, y = 3 and x = 3, y = 0
4.
x = 4, y = - 3 and x = 3, y = - 4
6.
x = 3, y = 9
8.
m = - 4, n = 0 and m = 0, n = - 4
9.
x = 1, y = 2 and x = - 1, y = - 2
13. x = 1, y = 5 and x = 4, y = 11
1
14. x = , y = 4 and x = - 1, y = - 1
4
18. n 2 0, n 1 - 3
5. x = - 1, y = - 3
7. t = - 2, x = 4 and t = 1, x = 1
11. x = 2, y = 1 and x = - 1, y = - 2
19. x = - 4
20. x = - 2
(c) x = 2
(d) x = 2
(g) - 4 # x # 2
21. (a) y 2 3
(e) x = 3, -1
(h) x = - 3
12. x = 0, y = 1
(k) x =
(j) x # - 1, x $ 1
1
1
15. t = - , h =
4
2
(m) No solutions
(e) iii
(s) 2 1 n # 2
5
12
,y =13
13
2
5
2
5
(b) - 3 # n # 0
(f) t $ 1, t # - 2
(i) y 2 2, y 1 - 2
5
6
(l) -
1 3
(n) t = 2 ,
3 5
(p) m # - 3, m $ 2
20. x = -
(c) ii
1
4
1
3
16. x = 2, y = 0
3
1
,y =2
4
2
12. x 2 71
17. a = 3, b = 2, c = - 4
10. x = 0, y = 0 and x = 1, y = 1
19. x =
(b) k 2 + 4k + 4 = ] k + 2 g2
1
(b) x = 4, y = 1 and x = - , y = - 8
2
(b) y =
12. a = 0, b = 4
14. x 1 = 1, x 2 = - 1
17. a = - 2, b = 0
3.
1
#b #2
2
(o) - 1 1 x 1 3
(q) t 1 - 1, t 2 0
(t) -
(r) 1 1 y 1 3
1
1
1x #
5
2
Challenge exercise 3
Exercises 3.14
1.
x = - 2, y = - 8, z = - 1
2. a = - 2, b = - 1, c = 2
3.
a = - 4, b = 2, c = 7
4. a = 1, b = 2, c = - 3
5.
x = 5, y = 0, z = - 2
6. x = 0, y = - 5, z = 4
7.
p = - 3, q = 7, r = 4
8. x = 1, y = - 1, z = 2
9.
h = - 3, j = 2, k = - 4
10. a = 3, b = - 1, c = - 2
2.
(a) b = 10
y =1
x = 2.56, -1.56
2. x 1 - a, x 2 a
6.
] x + 3 g ] x - 3 g ] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 2x + 4 h; x = ! 3, 2
7.
x = 1, y = 2 and x = - 1, y = 0
8.
b = 4; x = ! 17 + 4 Z 8.12, - 0.123
10. - 1 1 t 1 1
13. r = 2.31
Test yourself 3
1.
1.
4.
(b) P = 8558.59
16. y # - 2,
18. x =
11. - 3 # x # 8
14. No solutions
1
2
#y 1
2
3
2 ^ 4 ! 10 h
3
20. y 1 -1, y 2
3. a = 3, b = !2
5. y # - 2, 0 1 y # 3
3
5
9. x = ! 1
1
12. x =
4
15. x = ! b + a 2 + a
17. P = 2247.36
ANSWERS
Chapter 4: Geometry 1
Exercises 4.1
1.
4.
7.
18x = 360
x = 20
+ABE = 8x - 10
= 8 (20) - 10
= 150c
+EBC = 2x - 10
= 2 (20) - 10
= 30c
+ABE + +EBC = 150c + 30c
= 180c
` +ABC is a straight angle
+DBC = 7x + 10
= 7 (20) + 10
= 150c
+DBC + +EBC = 150c + 30c
= 180c
` +DBE is a straight angle
` AC and DE are straight lines
8.
=x
` +AFC = x
=x
` +AFC = +CFE
` CD bisects +AFE
9.
+ABD + +DBC
= 110 - 3x + 3x + 70
= 180c
So +ABC is a straight angle.
AC is a straight line.
Exercises 4.2
1.
(e) n = e = g = a = c = z = x = 98c,
o = m = h = f = b = d = y = w = 82c
(f) a = 95c , b = 85c , c = 32c
(g) a = 27c , b = 72c , c = 81c
(h) x = 56c , y = 124c , z = a = 116c , b = 64c
(i) x = 61c
2.
(a)
(j) y = 37c
= 59c
` +BFG = +CGF = 59c
767
768
Exercises 4.3
1.
(a) x = 60c
(b) y = 36c
(c) m = 71c
(e) x = 30c
(f) x = 20c
(g) x = 67c
(d) x = 37c
(h) a = 73c
` MN ; QP
Exercises 4.4
1.
] 90 - x g c
4.
5.
(given)
(given)
AC = DE = 8 cm
(given)
` D ABC / DDEF
(SSS)
(b)Yes
XY = BC = 4.7 m
(given)
(given)
` D XYZ / DABC
(SAS)
(c) No
y = 38c
7.
(a) x = 64c
(d) Yes
(exterior angle of D)
2.
(angle sum of D HJI)
(given)
(given)
`DPQR / DSTU
(AAS)
(given)
(a) AB = KL = 4
(given)
+B = +L = 38c
(given)
BC = JL = 5
` by SAS, D ABC / D JKL
(given)
(d) +Y = +T = 90c
(given)
+Z = +S = 35c
(given)
XY = TR = 1.3
` by AAS, D XYZ / D STR
` +JLK = +JKL = 30
` D JKL is isosceles
(given)
(e) BC = DE = 4
(given)
+C = +E = 90c
(given)
AC = EF = 7
` by SAS, D ABC / D DEF
BC = BD
` AB ; ED
(given)
(c) MN = QR = 8
(given)
NO = PR = 8
(given)
MO = PQ = 5
` by SSS, D MNO / D PQR
(given)
(given)
(b) +Z = +B = 90c
(given)
XY = AC = 7
(given)
YZ = BC = 2
` by RHS, D XYZ / D ABC
(e) No
(c) x = 63c
9.
AB = EF = 5cm
BC = DF = 6 cm
` AB < DE
6.
8.
(a) Yes
3.
(a)
+B = +C
(base angles of isosceles D)
+BDA = +CDA = 90c (given)
AD is common
` by AAS, D ABD / D ACD
ANSWERS
4.
+ABD = +BDC
OB is perpendicular to AC.
5.
(a)
OA = OC
(equal radii)
OB = OD
(similarly)
+AOB = +COD
10. (a) AD = BC
+ADC = +BCD = 90c
DC is common
`DADC / DBCD
(b) AC = BD
1.
`DAOB / DCOD
(SAS)
(b) AB = CD
(given)
BC = DC
(given)
`DABC / DADC
(SSS)
`DOAB / DOBC
(SAS)
4.
5.
(given)
AF = BC
(given)
FE = CD
(given)
`DAFE / DBCD
(RHS)
(corresponding angles in
(e) b = 4.5
(g) p = 9.7
(given)
+GFE = +EFD
1.5
GF
o
=
= 0.5
EF
2.7
2.7
EF
o
=
= 0.5
DF
4.86
GF
EF
`
=
EF
DF
Since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their
included angles are equal, then DDEF ||| DFGE
1.3
AB
=
= 0.714
DE
1.82
4.2
AC
=
= 0.714
DF
5.88
4.9
BC
=
= 0.714
EF
6.86
AC
BC
AB
=
=
`
DE
DF
EF
Since three pairs of sides are in proportion,
D ABC ||| D DEF
y = 41c
6.
congruent triangles)
(a) OA = OC
(c) m = 6.6
+BAC = +EDC
+ABC = +DEC
+ACB = +ECD
9.
3.
OB is common
8.
(b) x = 4.4
a = 1.81, b = 5.83
(equal radii)
(SAS)
triangles)
(a) OA = OC
(a) x = 15.1
2.
AC is common
7.
(given)
Exercises 4.5
(a) AB = AD
(given)
triangles)
triangles)
6.
(equal radii)
OB is common
(a) OA = OB
OC = OD
OA
OB
`
=
OD
OC
+AOB = +COD
(equal radii)
(similarly)
AB = BC
(given)
`DOAB / DOBC
(SSS)
(b) AB = 5.21 cm
(corresponding angles in
congruent triangles)
7.
(a) +A is common
+ABC = +ADE
+ACB = +AED
769
770
6.
+ABF = +BEC
+CBE = +BFA
` +C = +A
YZ 2 = XY 2 = 1, XZ 2 = 2
YZ 2 + XY 2 = 1 + 1
=2
= XZ 2
` D XYZ is right angled
+A is common
1.2
AD
=
= 0.4
AB
3
0.8
AE
=
= 0.4
AC
2
AD
AE
`
=
AB
AC
Since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their
included angles are equal, D AED ||| D ABC, m = 4.25
AB
10.
CD
BC
AC
AC
AD
AB
`
CD
=
=
=
=
XY = YZ = 1
` D XYZ is isosceles
7.
AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2
2
2 2 = ^ 3 h + BC 2
4
1
`1
AC
8.
2
= 0.769
2.6
3
= 0.769
3.9
3.9
= 0.769
5.07
BC
AC
=
AD
AC
= 3 + BC 2
= BC 2
= BC
=2
=2#1
= 2BC
(a) AC = 5
(b) AC 2 = 25, CD 2 = 144,
AD 2 = 169
AC 2 + CD 2 = 25 + 144
= 169
= AD 2
` D ACD has a right angle at +ACD
` AC is perpendicular to DC
AB =
9.
11. d 2 = ] 20 - 3t g 2 + ] 15 - 2t g 2
= 400 - 120t + 9t 2 + 225 - 60t + 4t 2
= 13t 2 - 180t + 625
(c) x = 6.5
12. 1471 mm
AB
AD
=
AE
AC
AD
AF
=
AE
AG
AB
AF
=
AC
AG
(b)
Also
`
16. 4.3 m
13. 683 m
14. 12.6 m
15. 134.6 cm
17. 42.7 cm
14. y = 0.98
Exercises 4.6
1.
(a) x = 6.4
2.
(a) p =
3.
s = 6.2 m
5.
61
10.
BD
AD
=
AE
CE
AD
DF
Also
=
AE
EG
BD
DF
`
=
CE
EG
3b
x2 + y2
x
(b) y = 6.6
(c) b = 5.7
(b) t =
(c) x =
58
20. (a) BC 2 = 6 2 - 4 2
= 20
BC = 20
AO = 6 cm
(equal radii)
So AC 2 = 6 2 - 4 2
= 20
AC = 20
Since BC = AC, OC bisects AB
(b) +OCA = +OCB = 90c
(given)
OA = OB
(equal radii)
OC is common
` DOAC / DOBC
(RHS)
So AC = BC (corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
` OC bisects AB
(d) m = 6.6
65
(d) y =
33
4. CE = 15.3 cm
Exercises 4.7
1.
ANSWERS
2.
D ABE is isosceles.
9.
` +B = +E = 76c
(base +s equal)
+CBE = +DEB = 180c - 76c
= 104c (straight +s)
+D + 62c + 104c + 104c = 360c (angle sum of quadrilateral)
+D + 270c = 360c
+D = 90c
` CD is perpendicular to AD`
3.
(a)
+D = 180c - x
(+A and +D cointerior angles, AB < DC)
+C = 180c - (180c - x)
= 180c - 180c + x
=x
`+A = +C = x
+B = 180c - x (+B and +C cointerior angles, AB < DC)
`+B = +D = 180c - x
(b) Angle sum = x + x + 180c - x + 180c - x
= 360c
6.4 cm
11. 4 2 cm
a = 150c , b = 74c
5.
6.
+ADB = +CDB
+CDB = +ABD
+ADB = +DBC
` +ABD = +DBC
` BD bisects +ABC
7.
(a) AD = BC = 3.8 cm
AB = DC = 5.3 cm
(given)
(given)
(given)
` XMNY is a parallelogram
(d) AE = EC = 5 cm
DE = EB = 6 cm
(given)
(given)
12. x = y = 57c
Exercises 4.8
1.
(a) 540c (b) 720c (c) 1080c (d) 1440c (e) 1800c
(f) 2880c 2. (a) 108c (b) 135c (c) 150c (d) 162c
(e) 156c 3. (a) 60c (b) 36c (c) 45c (d) 24c
4.
128c34l 5. (a) 13
8.
2340c
(b) 152c18l 6. 16
7. 3240c
9. 168c23l
4.
(b) 12
(c) 8
(d) 10
(e) 30
S = ] n - 2 g # 180c
= (8 - 2) # 180c
= 1080c
1080c
` +AHG =
8
= 135c
+HGA = +HAG
771
772
180 - 135c
(angle sum of triangle)
2
= 22c30l
+GAC = 135 - 2 # 22c30l
= 90c
We can similarly prove all interior angles are 90c and
adjacent sides equal.
So ACEG is a square.
`+HAG =
2.
3.
118.28 cm2
4.
(common)
(a) +DAE = +BAC
(corresponding angles, DE < BC)
+ADE = +ABC
(similarly)
+AED = +ACB
` D ABC and D ADE are similar (AAA)
] 5 - 2 g # 180c
5
= 108c
8.
(a) AB = AD
BC = DC
AC is common
` ABC and ADC are congruent (SSS)
(b)
AO = CO
BO = DO
+AOB = +COD
(equal radii)
(similarly)
(vertically opposite angles)
11.
73.5 cm2
AF
AD
=
AE
AG
AD
AB
=
AE
AC
AF
AB
`
=
AG
AC
12. (a) AB = AC
+B = +C
BD = DC
Exercises 4.9
1.
3.
5.
7 51 + 98 = 7 ^ 51 + 14 h cm 2
7.
$621.08
9.
6. 22.97 cm 2
(b) 89 m 2
(similarly)
(given)
(base +s of isosceles D)
(AD bisects BC, given)
14.
(c) 10.5 m
Test yourself 4
1.
6. 1020.7 cm3 7. 36 m
5.
2
10. 6 2 + ^ 2 7 h = 36 + 28 = 64 = 8 2
` ABC is right angled (Pythagoras)
360
p
(b) Each interior angle:
360
180 p
180p 360
=
p
p
180p - 360
=
p
180 ^ p - 2 h
=
p
15. (a)
8. (a) 161.665 m 2
So +AGF = +CFE = i
These are equal corresponding +s.
` AB < CD
14. +EDC =
ED = CD
(equal sides in regular pentagon)
So EDC is an isosceles triangle.
`+DEC = +ECD
(base angles in isosceles triangle)
180 - 108c
+DEC =
(angle sum of triangle)
2
= 36c
+AEC = 108 - 36c
= 72c
Similarly, using triangle ABC, we can prove that
+EAC = 72c
So EAC is an isosceles triangle.
(Alternatively you could prove EDC and ABC congruent
triangles and then AC = EC are corresponding sides in
congruent triangles.)
+AGF = i
+ACB = 68c
+CAD = 68c - 34c
= 34c
` +CAD = +ADC = 34c
(base +s of isosceles D)
(exterior + of D)
So ACD is isosceles
^ base +s equal h
ANSWERS
+DAC = +ACB
+BAC = +ACD
7.
AC is common
` D ABC / D ADC (AAS)
(corresponding sides in congruent Ds)
`
AB = DC
Similarly, AD = BC
` opposite sides are equal
15. (a) 24 cm2 (b) 5 cm
16. 9
+A
AC
EF
AB
DE
AC
`
EF
= +E
2.97
=
= 1.1
2.7
3.96
=
= 1.1
3.6
AB
=
DE
(+sum of D)
(straight +)
8.
^ given h
AC is common
` by SSS, D ADC / D ABC
`
+DAC = +BAC
Challenge exercise 4
2. x = 75c , y = 46c , z = 29c
1.
94c
4.
+BAD = +DBC
+ABD = +BDC
` +ADB = +DCB
AD = AB
+DAE = +BAE
(given)
(alternate angles, AB < DC)
(angle sum of D)
AE is common
` by SAS, D ADE / D ABE
` +DEA = +BEA
(corresponding angles in congruent Ds)
But +DEA + +BEA = 180c
(DEB is a straight angle)
` +DEA = +BEA = 90c
` the diagonals are perpendicular
AB = DC
(given)
+A + +D = 131c + 49c
= 180c
+A and +D are supplementary cointerior angles
` AB < DC
Since one pair of opposite sides are both parallel and
equal, ABCD is a parallelogram.
6.
27.36 m 2
9.
10. x = 2.12 m
11. (a) 6 m 2
(b) 10 + 2 5 = 2 ^ 5 + 5 h m
13. x = 7.40 m, y = 4.19 m
773
774
14. (a)
EB is common.
b 10
a 21
37. x 2 6, x 1 -2
2
5
39. - x - 7
40. x =
1
4
1
8
38.
41. x # -3, x $ 3
42.
1
6
x2 + x2
=
=
2x 2
2x
1
BD
2
2x
=
units
2
DE =
49. 0 1 x 1 5
(b) 2 31
(c)
54
2 17
47. x = 53c
1
50.
3x + 2
x-3
(d) 3 2 + 1
x 2 - 3x + 9
y7
- ]x + 5g
11 3
(f)
(g) x - 14 y 7 z -11 = 14 11
]x + 1g]x - 1g
6
x z
3
1
(h)
(i) 8 5 (j) 13
2
5a ] a + b g ] 1 + 2b g
(e)
1.
2. 2 ^ 5 + y h ^ x - y h
p =9
25 + 5 2
5.
23
3. (a) x - 1
(b) x 3
4.
6y - 10
7.
x=
9.
(given)
+ABC = +EDC = 90
(vertically opposite angles)
+ACB = +ECD
(given)
AB = ED
` by AAS D ABC / DEDC
(corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
` AC = EC
` D ACE is isosceles
2
7
10. 231.3
8.
2
x-3
11. - 3
14. 3 10 - 4
6. x 3 + 2x 2 - 16x + 3
12. 135c
13. 7.33 # 10 - 2
21. x =
4 ! 12
=2! 3
2
28.
26. 7.02 cm
6 15 + 2 6
43
22.
1
49
24. x = 2, y = -1
27. ] 2x - 1 g ^ 4x 2 + 2x + 1 h
29. 7
cm
57.
2
5
58. 5%
61. 9xy y
60. k = 20
23. x = 4, y = 11 or x = -1, y = - 4
25. 7
2
3
65. - 1
7
15
54. r =
55. 17.3 cm
20.
53. x = 25
32. -2 10 + 3 5 - 2 2 + 3
66.
3
1
#x 15
4
8
BC < AD
(ABCD is a < gram)
BC < FE
(BCEF is a < gram)
` AD < FE
Also BC = AD ^ opposite sides of < gram h
BC = FE
^ similarly h
` AD = FE
Since AD and FE are both parallel and equal, AFED is a
parallelogram.
67. b = 11.95 m
33. $83.57
68. (a)
34 cm
(b) 30 cm2
ANSWERS
69.
18 3 + 31 2 - 25 5
75
70. 20 71. 32 m
72. BD bisects AC
So AD = DC
+BDC = +BDA = 90c (given)
BD is common
` DBAD / DBCD
(SAS)
` AB = CB
(corresponding sides in congruent
f ] -x g = ] -x g 2- 2
= x2 - 2
= f (x)
` even function
3.
(a) f ^ x 2 h = x 6 + 1
triangles)
x2 + y2
2
79. (d)
74. (b)
75. (c)
(c) f ] - x g = - x 3 + 1
78. (b)
g ] - x g = ] - x g + 3 ] - x g4 - 2 ] - x g 2
= x 8 + 3x 4 - 2 x 2
= g (x)
` even function
5.
f ] - x g = - x = -f ] x g
` odd function
6.
f ] - x g = ] - x g2 - 1
= x2 - 1
= f (x)
` even function
7.
f ] -x g = 4 ] -x g - ] -x g 3
= - 4x + x 3
= - ^ 4x - x 3 h
= - f ]xg
` odd function
8.
f ] -x g = ] -x g 4 + ] -x g 2
= x4 + x2
= f ]xg
` even function
f ]xg - f ]- xg = 0
9.
(a) Odd (b) Neither (c) Even (d) Neither (e) Neither
Exercises 5.1
Yes
2. No
3. No
8.
Yes
9. Yes
10. No
4. Yes
5. Yes
11. Yes
6. Yes
12. No
7. No
13. Yes
Exercises 5.2
1.
f ] 1 g = 4, f ] -3 g = 0
3.
5.
-35
6. x = 9
2. h ] 0 g = -2, h ] 2 g = 2, h ] -4 g = 14
7. x = !5
8. x = -3
4. 14
9. z = 1, -4
10. f ^ p h = 2p - 9, f ] x + h g = 2x + 2h - 9
11. g ] x - 1 g = x 2 + 2
12. f ] k g = ] k - 1 g ^ k 2 + k + 1 h
13. t = -1; t = 2, -4
14. 0
16. f ] 2 g - f ] -2 g + f ] -1 g = 0 - 4 + 1 = -3
18. 7
19. -28
21. f ] x + h g - f ] x g = 2xh + h 2 - 5h
(ii) x 1 0
(iii) Even
(b) (i) x 1 2
(ii) x 2 2
(iii) Neither
Exercises 5.3
1.
2
, y-intercept -2
3
(b) x-intercept -10, y-intercept 4
(c) x-intercept 12, y-intercept 4
(d) x-intercepts 0, -3, y-intercept 0
(e) x-intercepts !2, y-intercept -4
(f) x-intercepts -2, -3, y-intercept 6
(a) x-intercept
(c) (i) -2 1 x 1 2
(d) (i) All real x ! 0
22. 4x + 2h + 1
(c) n 4 + n 2 + 2
23. 5] x - c g 24. 3k 2 + 5
15. f ] 5 g = 125, f ] 1 g = 1, f ] -1 g = -1
17. 10
4.
80. (d)
1.
(b) 7 f ] x g A 2 = x 6 + 2x 3 + 1
(ii) x 1 -2, x 2 2
(ii) None
(iii) Odd
(iii) Neither
Exercises 5.4
1.
(iii) Neither
775
776
2.
(a)
(e)
5
5
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
3 4
-2
-3
-4
-5
2 3 4
(f)
(b)
1
21
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
2 3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-2
-3
1 2 3 4
-4
-5
5
4
3
2
2
- 1
(c)
5
4
3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
5
4
3
2
1
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1 2 3 4
(h)
-5
(d)
(g)
1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1 2 3 4
ANSWERS
(i)
Exercises 5.5
1.
2.
(a)
4
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
6
5
4
3
2
1
-2
-3
-4
-5
y
(j)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
5
4
3
2
1
111
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
3.
4.
2 3
-2
-3
-4
-5
2
1
(a) " all real x ,, " all real y , (b) " all real x ,, " y: y = 2 ,
(c) ! x: x = -4 +, " all real y , (d) ! x: x = 2 +, " all real y ,
(e) ! all real x +, " y: y = 3 ,
(a) Neither
(b) Even
(c) Neither
(d) Odd
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
2
1
-4
-5
-3
(c)
-3
-4
-2
-5
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
(e) Odd
5.
(3, -1)
(b)
1 2 3 4 5
111 2
2
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1 2 3 4
777
778
(d)
6
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-2
-3
-4
-5
y
(e)
1 2 3 4
(i)
5
4
3
2
1
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
1112 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
-3
-4
-5
-6
y
(f)
(h)
(j)
12
10
8
6
4
2
5
4
3
2
1
1 2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-6
-8
3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-10
3.
5
4
3
2
1
(g)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
1 2 3 4
ANSWERS
1
(c) {all real x}, ( y: y $ -2 2
4
(a) 0 # y # 9
6.
5
4
(b) 0 # y # 4
(c) -1 # y # 24
1
(e) -18 # y # 2
4
(d) -4 # y # 21
3
2
1
8.
(c)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
f ] -x g = - ] -x g 2
= -x2
= f (x)
` even
-3
-4
-5
(d)
5
4
3
Exercises 5.6
1.
2.
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
5
4
3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4
-5
-3
(f)
-4
y
5
-5
3
2
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-3
-2
(b)
(e)
(a)
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-2
-3
-4
-5
779
780
(g)
3.
4.
5.
(a) 0 # y # 2
5
4
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
(b) - 8 # y # -4
(d) 0 # y # 11
-4
-5
6.
(a) x 2 -3
(e) x 1 -2
(b) x 1 0
7.
(a) x = !3
(b) x 2 1, x 1 -1
(h)
5
(c) 0 # y # 6
(e) -1 # y # 0
(c) x 2 9
(d) x 2 2
(c) -2 # x # 2
(h) - 4 # x # 2
(j) x # 2, x $ 4
1
(k) - 4 # x # 1 (l) x # 0, x $ 1 (m) x = 2, 2
(n) No solutions (o) x = 0 (p) x = 1 (q) x = 0, -2
1
(t) x = 0, 6
(r) No solutions (s) x =
3
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
Exercises 5.7
-4
1.
-5
(i) x 2 4, x 1 0
(iii)
y
(i)
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-4
-3
-5
-4
-5
(j)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
5
4
(iii)
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-2
-1
-1
-2
ANSWERS
(iii)
(iii)
5
4
3
2
-2
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
2 3
-2
-1
-3
-4
-2
-5
1
(d) (i) {all real x: x ! 2}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -1
2
(iii)
(iii)
5
4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2
-2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-3
-2
-4
-3
-5
-4
-5
1
6
(iii)
(iii)
2
5
4
-2
-1
-1
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
(f) (i) {all real x: x ! 3}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii)
-2
2
3
-3
-4
-5
781
782
1
2
1, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) 2
3
Exercises 5.8
1.
(iii)
(a) (i)
1
2
-1
-2
-1
-3
2
3
-3
-2
(ii) ! x: -3 # x # 3 +, " y: -3 # y # 3 ,
(j) (i) {all real x: x ! -2}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -3
(b) (i)
y
(iii)
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4
x
-2
-4
-3
-4
-5
2.
3.
4.
(ii) ! x: -4 # x # 4 +, " y: -4 # y # 4 ,
2
-x
2
=x
= - f (x)
` odd function
(c) (i)
f ] -x g =
5
4
3
(a)
1
#y #1
9
(b)
1
#y #1
3
(d)
3
#y #3
7
(e) - 2 # y # -
(a) 1 # x # 3
(b) 1 # x # 4
(d) 1 # x # 4
(e) 1 # x # 2
(c) -2
1
1
#y #2
2
1
8
(c) - 6 # x # 0
(2, 1)
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
ANSWERS
(ii) ! x: 0 # x # 4 +, " y: -1 # y # 3 ,
(iii) ! x: -5 # x # 5 +, " y: -5 # y # 0 ,
(d) (i)
(ii)
5
4
3
1
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-1
-3
-4
(iii) ! x: -1 # x # 1 +, " y: 0 # y # 1 ,
-5
(ii) ! x: -4 # x # 2 +, " y: -3 # y # 3 ,
(ii)
(e) (i)
5
4
3
2
(-2, 1)
-6
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
(iii) ! x: -6 # x # 6 +, " y: 0 # y # 6 ,
(d) (i) Below x-axis
-2
(ii)
(ii) ! x: -3 # x # -1 +, " y : 0 # y # 2 ,
2.
-8
-8
-5
-5
(iii) ! x: -8 # x # 8 +, " y: -8 # y # 0 ,
783
784
6.
(ii)
(a) {y: - 9 # y # 3}
(b) {y: 0 # y # 9} (c) {y: -8 # y # 1}
1
(d) ' y: # y # 1 1 (e) {y: 0 # y # 4}
5
(f) {y: -1 # y # 15} (g) {y: -1 # y # 0}
(h) " y: - 1 # y # 8 , (i) {y: - 4 # y # 21}
1
(j) ' y: - 6 # y # 6 1
4
- 7
7.
8.
9.
(a)
- 7
(iii) " x: - 7 # x #
3.
7 ,, # y: - 7 # y # 0 -
5 , centre (0, 0)
25
20
15
10
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 16
(b) x - 6x + y - 4y - 12 = 0
(c) x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 10y + 17 = 0
(d) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 6y - 23 = 0
(e) x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 4y - 5 = 0
(f) x 2 + y 2 + 4y + 3 = 0
(g) x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 4y - 29 = 0
(h) x 2 + 6x + y 2 + 8y - 56 = 0
(i) x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 1 = 0
(j) x 2 + 8x + y 2 + 14y + 62 = 0
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-5
2.
3.
5.
-15
y
(b)
8
6
4
(a) {all real x}, {all real y} (b) {all real x}, {y: y = -4}
(c) {x: x = 3}, {all real y} (d) {all real x}, {y: y $ -1}
1
(e) {all real x}, {all real y} (f) {all real x}, ' y: y # 12 1
4
(g) {x: -8 # x # 8}, {y: -8 # y # 8}
(h) {all real t: t ! 4}, {all real f (t): f (t) ! 0}
(i) {all real z: z ! 0}, {all real g ^ z h: g ^ z h ! 5}
(j) {all real x}, {y: y $ 0}
(a) {x: x $ 0}, {y: y $ 0} (b) {x: x $ 2}, {y: y $ 0}
(c) {all real x}, {y: y $ 0} (d) {all real x}, {y: y $ -2}
1
(e) ' x: x $ -2 1, {y: y # 0}
2
(f) {all real x}, {y: y # 5} (g) {all real x}, {y: y 2 0}
(h) {all real x}, {y: y 1 0}
(i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 1}
(j) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 2}
(a) x = 0, 5 (b) x = -3, 1, 2 (c) x = 0, 2, 4
(d) x = 0, ! 4 (e) x = !7 4. (a) -1 # x # 1
(b) {x: -1 # x # 1}
(a) {x: x # - 1, x $ 2}
-10
Exercises 5.9
1.
(b) {t: t # - 6, t $ 0}
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-6
-8
y
(c)
25
20
15
10
5
-4 -3 -2 -1
-5
-10
-15
ANSWERS
(d)
(g)
8
6
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-1
-1
-6
-8
(b)
y
(e)
2
1
8
6
-1
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
11.
6
-4
-6
-8
3
2
1
-1
(f)
12. (a) (i) {all real x}, {all real y} (ii) All x (iii) None
(b) (i) {all real x}, " y: y 2 -2 , (ii) x 2 0 (iii) x 1 0
(c) (i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) None
(iii) All x ! 0
(d) (i) {all real x}, {all real y} (ii) All x (iii) None
(e) (i) {all real x}, " y: y 2 0 , (ii) All x (iii) None
13. (a) - 2 # x # 2 (b) (i) {x: - 2 # x # 2}, { y: 0 # y # 2}
(ii) {x: - 2 # x # 2}, { y: - 2 # y # 0}
10
-10
-1
10
Exercises 5.10
1.
-10
(m) 2x 3 + 3x - 5
2.
(g) 0
(n) 3c 2
785
786
3.
5.
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
(c)
(d)
Exercises 5.11
1.
2.
(a) RHS = 1 +
=
(f) 6 (g)
3
1
+ 2
x
x
x2 + x + 3
x2
= LHS
(b) 1 from above (c) 1 from below
3.
4.
(a)
x
3
(b)
5x 2
4
2
3
(e)
ANSWERS
(f)
7.
21x #2
9.
x#
2
5
2
,x 21
3
8. x 1 - 6, x 2 - 3
10. - 2
2
# x 1 -2
3
Exercises 5.13
1.
(a)
6
(g)
5
4
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
(h)
-3
-4
(b)
6
5
(i)
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
(j)
-3
-4
y
(c)
6
5
4
3
2
1
Exercises 5.12
1.
1
1x 10
2
2. 0 1 x 1
1
3
4.
1
#x 10
2
5. 1 1 x 1 1
3. 0 1 x # 1
1
3
6. x $ -1, x 1 - 2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
787
788
(d)
(g)
x+y = 1
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-3
-4
-4
y
(e)
1
1
2 3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-3
-4
-4
3x - y - 6 = 0
-5
(f)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
y = x +1
(h)
-6
(i)
y = 2x -3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
x
x + 2y - 2 = 0
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
ANSWERS
(j)
(c)
6
1
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-1
x
-2
-1
-3
-4
-5
x=
-6
2.
(a) x 2 -3
(e) y $ 2
3.
(b) y $ -2
1
2
(d)
5
(d) y 2 x 2 - 4
(c) y $ x + 1
y=x2
(a)
2
1
5
4
-4 -3 -2 -1
y = x2 - 1
-1
-2
-3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4
-5
-2
(e)
-3
-4
-5
6
4
(b)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
y = x3
-3
-3
x
4.
(a) y 1 3x - 2
(b) y 2 x 2 + 2
(c) x 2 + y 2 1 49
(d) x 2 + y 2 2 81
(e) x 1 5, y 2 2
-6
-8
789
790
5.
(a)
(b)
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
y=x -3
-4
-2
-3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
(b)
-4
-5
-6
3
2
(c)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
y = 3x 5
-2
3
2
(c)
5
4
-4 -3
-1
-1
-2
-3
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4
-5
-6
-2
6.
-2
(d)
(a)
5
4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
y=x+1
-4
-3
-2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
y=3x
ANSWERS
(e)
(h)
x = -2
y = x3
y=3
4
2
y=1
-3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-6
-8
-3
(f)
(i)
1
1
-2
-1
-2
-1
-1
x=1
y
(g)
(j)
y=4
y = x2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
x - y = -1
2
1
x-y=2
-2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-3
-2
-4
-3
-5
-4
-5
-6
791
792
7.
(a)
(d)
y = x2
5
4
3
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-1
2
y= x
-2
-2
-3
-4
-5
(e)
(b)
8
y = x3
6
4
y=1
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
y=
-4
-3 -2
-1
-1
1
x+2
-2
-6
-8
8.
y
(c)
(a)
y
y = x2
y=5
4
3
-2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-2
-4
x=1
-5
x=2
ANSWERS
(e)
(b)
y = |x|
y=3
x
-4 - 3 - 2 - 1
-1
-2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
y = -1
-3
-3
-5
x=2
Test yourself 5
-6
(c)
-2
x=3
-4
y=x-2
793
1.
(a) f ] - 2 g = 6
2.
(a)
(b) f ] a g = a 2 - 3a - 4
(c) x = 4, -1
y = 2x + 1
6
5
4
3
2
2x - 3y = 6
(b)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
(c)
y
(d)
y=2
(d)
-3
(e)
x = -3
-3
8/11/09 11:31:52 AM
794
8.
(f)
9.
(g)
(h)
10.
3.
4.
1
4
(b) Domain: all real x; range: all real y
(c) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: - 1 # y # 1
(d) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: 0 # y # 1
(e) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: - 1 # y # 0
(f) Domain: all real x ! 0; range: all real y ! 0
(g) Domain: all real x; range: all real y
(h) Domain: all real x; range: y $ 0
(a) Domain: all real x; range: y $ - 6
15
5. (a) 4 (b) 5
(c) 9
(d) 3
11. (a) y # 3
(b) y 2 x + 2
(c) y $ - x 2, y # 0
(e) 2
6.
13. (a)
7.
ANSWERS
14. (a) 2
(b) x = 3
2
3
1
3
(c) 1
(b)
(b)
2
5
(c) - 1
(d) i
1
2
(e) iii
(d) 3
-1
18.
(c)
(b)
(d)
f (x) = x 4 3x 2 1
f ( x) = ] - x g4 3 ] x g2
= x 4 3x
3x 2 1
= f (x)
So f ] x g is even.
-4
20. (a)
1
1
x
f (x) = x 3 x
f ( x) = ] - x g3 ( )
= - x3 + x
= -( 3
)
= - f (x)
So f ] x g is odd.
(b)
(e)
21. (a
a)
1
x
x
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
4
-2
795
796
Challenge exercise 5
1.
6.
f ] 3 g = 9, f ] -4 g = 16, f ] 0 g = 1
7.
2
b=- ,3
3
2.
3.
8.
-2
9.
Domain: x $ 0; range: y $ 0
10. x = 0, 3, - 2
11.
4.
12. h ] 2 g + h ] -1 g - h ] 0 g = - 3 + 0 - ] -1 g = - 2
5.
ANSWERS
13.
18.
14.
19.
16. x =
17. (a)
22.
1 ! 41
4
1
x+3
2]x + 3g
1
=
+
x+3
x+3
2x + 6 + 1
=
x+3
2x + 7
=
x+3
= LHS
2x + 7
1
=2+
`
x+3
x+3
RHS = 2 +
23. (a) 0
(b)
797
798
Chapter 6: Trigonometry
Exercises 6.1
cos i =
2.
3
5
4
sin b = , cot b = , sec b =
5
4
3
3.
sin b =
4.
cos x =
5
, tan x =
9
5.
cos i =
3
4
, sin i =
5
5
6.
5
5
3
tan i =
, sec i = , sin i =
2
2
3
7.
cos i =
35
, tan i =
6
8.
tan i =
51
51
, sin i =
7
10
9.
(a)
10. (a)
7
74
7
, cos b =
5
, tan b =
6.
1.6 m
5.
(a) 18.4 cm
7.
47.4 mm 8. 20.3 m
(c) 9.0 cm
9
56
3. 20.3 cm
4. 13.9 m
(b) 13.8 cm
6. 10 cm and 10.5 cm
9. (a) 7.4 cm
(b) 6.6 cm
1
10. (a) 6.8 cm
35
(b) 6.5 cm
1.
2.
3
1
1
, cos 30c =
, tan 30c =
2
2
3
3
6.
(a) 11.4 cm
8.
(a) 13 m
(e) 2
15. x = 80c
16. y = 22c
19. t = 20c
20. k = 15c
11. 38 cm
Exercises 6.4
3
1
, cos 60c = , tan 60c =
2
2
(d) 1
(e) 1.393
2.
74
(c) 0
(d) 0.928
(b) 0
(c) 0.339
1.
5
(b) 45c
1
1
(c) sin 45c =
, cos 45c =
, tan 45c = 1
2
2
(b) 0.697
Exercises 6.3
56
, cosec x =
5
(a) 0.635
5
12
12
, sin i =
, tan i =
5
13
13
1.
5.
4. 36c52l 5. 50c
17. p = 31c
18. b = 25c
Exercises 6.5
1.
(a)
North
Exercises 6.2
1.
(a) 47c
(b) 82c
(c) 19c
(d) 77c
2.
(e) 52c
4.
(a) 77.75c
(b) 65.5c
(c) 24.85c
(d) 68.35c
(e) 82.517c
Beach
house
100c
Boat
ANSWERS
North
(b)
(f) North
Farmhouse
Jamie
12c
Campsite
Dam
(g)
320c
North
North
(c)
House 160c
Jetty
200c
Mohammed
(h)
North
Seagull
(d) North
Alistair
Mine shaft
80c
Town
50c
(i)
Bus stop
Yvonne
North
North
(e)
Plane
349c
B Hill
285c
School
799
800
North
(j)
4.
(a) 2nd
6.
(a) 1st
(e) -
Boat ramp
8.
Island
280c
2.
(a) 248c
3.
080c
7.
12. 1.8 km
(g)
3
2
1
2
(b)
15. 035c
3+1
2
(g) 1
1
4
(b) 1 (c)
6+ 2
=
4
(h)
(k) 0
(d) 4
2 ^ 3 + 1h
4
(l) 1
(q) 2 3
3 2
2
9 3
2
(a) x =
3.
60c
7.
(a) 6 2 m
4.
(b) y =
2m
5.
3m
4 3
3
(i)
(f)
(r) -
1
2
(s) 6
2 3
3
(n)
2
3
(t)
6
2- 3
2
(c) p = 2 3
6.
10 3
m
3
(b) 4 m 8. 0.9 m
9.
3
2
(c)
(d) 1
(i)
(i) 1
5
21
65
(d)
(j)
2
1
2
(c) - 3
3
2
(i) 3
2
1
2
(j) -
(e) -
(j) -
(e) -
(d)
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
(f)
1
2
, cot x = -
, sec i =
3
10
21
21
2
, tan x = -
65
91
3
, tan x = 10
91
61
61
, cosec a = 5
6
51
7
, cot i = 10
51
(b) cos x
5^3 + 3 h
m
3
(b) cos x = -
5
18. cot a = - , sec a =
6
19. sin i =
89
5
55
8
8
, sec x = - , cosec x = 3
3
55
(c) tan b
(d) - sin a
(e) - tan i
(h) - tan x
Exercises 6.8
10. 100 3 m
1.
Exercises 6.7
1.
2.
(a) 3rd
(b) -
(c)
, cosec x = -
(m) 2 ^ 2 - 1 h
(p) 3 - 2 2
2.
(e)
3
2
7 74
5 74
, sin x = 74
74
14. cos x = -
(j) - ^ 2 + 3 h
1
3
89
(a)
(o) 1
13. cosec x = -
Exercises 6.6
1.
(h) -
2
1
33
4
, tan i = 7
33
3
2
(b)
(g)
(h) -
(h)
16. 9.2 m 17. 171 m 18. 9.8 km 19. 51c 41l 20. 2.6 m
21. 9c21l
1
2
(b)
3
4
10. sin i = - , cos i = 5
5
(b) -
5. (a) 2nd
7. (a) 1
1
2
(f) -
(a) (g)
8. 126.9 m 9. 72c48l
21 m
1
2
(a) -
3
2
(b)
(f) - 3
9.
(b) - 3
1
2
1
2
ANSWERS
16.
3.
17.
4.
-1
5.
Exercises 6.9
1.
(a) cos i (b) - tan i (c) cos i (d) tan i (e) - sec a
2.
(f) cosec x
(j) sin2 x
3.
6.
9.
x = 0c, 360c
7. - 1
8. 1
(g) sec x
(k) 1
10.
11. 0
12. x = 270c
= 3 (1 + tan 2 a )
= 3 sec 2 a
3
=
cos 2 a
3
=
1 - sin 2 a
= RHS
So 3 + 3 tan 2 a =
(d) cos2 x
(e) sin a
3
1 - sin 2 a
801
802
(j) LHS =
=
RHS =
1 - sin 2 i + 2 sin i
sin i cos i
cos 2 i + 2 sin i
=
sin i cos i
2 sin i
cos 2 i
=
+
sin i cos i sin i cos i
cos i
2
=
+
sin i cos i
= cot i + 2 sec i
= LHS
So
4.
So
cos 2 i
= tan 2 i + cos 2 i
sin b cos b
+
cos b sin b
sec b
sin 2 b + cos 2 b
sin b cos b
sec b
1 + cot b
cosec b
- cos b = sin b
LHS = x 2 + y 2
= ] 2 cos i g 2 + ] 2 sin i g 2
= 4 cos 2 i + 4 sin 2 i
= 4 (cos 2 i + sin 2 i)
= 4 ]1g
=4
= RHS
So x 2 + y 2 = 4
1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i
1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i
tan b + cot b
sec b
LHS = RHS
sec b
1
sin b cos b
cos b sin b
= sec b #
1
cos b sin b
1
=
#
1
cos b
= sin b
1 - sin i + 2 sin i
sin i cos i
cosec b
1 + cot b - cot b
(i) LHS =
cosec b
cosec b
1
=
cosec b
= sin b
(f) RHS =
- cos b
cosec b
1 + cot b - cos b cosec b
1 + cot b - cos b #
So cot i + 2 sec i =
1 + cot b
5.
LHS = x 2 + y 2
= ] 9 cos i g 2 + ] 9 sin i g 2
= 81 cos 2 i + 81 sin 2 i
= 81 (cos 2 i + sin 2 i)
= 81 ] 1 g
= 81
= RHS
So x 2 + y 2 = 81
1
sin b
ANSWERS
Exercises 6.10
1.
(a) x = 8.9
Exercises 6.13
(b) y = 9.4 cm
(d) b = 10.7 m
2.
(c) a = 10.0
1.
(e) d = 8.0
3.
5.
(a) 1.8 m
7.
(a) 10.3 m
9.
2.
15 3 2
m
2
6.
1.2 m 2
9.
(a) 7.8 cm
3. 7.5 cm 2
7. 42 cm 2
(a) m = 5.8
(b) 180.8 cm 2
(b) 18.5 cm 2
(c) h = 7.4 cm
(e) y = 9.3
1.
(a) 2 m (b) 2.2 m (c) 65c 21l 2. (a) 1.9 m (b) 49c 46l
3.
(a) 109 cm 2
5.
(a) 9 m
7.
(a) 48 m
(b) 128.6 m
9.
16c 50l
3.
Exercises 6.15
5.
1.
(c)
(b) 12.7 cm
(b) 30c
tan a + tan b
1 - tan a tan b
(b) 89.7 m
(c) 97.7 m 8. 84 m
(e)
9.
(c) 19.1 cm 2
Exercises 6.14
(b) b = 10.4 m
(d) n = 16.4
7.
8. 247.7 mm 2
Exercises 6.11
6.
tan 48 + tan x
1 - tan 48c tan x
(h)
Exercises 6.12
1.
4.
103c
7.
(a) 1.21 km
5. 1.97 m 6. 11c
12. 7.7 km
14. 1841 km
18. 163.5 km
3.
(a)
(c)
(d)
(e)
S6.indd 803
5. 34.8 cm 2
2.
4. 15.5 cm 2
(b) 25 mm
1.
803
(ii) 0.55 m
(g)
1+ 3
2 2
1+ 3
2 2
(d) sin ^ 2x + 3y h
(b)
1+ 3
2+ 6
4
2 2
-^2 3 + 4h
= -^ 3 + 2h
2
2 2
1+ 3
1 + tan a tan 3b
2 3+4
=
2
1- 3
1- 3
tan a - tan 3b
3-1
1+ 3
tan 5x - tan 7y
1 + tan 5x tan 7y
2- 6
4
(f)
3+2
3-1
2 2
6- 2
4
2+ 6
4
8/11/09 11:38:03 AM
804
(h)
1+ 3
1- 3
-^4 + 2 3 h
= -^2 + 3 h
2
(e)
3-1
1+ 3
o + cos x e
o
(i) sin x e
2
2
(j)
4.
2
2
cos y =
(c)
2 cos y
5. (a)
6 + 35
3 5-2 7
6 + 35
12
3 5+2 7
12
(b)
6.
7.
8.
9.
(g)
32 5 + 27 7
17
2 tan i
1 - tan 2 i
3 tan i - tan 3 i
3
(c) 2
11. (a)
4
5
(b)
3
(d) 2
12
13
(c) -
(e)
33
65
10. (a)
1
2
18. (a)
(b)
(d)
12
5
(e) - 3
21.
15
16
(f)
2 tan y ^ tan 2 x + 1 h
1 - tan 2 x tan 2 y
2 tan i
1 - tan 2 i
tan x + tan 2y
1 - tan x tan 2y
tan x - tan x tan 2 y + 2 tan y
=
1 - tan 2 y - 2 tan x tan y
(g) sin 2i cos d - cos 2i sin d
= 2 sin i cos i cos d - cos 2 i sin d + sin 2 i sin d
(h) cos i cos 2c + sin i sin 2c
= cos i _ cos 2 c - sin 2 c i + 2 sin i sin c cos c
tan x - tan 2z
tan x - tan x tan 2 z - 2 tan z
=
1 + tan x tan 2z
1 - tan 2 z + 2 tan x tan z
(j) sin 2x cos 2y - cos 2x sin 2y
= 2 sin x cos x _ cos 2 y - sin 2 y i
- 2 sin y cos y ^ cos 2 x - sin 2 x h
(i)
(b)
(h) 1
63
65
(b)
1
2
(c)
1
(i)
2 2
(d)
3
(j) -
1
2
5 39
7
, sin 2x =
32
32
7
25
(c)
120
169
(d) -
33
56
(b)
1
2+ 3
=2- 3
2-1
(b)
2
4
22. (a)
2 2
17. cos 2x = -
1
[cos 115c + cos ] - 15c g]
2
1 - tan 2 x tan 2 y
(b)
2 tan x _ 1 + tan 2 y i
(g) cos 6a
(e)
1
sin 12i (f) 1 + sin 2x
2
1 - 3 tan 2 i
tan 2x
(b)
1
sin 2i tan i
2
1
= (2 sin i cos i) tan i
2
sin i
= sin i cos i
cos i
= sin 2 i
= LHS
1
2
` sin i = sin 2i tan i
2
RHS =
RHS =
1 - cos i
sin i
i
i
- sin 2 n
2
2
=
i
i
cos
2 sin
2
2
i
i
1 - cos 2 + sin 2
2
2
=
i
i
cos
2 sin
2
2
i
i
sin 2 + sin 2
2
2
=
i
i
2 sin
cos
2
2
i
2 sin 2
2
=
i
i
2 sin
cos
2
2
i
sin
2
=
i
cos
2
i
= tan
2
= LHS
i
1 - cos i
` tan =
2
sin i
1 - d cos 2
1
2
(e)
(f)
3
2
ANSWERS
5.
6.
7.
8.
(a)
1 + t2
2t
(i)
1.
4.
LHS =
1
2
1 - t2
(f)
(j)
(a)
(b)
(c)
1+t
1-t
(d)
1 + t2
3 - 3t + 8t
2
1+t
(h)
3.
1
t
4.
5.
6.
7.
(a) i = 180n
1 + t 2 + 2t + 1 - t 2
(b) x = 360n
n
1 + t2
1 + sin i - cos i
=t
1 + sin i + cos i
1 - t2
^1 + t h
2t + 1 - t 2
2 2
2t
1 - t2
2t
(g)
4t ^ 1 - t 2 h
1+t
2t 2 + 2t
=
2 + 2t
2t ] t + 1 g
=
2]1 + t g
=t
= RHS
`
(d) 0
1+t
1+t
1 + t 2 + 2t - 1 + t 2
(i)
1 + sin i - cos i
1 + sin i + cos i
2t
1 - t2
1+
2
1+t
1 + t2
1+
(h)
(f)
1 + t2
(j)
(c)
1 - t + 2t
1+t
1-t
(g)
(b)
1-t
(e)
(e)
Exercises 6.17
3.
(c)
(b)
10. (a)
Exercises 6.16
2.
(a)
(e)
3
(a)
2
^ 1 + t 2 h2
1.
4t - 4t 3 - 1 + 6t 2 - t 4
8.
(c) x = 180n
(e) 360n ! 90c
(b) (i) x = 41c 25l, 318c 35l (ii) x = 360n ! 41c 25l
(c) (i) x = 71c 34, 251c 34l (ii) x = 180n + 71c 34l
(d) (i) x = 161c 34l, 341c 34l (ii) x = 180n - 18c 26l
(e) (i) x = 45c
805
806
9.
cos i =
2.
(a) cos x
(b) 2
34
, sin i =
34
(c) cosec A
(d) cos i
5.
LHS =
8.
(b) -
2 2
2 ^ 3 + 1h
4
2 ^1 - 3 h
4
(c)
1
2 2
2
4
Challenge exercise 6
2 cos 2 i
So
= 2 + 2 sin i
1 - sin i
2 cos 2 i
1 - sin i
2 ^ 1 - sin 2 i h
=
1 - sin i
2 ] 1 + sin i g ] 1 - sin i g
=
1 - sin i
= 2 (1 + sin i)
= 2 + 2 sin i
= RHS
2 2
3+1
7. (a)
1- 3
(b) 8.5 m
4.
1
(d) 2
21. (a)
(b)
(a) 0.64
b = 40c
20. 2951 km
3.
6.
20 sin 39c
sin 99c
Test yourself 6
1.
19. (a) AD =
3
2
1.
4.
(a) AC =
6.
- cos x
7. 16 3 cm 2
9.
x = 22c 30l, 112c 30l, 202c 30l, 292c 30l 10. i = 75c 45l
3. x = 12.7 cm
8.
(c) - 3
140
(e) 221
11. 5.4 m
x = 120c, 240c
14. -
56
9
1
2
13. 6.43 km
16. LHS =
9.
5. 4.1 km
= cos i
1 - sin 2 i
] sin i + cos i g
cos 2 i
sin i + cos i
=
cos i
= tan i + 1
= RHS
17. x 2 + y 2 + 4y - 5 = 0
x = 90c, 270c
10. 122 km
11. 5 3
(b) 8.7 m
(b) 029c
18. (a) 65 m
20. 30c 8l
25. - t
ANSWERS
7.
Exercises 7.1
1.
(a) 5 (b) 10
(c) 13
(c)
52 = 2 13
85
(d)
2.
(a)
13
(b)
65
3.
5.
Two sides =
6.
Show AB = BC =
7.
8.
9.
34 , 1 side =
(b) XY =
15. BD = AC =
98
AC =
11 , equation
20 , so parallelogram
16. (a) AB = AC =
17. 2 101
18.
116 , AC =
145
130 , XZ =
XY 2 + XZ 2 = 65 + 65
= 130
= YZ 2
So triangle XYZ is right angled.
1.
40 , BC = 4
61 units
3.
(b) 1
(g) - 4
1
2
x = 1.8
1
3
(c) - 1
(h) -
2
3
(-2, 1)
(i) 2
4. x = 9
7.
1
1
(e) ^ -1, 1 h (f) ^ - 3, 2 h (g) d 3, n (h) d 1 , 1 n
2
2
1 1
1
(i) d , 2 n (j) d 0, 5 n
2 2
2
(j) - 2
(f) -
2. y 1 = 21
(3, 4)
(7, 2)
1
1
2 3 4
(2, -1)
Gradient of AB = gradient of CD = 1
1
2
Gradient of AB = gradient of CD = -1
Gradient of BC = gradient of AD =
1
3
3
4
1
Gradient of AC = - 5 ,
2
1
gradient of BD = 2
(b) a = - 5, b = 6
2
3
(e)
Gradient of BC = gradient of AD = 0
4. P = Q = ^ 2, -1 h
1
4
2
5
5. (a) Show m 1 = m 2 =
-2
3 + ]-3g
-4 + 4
= 0,
=0
2
2
(d) - 2
-3 -2 -1
-1
(Pythagoras theorem)
(e) a = 6, b = 1
1
3
65
Exercises 7.2
5.
(a) 2
6.
3.
12. x 2 + y 2 = 1
30.2
(a) a = 9, b = - 3
Problem
2.
2
, AB =
2
Exercises 7.3
1.
34 ; YZ =
11. x 2 + y 2 = 4
AB 2 + BC 2 = 29 + 116
= 145
= AC 2
So triangle ABC is right angled (Pythagoras theorem)
65 , YZ =
34
,
2
40 = 2 10 ; XZ =
11. a = ! 6 - 2
37 , QP = MN =
20. XY =
10 , BC =
17 units from ^ 7, -3 h
14. MQ = NP =
29 , BC =
9. ^ - 8, 13 h
1 1
1 1
10. (a) X = d - , 3 n , Y = d , n , Z = ^ 1, 1 h
2 2
2 2
128
19. AB =
AC = BD =
1
BD = d 4, - n ; rectangle
2
85
10. a = 3
(b) OC = OB = 2
8.
1 1
Midpoint of AC = midpoint of BD = d 2 , 3 n .
2 2
Diagonals bisect each other
8.
Gradient of AC = 1, gradient of BD = -1
9.
(a) Show AB 2 + BC 2 = AC 2
(b) Gradient of AB =
gradient of BC = -
4
5
5
,
4
3
5
1
8
807
808
10. (a) F = ^ 1, - 2 h, G = d 4,
Exercises 7.6
1
n
2
5
6
1.
18. (a)
19.
(h)
13. 1
(b)
-5 - ] -2 g
7-4
-3
=
3
= -1
m = tan i
-1 = tan i
` i = 180c - 45c ^ 2nd quadrant h
= 135c
(b) (i) 2
(ii) -7
(d) (i) -1
(ii) 0
(e) (i) - 4
(ii) 3
(f) (i) 1
(ii) - 2
(g) (i) - 2
(ii) 1
1
2
(j) (i) 1
2
3
(ii)
2
3
3. (a) 4
1
(c) 0 (d) - 2 (e) -1 (f) - 3 (g) 2 (h) 4
3
1
2
1
1
2
(j) 1
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o) 4
5
7
5
3
2
3
1
1
1
(p) (q) 15 (r) - 1
(s)
(t) 6
14
2
8
(b) - 2
3.
(j)
1
5
(i)
(d) 1
1
2
(d) x + 2y + 5 = 0
(e) x - 2y + 4 = 0
(f) x + 3y - 1 = 0
(g) 3x + 4y + 13 = 0
4.
m1 m2 = -
(g)
1
3
1
# 5 = - 1 so perpendicular
5
1
5
m1 # m2 = -
3
7
# = -1
7
3
7. k = -
2
3
8. m 1 = m 2 = 4
5
AB < CD _ m 1 = m 2 = 3 i and BC < AD d m 1 = m 2 = - n
8
1
10. Gradient of AC: m 1 = , gradient of BD: m 2 = - 2,
2
1
m 1 # m 2 = # - 2 = -1
2
11. (a) y = - x
(b) 5x - y - 8 = 0
(d) 2x - 3y + 16 = 0
(c) 2x + y + 2 = 0
12. 7x + 6y - 24 = 0
13. x + y - 3 = 0 14. 2x - y - 5 = 0
15. 2x - 3y + 18 = 0
Exercises 7.7
1.
(a) ^ 2, - 4 h
(b) ^ -1, - 3 h
(e) ^ 5, -1 h
(f) ^ -1, 1 h
(j) d
3.
(c) ^ 4, 4 h
(g) ^ 3, 7 h
^ 2, 5 h, ^ 4, 1 h and ^ -1, -1 h
5x + 6y - 27 = 0
x+y-1=0
10. 2x + y - 2 = 0
(g) y = x - 1
11. x + y - 3 = 0
12. x - 2y - 3 = 0
13. x - y + 1 = 0
14. x - 3y + 2 = 0
(h) y = x + 5
(a) 4x - 3y + 7 = 0
(e) x - 2y + 2 = 0
2. x + y - 8 = 0
(b) 3x - 4y + 4 = 0
(d) 3x + 4y - 25 = 0
4. 4x + y - 8 = 0
6. y = - 2x
5. (a) y = 3
7. 3x - 4y - 12 = 0
9. x = - 4
10. 3x + 8y - 15 = 0
(i) ^ 41, 26 h
at ^ 2, -3 h
9.
(c) y = 5x
(d) ^ 0, - 2 h
(h) ^ 4, 0 h
1
7
n 2. Substitute ^ 3, - 4 h into both lines
,19
19
7.
(a) y = 4x - 1 (b) y = - 3x + 4
2x + y - 3 = 0
5
6
(b) x = -1
(f) -
(e) 1
5.
(c) 4x - 5y + 13 = 0
8.
3
4
m 1 = m 2 = 3 so parallel
1
(i) 1
2
Exercises 7.5
1.
(c)
9.
1
2
1
3
3.
6.
2^ 3 + 3h
3
(i) (i) 3
1
3
(b)
5. m 1 = m 2 = 1
Exercises 7.4
1.
2.
(c) - 3
m=
20. x =
(a) - 3
15. 3x + y - 7 = 0
21. 5x - y + 17 = 0
8. 4x + 7y + 23 = 0
16. x + 5y + 13 = 0
17. 27x - 5y - 76 = 0
19. 2x - y - 1 = 0
6. 11x + 6y = 0
18. 3x - y - 14 = 0
20. 3x - y - 11 = 0
ANSWERS
Exercises 7.8
Exercises 7.10
3
13
(e)
8
13
1.
2.
(a) 3.48 (b) 1.30 (c) 0.384 (d) 5.09 (e) 1.66
3.
(a)
4.
d1 = d2 = d3 = 1
5.
7 13
13
A: d =
14
5
(b)
, B: d =
(c)
4 205
205
(d)
5 26
13
1.
(e)
9
1
1
2
1
(d) d 4 , -1 n (e) d 2 , - 2 n (f) d - 5, 2 n
7
7
4
2
10
14 13
13
^ 2, - 3 h: d =
13
10
6 6
6 4
4
1
n (i) d - , 1 n
(g) d 2 , 7 n (h) d - 3 , -1
7 7
7 7
11
11
2
2
(j) d 1 , -1 n
3
3
-3
5
3 2
1 3
4 8
(a) d - , 1 n (b) d 2 , 3 n (c) d - 2 , 1 n
5 5
5 5
9 9
2.
, ^ 9, 2 h: d =
10
1
4
(a) d - 4, 3 n (b) d 6 , 2 n (c) ^ 19, 25 h
5
2
4
1
2
(f) d 9, -1 n (g) d - 6, - n (h) d 9, 1 n
7
2
3
(e) ^ 40, 12 h
^ - 3, 2 h : d = - 4 , ^ 4 , 1 h : d = 2
(i) ^ - 58, 30 h
1
5
9.
^ 8, - 3 h: d =
55
37
, ^ 1, 1 h: d =
10. ^ - 3, 2 h: d =
, ^ 4, 1 h: d =
A
(3, 2)
5.
3 1
P = d 1 , n , Q = ^ 16, -19 h, PQ = 24 units
5 5
6.
3
4
2
B = d 9 , -12 n 7. p = 4 , q = 20
5
5
5
13. 1
2
or -17
3
16. b = 3
8.
1
1
or -1
4
12
9.
17. m = - 1
2
1
or -18
3
3
(b)
2 10 13 5 26 34
,
,
5
5
119
1.
(a) 149c 2l (b) 119c 45l (c) 143c 58l (d) 172c 14l
(e) 135c
3. 12c 20l
3.
(a) - 1
1
3
7.
m = - 5.4, 1.53
9.
6. m = 3, -
8. k Z -1.64, 0.095
2 8
10. P = d , 3 n
9 9
1
5
1
2. d 2 , - 2 n
2
(b) 2
(c)
5.
6.
(d)
(a) 7x - y - 11 = 0
3
5
(b) 5x + y - 6 = 0
(d) 3x + 5y - 14 = 0
4. 53c 58l
5.
a = 8, b = 18
6.4 units
B
(-1, 6)
( 13 , 4 23 )
2 2
2 2
(a) d , 1 n (b) Each ratio gives d , 1 n . This means
3 3
3 3
that the intersection of the medians divides each
median in the ratio 2:1.
1.
(a) 18c 26l (b) 29c 45l (c) 82c 52l (d) 26c 34l
(e) 10c 29l (f) 41c 49l (g) 72c 15l (h) 18c 26l
(1 23 , 3 13 )
Test yourself 7
4.
Exercises 7.9
2
2
(a) E = d , 2 n (b) F = d 1 , 2 n
3
3
4.
7
5
(j) ^ 10, 13 h
(c) EF = 1, AC = 3 ` AC = 3EF
37
3.
1
(d) d 12, 5 n
2
(c) 3x + 2y = 0
(e) x - 3y - 3 = 0
6 5
units
5
1
m 1 = - , m 2 = 4 so m 1 m 2 = -1
4
` lines are perpendicular.
7.
x-intercept 5, y-intercept - 2
8.
(a) 2x + y - 1 = 0
9.
(b)
1
2
(c)
5
units
2
10. 3x - 4y = 0
809
810
11. ^ -1, 1 h
12. a = 6, b = 1
2
23. x = 16 , y = -17
3
Substitute ^ 1, - 3 h in 5x - 3y - 14 = 0:
LHS = 5 # 1 - 3 # - 3 - 14 = 0 = RHS
2 1
1 1
25. (a) P = d 1 , 3 n (b) Q = d 4 , 3 n
3 3
3 3
` point lies on 5x - 3y - 14 = 0:
Substitute ^ 1, - 3 h in 3x - 2y - 9 = 0:
LHS = 3 # 1 - 2 # - 3 - 9 = 0 = RHS
AC has gradient m 2 = 0
` point lies on 3x - 2y - 9 = 0:
Since m 1 = m 2, PQ < AC
19. ^ 4, 7 h
22. ^ - 2, 1 h: d =
-8
13
1
(d) R = d 6 , 0 n
3
17. c = -13, - 65
4
5
2
21. 93c22l
20. x = 1
, ^ 6, 3 h: d =
BC has gradient m 2 = -
13
24. x - y - 4 = 0
k = -2
4.
5.
8.
12 13
13
2. x - 3 y - 3 3 = 0
3. 10x 2 + 10y 2 = 81
1.
4 13
13
14. 2x + 5y + 14 = 0
3x +y + 3 - 2 3 =0
1
18. b = 2 , - 21
3
m1 - m2
20.
1 + m1 m2
m1 - m2
12. ^ 3, - 5 h
2.
15. 45c
17. x - y + 6 = 0
1
1
2
2
19. d 2 , - 2 n, d 1 , - 3 n
3
3
3
3
=1
=1
1 + m1 m2
m1 m2 + 1 = m1 - m2
m1 m2 = m1 - m2 - 1
m1 - m2
or
= -1
1 + m1 m2
m 1 - m 2 = -1 - m 1 m 2
m1 m2 = m2 - m1 - 1
21. P = f
1.
9. 113c12l 10. 2x + 3y + 13 = 0
11. BC = AC = 18 , AB = 6, so D is isosceles;
m BC # m AC = -1, so D is right angled.
16.
Exercises 8.1
13. a = 2, b = 3
- 4p - 1 7p - 3
p
,
p -1
p -1
5
7
25. 3x - 7y - 14 = 0
Challenge exercise 7
6.
5
7
Since m 1 = m 2, PR < BC
3.
ANSWERS
4.
5.
10.
Exercises 8.2
2. Yes, x = x 1
1.
Yes, x = 0
5.
Yes, x = x 1, x = x 2
8.
Yes, x = 2
3. No
6. Yes, x = 0
9. Yes, x = - 2, 3
4. Yes, x = 0
7. Yes, x = - 3
10. Yes, -1 # x 1 0
12. Yes, x = 0
13. No
14. No
15. Yes, x = !3
6.
Exercises 8.3
1.
2.
(e) 2
(f) - 3
(g) 2
Exercises 8.4
7.
1.
(a) 4.06
2.
(a) 13.61
4.
(a) f ] x + h g = x 2 + 2xh + h 2
(b) 3.994
(c) 4
(b) 13.0601
(c) 12.9401
(d) 13
3. 6
2
2
2
(b) f (x + h) - f (x) = x + 2xh + h - x
2
= 2xh + h
(c)
f ]x + hg - f ]xg
h
8.
(d) f l(x) = lim
2xh + h 2
h
h ] 2x + h g
=
h
= 2x + h
f ]x + hg - f ]xg
=
h "0
h
= lim (2x + h)
h "0
= 2x
5.
9.
(a) f (x + h) = 2 ] x + h g2 - 7 (x + h) + 3
= 2 (x 2 + 2xh + h 2) - 7x - 7h + 3
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3
2
2
(b) f (x + h) - f (x) = (2x + 4xh + 2h - 7x - 7h + 3)
- (2x 2 - 7x + 3)
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3
- 2x 2 + 7x - 3
= 4xh + 2h 2 - 7h
811
812
(c) f ] x + h g - f ] x g
h
4xh + 2h 2 - 7h
h
h ] 4x + 2h - 7 g
=
h
= 4x + 2h - 7
=
2.
(a) 4x + 1 (b) 8x - 12
(e) 6x 2 + 6x - 3
3.
(a)
(d) f l] x g = 4x - 7
6.
4.
(c) f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g = h + 5h
2
(d) f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g
h
6.
h 2 + 5h
=
h
h ]h + 5 g
=
h
=h+5
(e) f l] 2 g = 5
7.
(a) f ] -1 g = -7
(c) 12
8.
(a) f ] 3 g = 8
(c) f l] 3 g = 6
9.
(a) f l] 1 g = - 13
(b) f ] 3 + h g - f ] 3 g = 6h + h 2
11.
dV
= 4rr 2
dr
(c) -12
(b)
(c) f l] x g = 8x - 4
(e)
(g)
dy
dx
dy
dx
= 3x 2
dy
dx
(d) 15
3.
dy
dx
(b) - 5
(c) x = 4
15. 18
(c) 11
(d) -18
(h) 136
(i) - 4
(j) 149
(a) 1
7
1
26
(b)
(g) -
1
25
1
71
(ii) -
(a) (i) 6
(c)
(h)
1
6
1
20
(d) (i) -
(b) (i) 8
1
24
1
(ii) 11
(ii) -
1
20
(d) (i) - 8
1
8
(e) 18
1
43
(e)
(j) -
(f) 27
1
10
1
5
1
8
1
(ii)
8
(ii) -
6.
7.
x = !3
10. (0, 1)
(a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 2x + 3 (d) 10x - 1 (e) 3x 2 + 4x - 7
(f) 6x 2 - 14x + 7 (g) 12x 3 - 4x + 5
(h) 6x 5 - 25x 4 - 8x 3 (i) 10x 4 - 12x 2 + 2x - 2
(j) 40x 9 - 63x 8
13. (a) 5
(b) -13
(b) x - 8y + 58 = 0
(d) x - 45y + 3153 = 0
15. -1
Exercises 8.5
dh
= 40 - 4t
dt
5.
(h) f l] x g = - 6x 2
(c) - 0.04
10.
= 10x - 1
(b) - 0.03992
12. 3
dv
= 30t
dt
4.
(e) - 9
1.
(e)
ds
= 10t - 20
dt
7.
(a) 72
(e) (i) 11
(f) f l] x g = 6x 2 + 5
9.
(b) x = ! 2
(c) (i) 24
= 2x + 5
(d)
= 3x 2 - 4 x + 3
(d) 4x
5. - 56
(g) 11
(f)
= 2x + 2
12. (a) f l] x g = 2x
8x 7
- 6x 5
3
Exercises 8.6
2.
y + dy = ] x + dx g2 + 2 (x + dx)
= x 2 + 2xdx + dx 2 + 2x + 2dx
Since y = x 2 + 2x
dy = 2xdx + dx 2 + 2dx
dy
2 x d x + d x 2 + 2d x
(b)
=
dx
dx
d x ] 2x + d x + 2 g
=
dx
= 2x + dx + 2
(c)
gl] x g = - 20x - 5
1.
(b) 17
Substitute _ x + dx, y + dy i:
dy
dy
dx
8.
10. (a) y = x 2 + 2x
dx
f l] x g = 16x - 7
14. (a) 12
(c)
(b) 2x 3 - x 2
(f) 2x 2 - 2x + 2
(b) f ] 2 + h g = h 2 + 5h + 11
(a) f ] 2 g = 11
x
-1
3
(c) 2x
11. (1, 2)
9. (- 5, -7)
3
15
n
12. d - 1 , - 4
4
16
(b) 6x - y - 7 = 0
14. 10t - h - 7 = 0
15. 4x - 2y - 19 = 0
1
4
ANSWERS
Exercises 8.7
(k) 1
1.
(a) - 3x - 4
(e) x
2.
3.
8.
1
27
1
8
1
2
+ 3x - 2
(b)
x2
1
2x
(f) x
5
2
3
(g) 6x
(c)
2 x
(g) -
2 x3
1
1
3 x
2
3
2
10
5.
x4
15. d 5,
5
2 ] 4 + x g3
(w) -
2.
1
16
10. x - y + 9 = 0
8.
x=
7+
4.
5. 176
7. 69x - y - 129 = 0
- 6 ! 30
3
12. x + 16y - 16 = 0
13. (9, 3)
9. 34x - y + 29 = 0
^ x 4 - 3x 3 + 3x h
(v) -
16 3 4x + 1
3
4. (4, 1) 5. x = 2, -1
- 2x 2
(g)
^ 2x 2 - x h2
15
] x + 5 g2
(c)
- x + 14x
2
(e)
(h)
- 3x 2 - 6x - 7
(k)
4 ] 3x - 1 g3
(x)
16
] 5x + 1 g2
(b)
x4
-6
] x - 2 g2
=
(i)
x 4 - 12x 2
^x - 4h
- x + 14
x3
- 34
] 4x - 3 g2
x 2 ^ x 2 - 12 h
^ x 2 - 4 h2
(f)
11
] x + 3 g2
(j)
-14
] 3x + 1 g2
4x ] x - 3 g
4x 2 - 12x
=
] 2x - 3 g2
] 2x - 3 g2
^ 3x 2 - 7 h
2x 2 ] x + 6 g
- 18x
2x 3 + 12x 2
=
(m)
(n)
2
2
2
]
g
] x + 4 g2
^x - 5h
x+4
2
2
n, d - 5, - n
5
5
(u) -
-2
] 2x - 1 g2
(a)
(d)
1
2
2x 3 + 9x 2 + 7
] x + 3 g2
(o)
(q)
] 7 - x g9
6. 8x + y + 7 = 0
1
2
2]x + 5g - x ]x + 5g
(r)
x+5
] 7x + 2 g4 - 28 ] x - 1 g ] 7x + 2 g3
(u)
] 7x + 2 g8
1
2
- 21x + 30
] 7x + 2 g5
15 ] 2x - 5 g3 ] 3x + 4 g4 - 6 ] 3x + 4 g5 ] 2x - 5 g2
] 2x - 5 g6
4
]
]
g
3 3x + 4 4x - 33 g
=
] 2x - 5 g4
5
4
3x 2 + 8x - 5
] 3x + 4 g2
] 2x - 9 g2 ] 20x + 51 g
6 ] 5x + 1 g ] 2x - 9 g2 - 5 ] 2x - 9 g3
=
2
] 5x + 1 g
] 5x + 1 g2
27
(y)
(p)
^ x 2 - x - 1 h2
(s)
(t)
(l)
x 4 - 2x 3 - 4x 2 - 1
2 ] 2x + 7 g10
Exercises 8.9
1.
10x - y - 9 = 0
1.
^ 4x 3 - 9x 2 + 3 h
3. 40
6.
6. 3 7. 2x + 3 x + 1
6
(a) 4 ] x + 3 g3 (b) 6 ] 2x - 1 g2 (c) 70x ^ 5x 2 - 4 h
5
4
(d) 48 ] 8x + 3 g (e) - 5 ] 1 - x g (f) 135 ] 5x + 9 g8
3
(g) 4 ] x - 4 g (h) 4 ^ 6x 2 + 3 h ^ 2x 3 + 3x h
7
2
^
h
(i) 8 ] 2x + 5 g x + 5x - 1
1
3
5
(j) 6 ^ 6x 5 - 4x h ^ x 6 - 2x 2 + 3 h (k) ] 3x - 1 g 2
2
2
5
-4
(l) 2 ] 4 - x g- 3 (m) - 6x ^ x 2 - 9 h
(n) ] 5x + 4 g 3
3
1
3^ 2
3
4
3x - 14x + 1 h ^ x 3 - 7x 2 + x h
(o)
(p)
4
2 3x + 4
8x
5
2
(q) (r)
(s)
3
] 5x - 2 g2
^ x 2 + 1 h5
7 - 3x
(t) -
3. 1264
3x 2
Exercises 8.8
1.
26
Exercises 8.10
1
32
(b) -
2 x3
2.
4 - 3x
2 2-x
5
11
=2x - 1
] 2x - 1 g2
15
(e)
x6
(i) -
] 2x - 1 g2
+ 2-x =
9. 3x + 16y - 8 = 0
14. x = 4
(h) x
(l)
12
4. 3
11. (a) -
1
4
(d) -
6 6 x5
(h)
x7
1 -2
x
2
(d)
2 2-x
- 2 ] 5x + 3 g
3x + 1
3 x+1 -2 x+1
3x + 5
(v)
=
x+1
2 ] x + 1 g3
2x - 3
(w)
2 x-1 -2 x-1
- 2x + 1
=
] 2x - 3 g2
2 x - 1 ] 2x - 3 g2
x ] x - 9 g2
(x)
x2 + 1
- 2 ] x - 9 g x2 + 1
] x - 9 g4
- x 2 - 9x - 2
x2 + 1 ] x - 9 g3
813
814
5
9
2.
1
8
6.
x - 18y + 8 = 0
3. - 1
4. x = 0, 1
(b)
5. x = - 9, 3
7. 17x - 25y - 19 = 0
Exercises 8.11
1.
(a)
2.
dy
dx
(b)
(a)
(d)
(e)
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
11
] 2x + 1 g2
5 x3
2
4. 71c 34l
5. 162c 54l
(d) 0c
3. 8c 8l
6. (a) X = ^ 4, 16 h, Y = ^ -1, 6 h
(f)
dy
dx
5. (a) 1
8.
(a) x = - 2
(b) x = 1
9.
(a) f l] x g = 32 ] 4x + 9 g3
dy
dy
(c)
dv
= 4t - 3
dt
dx
= 42x 5 - 9x 2 + 2x - 8
dx
= 9 (2x + 4) (x 2 + 4x - 2)8
= 40x ] 2x - 1 g3 + 5 ] 2x - 1 g4 = 5 ] 2x - 1 g3 (10x - 1)
=-
10
x3
(b) 20
6. 10
7. 42
(c) x = 2
(b)
dy
dx
= ] 9x - 1 g ] 3x - 1 g (d)
(e) f l] x g =
(c) m = 6
dx
4.
(c)
(b) P = ^ 3, 9 h
dy
3. (a)
= 10x - 3
=dy
dx
5
] x - 3 g2
=-
4
x2
1
5 5 x4
10.
(b) At X: m 1 = 12, m 2 = 7
At Y : m 1 = - 8, m 2 = - 3
(c) At X: 3c 22l At Y : 11c19l
7.
71c 34l, 8c 58l 8. (a) (0, 0), (2, 8), (-1, -1)
(b) 63c 26l at (0, 0), 4c 42l at (2, 8), 71c 34l at (-1, -1)
9.
10. 164c 45l at (0, 0), 178c 37l at (- 3, - 33), 146c 19l at (1, 3)
Test yourself 8
1.
(a)
11. 9x - y - 7 = 0
12. (2, 3)
7
10
13.
dS
= 8rr
dr
15. 4x - y - 6 = 0
18. 12x + y - 4 = 0
19.
16. 3525
ds
1
= u + at, t =
5
dt
ANSWERS
Challenge exercise 8
13
18
1.
f ] 1 g = - 3, f l] 1 g = - 36
3.
dx
= 8t 3 + 300t 2; t = 0, - 37.5
dt
4.
2x + y = 0, 3x - y - 3 = 0, 6x - y + 12 = 0
5.
6.
3
4
7.
8.
9.
(b)
2. -
1
90c
180c
270c
360c
5 ] 5x + 1 g3 ] x - 9 g4 + 15 ] x - 9 g5 ] 5x + 1 g2
= 10 ] 5x + 1 g2 ] x - 9 g4 (4x - 13)
2 ] 4x - 9 g4 - 16 ] 2x + 1 g ] 4x - 9 g3
] 4x - 9 g8
- 2 ] 12x + 17 g
=
] 4x - 9 g5
x=
- 6 ! 204
- 3 ! 51
=
6
12
11. a = 1
14.
2
1
27
21. ^ - 4, -73 h
10. 2x + y - 25 = 0
1
1
1 1 ! 13
n 13. x = ,
12. P = d - 2 , 6
4 16
3
3
15. 3x - y + 5 = 0, Q = ^ 0, 5 h, PQ =
10
So perpendicular
25. x = 0, 2, 6
28. p = 1
1
2
8r 3
dV
=
3
dr
33. -
30. k = 4
1
48
36. (a) 6x 2 - 5 ] 3x - 1 g ] 3x - 5 g3
5 22
22
31. x - y - 4 = 0
34. a = -1, b = 2, c = 4
(b)
- ] 5x + 6 g
] x - 3 g4 2x + 1
4 ! 13
6
1
1
n
(b) Q = d - 4 , 12
7
49
5x - 3
x+1
5.
- 0.309
3 3
o, 12x - 12 3 y + 31 = 0
2
7.
m1 m2 =
9.
7
12
1
1 3
, -1 , 1
2
2 5
29.
27.
1.
19. x =
26. a = - 14, b = 7
32. 4x - y - 13 = 0
11
18. e 1 ,
12
4x 4 3x - 2
38. (a) x + 7y - 80 = 0
17. n = 8
3 ] 4 - 5x g
23.
37. x =
y=
22. 3x - 9y - 14 = 0
2. 1
3. 5x + 2y - 1 = 0
6. (a)
3 cm 2
(b) AC =
4. ^ 2, - 2 h
13 cm, BD = 1 cm
3
8
1
# - = -1; A = d -1, 1 n
4
6
2
8. x = 15c
815
816
10.
20. - 1
2
3
21. 2
24. 3x + y - 5 = 0
27. x = 3
25. 1
2
1x 13
3
28. - 3
31. 3x 2 - 4x
32. -
34. x = - 2, y = -17
12. 45c 49 13. Domain: all real x !
real y ! 0
1
; range: all
2
14.
33. 17.5 m
(b) 27.8 m2
(b) P ^ - 2, 0 h, Q ^ 0, 4 h
(c) 4 units
38. 127 m
42. - 4
1
# y #9
3
43. -
44. (a) 3x - y - 4 = 0
15.
47.
50.
8
units
13
1
2x - 7
5
] x + 1 g2
3
x2
(b) x - y - 2 = 0
(c) x + 3y + 10 = 0
45.
(d) R = ^ -10, 0 h
53. x + 6y - 56 = 0
55. a = 2, b = - 9
52.
-17 - 2x
x 2 + 5x
- ] 17 + 2x g
x 2 + 5x
54. f ] - 2 g = - 45, f l] - 2 g = 48
56. 7x - 5y + 9 = 0
60.
3+1
2 2
6+ 2
4
ANSWERS
63.
4.
(b) x = 49c
(d) x = 166c, y = 7c
(g) x = 5c
65. 3
66. x 1 4, x 2 4.6
1
range: y $ 0
2
(b) domain: all real x ! -7 range: all real y ! 0
(b) x = 5.5 cm
(c) domain: - 2 # x # 2
69. a = -15, b = -1
6.
7.
8.
9.
range: - 2 # y # 0
70. cos 2i
71. (a) (0, 0), (1, 3), (-1, -1), (2, 20)
(b) 63c 26l at (0, 0), 2c 20l at (1, 3), 40c 36l at (-1, -1),
0c 22l at (2, 20)
72. (a) x = 360n ! 45c
(c) - 1
1
2
(d) 3x + 2y - 5 = 0
74. (a)
77. (c)
78. (c)
80. (c)
10.
+B = 90c (+ in semicircle)
AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2
= 62 + 32
= 36 + 9
= 45
AC = 45
=3 5
1
Radius = AC
2
3 5
=
cm
2
11.
Exercises 9.1
1.
2.
16r
cm
9
(f) i = 22c30l
3. (a) i = 29c
(b) x = 18c
(d) x = 68c
(e) x = 10 cm
(i) b = 40c
817
818
6.
OB = 8.3 cm
8.
9.
OA = r
AC =
OC =
=
=
r +r
2
=
=
(equal radii)
2 r2
=
=
2 # r2
2r
x2
4
4r 2 x 2
4
4
2
4r - x 2
4
4r 2 - x 2
2
r2 -
4r 2 - x 2
2
2r + 4r 2 - x 2
2
So BC =
AC. CD = BC.CE
2r
(angle at centre double
(angle of revolution)
1
+BCD = +BOD
2
1.
2.
3.
+D = 180c - 58c
angle at circumference)
Exercises 9.2
(a) x = 5 cm (b) y = 15 cm (c) x = 2.4 m (d) x = 42c
(e) z = 90c (f) x Z 10.3 m (g) x = 6 m, y = 3 m
(h) m Z 13.4 cm (i) y Z 5 cm (j) x = 5 mm
4. 25.6 cm
CE = 11.5 2 - 6.9 2
= 9.2
CD = 2 # 9.2 (perpendicular from O bisects chord)
= 18.4
= AB
(AAA)
Exercises 9.3
1
= (360 - 2i)
2
= 180 - i
3. 144 mm
41 cm
(Pythagoras theorem)
+A = +E
angle at circumference)
5.
x 2
r -d n
2
2
But AO = BO so AB = BC
2.
By similar triangles
AO
BO
=
AB
BC
1.
x
2
CD = r +
7. x = 4.7 m, y = 1.8 m
(given)
` +B = 180c - +D
Let +A = x
+C = 360 - ] 90 + 90 + x g
ANSWERS
= 360 - 180 - x
= 180 - x
= 180 - +A
Since opposite angles are supplementary, ABCD is a
cyclic quadrilateral.
(c)
+CDA = 180 - i
(straight angle)
` +B = 180c - +CDA
6.
7.
8.
AB Z 13 m
Let +A = x
+C = 360 - ] 90 + 90 + x g (angle sum of quadrilateral)
= 360 - 180 - x
= 180 - x
= 180 - +A
Since opposite angles are supplementary, ABCD is a
cyclic quadrilateral.
Exercises 9.4
1.
2.
3.
Test yourself 9
1.
i = 56c
4.
x = y = 12 cm
5.
6.
x = 10 cm
7.
a = 3c , b = 44c , c = 136c
= 50c
+OCA = 90c (tangent perpendicular to radius)
b = 90c - 83c
`
= 7c
OC = OE (equal radii)
` D OCE is isosceles
(base +s of isosceles D )
= 66c
+ACD = 180c - +AED
+OCE = + OEC = c
2c + 100c = 180c (+ sum of D)
2c = 80c
c = 40c
Reflex +COE = 360c - 100c (+ of revolution)
= 260c
d = 360c - (260c + 50c + 7c)
= 180c - 62c
= 118c
= 52c
= +OAB - +OAC
= 90c - 66c
= 24c
1
v = +AOC
2
y+u
66c + u
u
+BAC
`
x
1
# 48c
2
= 24c
=
4.
21 cm
5.
AC 2 + BC 2 = 3.9 2 + 5.2 2
= 42.25
AB 2 = 6.5 2
= 42.25
`
AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2
` +ACB = 90c (by Pythagoras theorem)
` A lies on a diameter of the circle (tangent radius)
3. x = 7.2 m
1
# 100c
2
a=
8.
2. y = 2.3 mm
(+ sum of quadrilateral)
= 43c
9.
17 cm
10. 5.3 m
14. x = 4.9 m
819
820
6.
19. +C is common
+A = +CBD (+s in alternate segment)
(giving reasons).
Challenge exercise 9
1.
6 cm
2.
Let +DOB
Then +EDO
EO
`
+OED
= 180c - (180c - 4x + x)
= 3x
` +AOE = 3+DCB
3.
Let+DAB
Then+DAC
+ACB
+ADB
+DBA
+CBA
+DBA + +CBA
7.
= x and +CAB = y
=x+y
= +DAB = x (+s in alternate segment)
= +CAB = y (similarly)
= 180c - (x + y) (+ sum of D ADB)
= 180c - (x + y) (+ sum of D ACB)
= 180c (DBC is straight +)
D
Let ABCD be a kite with AB = AD and BC = DC, and
+ADC = +ABC = 90.
AC is common.
` AB = BC = CA
`D ABC is equilateral
(b) rr units
(c)
5.
3 r2 -
2 3-r
1 2
o units 2
rr = r 2 e
2
2
25rr 2
units 2
28
ANSWERS
9.
Exercises 10.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Axis of symmetry x =
6.
7.
8.
9.
3 7
3
n
, minimum point d ,
8 16
8
(ii) -3
(ii) 1
(iii) (1, 1)
821
822
(ii) Minimum -8
y
(iii)
10
8
6
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
14. (a) (i) -2
(iii)
-6
(ii) Minimum 0
y
-8
-10
5
4
3
(iii)
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
2
1
-2
-3
(e) (i) ! 3
3
2
-2
-3
(iii)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
(iii)
(ii) Minimum -1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-4
-6
-5
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
(f) (i) -1,
2
3
(ii) Minimum - 2
1
12
ANSWERS
(iii)
(ii) Minimum 4
1
4
(iii)
41
4
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
2
3
-2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2 1 -3
12
-4
-2
-3
-5
-6
(j) (i) 2.87, -0.87
(g) (i) 1.65, -3.65 (ii) Maximum 7
(iii)
(iii)
(ii) Maximum 7
7
6
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-2
-3
15. (a) 4
(c)
1
4
y
7
(iii)
(b) None
1
4
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
823
824
(b) 6
19.
3
4
(c)
14
12
10
8
-4
-3 -2 -1
-2
-4
4
2
-6
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
20.
-3
7
17. (a) - 3
8
(b) None
(c)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-6
-4
-6
-8
-10
-14
-16
-18
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
18. (a)
21.
-12
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-14
-16
-18
-3
(b) x 1 2, x 2 3
(c) 2 # x # 3
ANSWERS
22.
8.
b 2 - 4ac = ] - 1 g2 - 4 ] 3 g ] 7 g
= - 83
10
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
9.
-6
1.
x 1 -3, x 2 3
2. - 1 # n # 0
4.
x 1 - 2, x 2 2
5. 0 # y # 6
7.
x 1 - 4, x 2 2
8. p # - 3, p $ - 1
3. a # 0, a $ 2
6. 0 1 t 1 2
1
11. 1 1 h 1 2
2
14. q 1 3, q 2 6
17. - 3 1 x 1 5
1
19. y 1 - , y 2 5
3
20. x # - 2, x $ 4
30. - 2
24. -
18. - 6 # t # 2
29. x #
21. -
1
1x 10
2
1
#x 10
2
26. x $ - 1, x 1 - 2
28. x 1 - 6, x 2 - 3
9. m 1 2, m 2 4
12. - 4 # x # 5
16. n # - 4, n $ 3
1
3
27. 2 1 x # 2
2
5
2
,x 21
3
2
# x 1 -2
2
Exercises 10.3
1.
2.
3.
1
2
(1)
(2)
x 2 + 3 = 2x + 6
x 2 - 2x - 3 = 0
b 2 - 4ac = ] - 2 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] - 3 g
= 16
20
So there are 2 points of intersection
Exercises 10.2
25. 1 1 x 1 1
14. 0 # b # 2
23. 0 1 x # 1
11. m 1 - 3, m 2 3
y = x2 + 3
-7
1
3
13. p 1 -
-5
22. 0 1 x 1
10. 0 1 k 1 4
15. p # - 2, p $ 6
-4
1
#k #7
2
k # - 5, k $ 3
12. k # - 1, k $ 1
-3
13. - 2
So 3x 2 - x + 7 2 0 for all x
-2
10. x # - 3, x $ 2
a =320
1
7
6. p 2 2 7. k 2 - 2
p = 1 4. k = ! 2 5. b # 12
8
17. 3x + y - 4 = 0
y = x 2 + 5x + 3
From (1):
y = - 3x + 4
Substitute (2) in (3):
x 2 + 5x + 3 = - 3x + 4
x 2 + 8x - 1 = 0
b 2 - 4ac = 8 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] - 1 g
= 68
20
So there are 2 points of intersection
(1)
(2)
18. y = - x - 4
y = x2
Substitute (2) in (1):
x2 = - x - 4
2
x +x+4=0
b 2 - 4ac = 1 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g
= - 15
10
So there are no points of intersection
(1)
(2)
19. y = 5x - 2
y = x 2 + 3x - 1
Substitute (2) in (1):
x 2 + 3x - 1 = 5 x - 2
x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0
b 2 - 4ac = ] - 2 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 1 g
=0
So there is 1 point of intersection
` the line is a tangent to the parabola
(1)
(2)
20. p = 3
1
4
(3)
825
826
Exercises 10.4
1.
2.
(a) a = 1, b = 2, c = -6
(b) a = 2, b = -11, c = 15
(c) a = 1, b = 1, c = - 2
(d) a = 1, b = 7, c = 18
(e) a = 3, b = -11, c = -16
(f) a = 4, b = 17, c = 11
(g) a = 2, b = -12, c = -9
(h) a = 3, b = - 8, c = 2
(i) a = - 1, b = 10, c = - 24
(j) a = - 2, b = 0, c = - 1
20. (a) m = 1
(b) m 1
x 2 - 4x + 5 = x ] x - 2 g - 2 ] x + 1 g + 3 + 4
4.
RHS = a ] x - 2 g ] x + 3 g + b ] x - 2 g + c
= 1 ] x - 2 g ] x + 3 g + 1 ] x - 2 g + 17
= x 2 + 3x - 2x - 6 + x - 2 + 17
= x 2 + 2x + 9
= RHS
` true
1.
2.
(a) x = - 2, 3
3.
6. a = 2, b = 1, c = - 1
7.
K = 1, L = 6, M = 7.5 8. 12 ] x + 5 g + ] 2x - 3 g - 65 - 2
9.
a = 0, b = - 4, c = - 21
(b) y = x 2 - 3x
(d) y = x 2 + 4x - 9
(a) a + b = - 2, ab = 1
(b) a + b = 1.5, ab = - 3
(c) a + b = 0.2, ab = - 1.8
(d) a + b = - 7, ab = 1
2
(e) a + b = 2 , ab = 1
3
m = 0.5
5. k = - 32
9.
k = -5
10. m = ! 3
x = ! 1, !2
7.
8.
9.
10.
x+3+
6. b = 4
7. k = 1
11. k = - 1
2
=5
x+3
14. b = - 6, c = 8
15. a = 0, b = - 1
(c) k = - 1.8
(b) p # - 2 3 , p $ 2 3
8. p = 13
12. n = - 1, 3
(e) k # - 1, k $ 0
3 3
6. x = - 1
u 2 - 5u + 2 = 0
b 2 - 4ac = ] - 5 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 2 g
= 17
20
1
16. ab = 1 ` b =
a
(c) p = !
(e) a = - 2, - 2 ! 6
Let u = x + 3
4.
18. (a) p = ! 2 3
1! 5
2
5.
(d) 21
(b) k = - 1, 0
(c) x =
2
# (x + 3) = 5 # (x + 3)
]x + 3g
] x + 3 g2 + 2 = 5 ] x + 3 g
] x + 3 g2 - 5 ] x + 3 g + 2 = 0
(a) x 2 + 3x - 10 = 0 (b) x 2 - 4x - 21 = 0
(c) x 2 + 5x + 4 = 0 (d) x 2 - 8x + 11 = 0
(e) x 2 - 2x - 27 = 0
17. (a) k = - 1
(b) y = ! 2, ! 2
(x + 3) # (x + 3) +
3.
13. p = 2, r = - 7
(a) x = ! 3
(d) x = 3, 5
Exercises 10.5
(c) - 0.5
(c) x = 4, 5
4.
(e) y = - x 2 - 2x + 1
(a) 3 (b) - 6
(b) x = 2, 3
A = 1, B = 5 , C = - 6
2.
3 - 10
3 + 10
,m2
2
2
1
(e) x = 1 , 4
2
5.
1.
(c) k = 2
Exercises 10.6
3.
(c) y = 2x 2 - 3x + 7
(b) k = - 3
(c) m = - 3
m = 2, p = - 5, q = 2
10. (a) y = x 2 - x - 5
19. (a) k = 2
(d) k = 3
Test yourself 10
1.
(a) 0 # x # 3
(b) n 1 - 3, n 2 3
2.
a = 1, b = - 9, c = 14
4.
a =120
D = b 2 - 4ac
= ] -2 g 2 -4 # 1 # 7
= - 24
10
` positive definite
3. (a) x = 2
(c) - 2 # y # 2
(b) - 3
ANSWERS
2 1
(d) 18 (e) 30 6. x = 1 ,
3 3
5.
(a) 6 (b) 3
7.
8.
a = -1 1 0
D = b 2 - 4ac
= 3 2 - 4 # (-1) # (- 4)
= -7
10
(c) 2
(d) ii
(e) i
` - 4 + 3x - x 2 1 0 for all x
9.
(a) x = -
1
4
(b) 6
1
8
10. 3 ] x - 2 g2 + 12 ] x + 3 g - 41
12. (a) k = 3
1
4
1
13. x = - , 3
2
(b) k = 1
(c) k = 3
14. m 1 -
(d) i
(d) ii
9
16
(d) k = 3
(e) k = 2
19. (a) x + 3x - 28 = 0
1
1
(c) 1 y 1
5
3
(e) ii
y = x 2 - 5x + 4
5.
11
9.
x = !1
(b) x - 10x + 18 = 0
(b) n # - 3, n 2 3
6.
7.
8.
lines y = !1
4. A (parabolic) arc
5. A spiral
9. lines x = !5
10. line y = 2
13. y = -5
15. x = -7
16. x = 3
18. x = !4
1.
x2 + y2 = 1
2. x 2 + 2x + y 2 + 2y - 79 = 0
3.
x 2 - 10x + y 2 + 4y + 25 = 0
5.
12x - 26y - 1 = 0
7.
8.
9.
x 2 - 4x + 20y - 36 = 0
11. y 2 + 8x - 32 = 0
1
(d) x # - 10, x 2 - 2
2
4. 8x - 6y + 13 = 0
6. y = ! x
(e) 4 1 x # 7
13. x 2 + 12y = 0
10. x 2 - 20y = 0
12. x 2 - 2x + 8y - 7 = 0
14. x 2 - 5x + y 2 - 2y - 11 = 0
15. x 2 + 3x + y 2 - y - 4 = 0
3. a = 4, b = - 3, c = 7
7. p 2 0.75
4. x = ! 2
8. Show D = 0
16. x 2 + x + y 2 - 2y - 17 = 0
17. 2x 2 + 4x + 2y 2 - 6y + 47 = 0
18. 2x 2 + 2x + 2y 2 + 4y + 27 = 0
19. 3x + 4y + 25 = 0, 3x + 4y - 15 = 0
20. 12x - 5y - 14 = 0, 12x - 5y + 12 = 0
4x + 1
3
1
=
+
11. 2
x-2 x+1
x -x-2
1 - 21
1 + 21
,k$
2
2
An arc
Exercises 11.2
12. k #
3.
4
7
6. n = - 2.3375
1
=
a
c
=
a
k
=
k
= RHS = 1
2.
A circle
Challenge exercise 10
1.
1.
17. y = !8
20. x = 1, 3
21. (a) x 1 - 1, x 2 -
Exercises 11.1
15. x = 0, 2
3! 5
14. x = 1,
2
16. - 23
21. x - 2y - 3 ! 5 5 = 0
22. x - 7y + 9 = 0, 7x + y - 5 = 0
23. 7x - 4y - 30 = 0, 32x + 56y - 35 = 0
24. xy - 16x - 7y + 40 = 0
25. x 2 - 6x - 3y 2 - 12y + 9 = 0
827
828
Problem
23.
12x + 5y - 40 = 0, 12x + 5y + 38 = 0
Exercises 11.3
1.
2.
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 16 (b) x 2 - 6x + y 2 - 4y - 12 = 0
(c) x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 10y + 17 = 0
(d) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 6y - 23 = 0
(e) x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 4y - 5 = 0
(f) x 2 + y 2 + 4y + 3 = 0 (g) x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 4y - 29 = 0
(h) x 2 + 6x + y 2 + 8y - 56 = 0 (i) x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 1 = 0
(j) x 2 + 8x + y 2 + 14y + 62 = 0
56 units
24.
3.
x 2 - 18x + y 2 + 8y + 96 = 0
4.
x 2 + 4x + y 2 + 4y - 8 = 0
Exercises 11.4
6.
x 2 + 6x + y 2 - 16y + 69 = 0
7.
x 2 - 10x + y 2 + 4y + 27 = 0
9.
x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 10y + 25 = 0
5. x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 48 = 0
1.
8. x 2 + y 2 - 9 = 0
(c) x 2 = 4y
(e) x 2 = 40y
(f) x 2 = 12y
(g) x 2 = 24y
2.
12. x 2 + y 2 + 6y + 1 = 0
(a) x 2 = -4y
(b) x 2 = -12y
(d) x = -28y
(e) x = -24y
(g) x 2 = -32y
(h) x 2 = -8y
4.
6.
22. x 2 + 2x + y 2 + 2y - 23 = 0
(i) x 2 = -60y
5.
(f) x 2 = -36y
3.
1
1
(i) (i) c 0, - m (ii) y =
2
2
(c) x 2 = -16y
(j) x = -52y
19.
(h) x 2 = 44y
1
1
18. Centre d - 1 , 1 n , radius 2
2
2
(d) x 2 = 16y
(j) x = 48y
11. x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 6y + 22 = 0
(b) x 2 = 36y
(i) x = 8y
(a) x 2 = 20y
2
10. x + 12x + y - 2y + 1 = 0
2
34 units
1
1
(j) (i) c 0, -5 m (ii) y = 5
2
2
ANSWERS
7.
y =2
8. ^ 4, 4 h
9.
3
1
X = d -1 , - n
2
8
(b) y = 3
(c) 33
7.
x = 4 (latus rectum)
9.
^ 9, - 6 h, ^ 81, 18 h
(d) 4
2
units
13
Exercises 11.6
1.
(a) ] x - 3 g2 = 8 ^ y + 3 h
(b) ] x - 5 g2 = 4 ^ y + 6 h
(i) ] x + 1 g2 = - 4 ^ y - 2 h
2.
(j) ] x - 3 g2 = 8 ^ y + 1 h
(a) ^ y - 4 h2 = 4 ] x + 4 g (b) ^ y - 1 h2 = 8 ] x + 2 g
(c) ^ y + 2 h2 = 12 ] x + 1 g (d) ^ y - 10 h2 = - 4 ] x - 29 g
(e) ^ y + 3 h2 = - 16 ] x - 1 g
(f) ^ y - 6 h2 = 8 ] x + 4 g
(g) ^ y + 5 h2 = - 24 ] x - 2 g (h) ^ y + 12 h2 = 4 ] x + 36 g
Exercises 11.5
2.
5
1
units2
(b) d - 5, - 4 n (c) 10
6
12
1
units
3
1.
8. 12, ^ 3, 6 h, ^ 3, -6 h
(i) ^ y - 2 h2 = - 20 ] x - 1 g (j) ^ y + 4 h2 = - 8 ] x - 2 g
3.
(b) x 2 + 8x - 4y + 16 = 0
(c) x - 4x - 8y - 12 = 0
(d) x 2 - 6x - 8y + 41 = 0
(a) x 2 + 2x - 8y + 9 = 0
(e) x 2 + 4x - 16y + 20 = 0
(f) x 2 + 2x + 16y + 1 = 0
(g) x - 8x + 20y - 24 = 0
(h) x 2 + 10x + 8y + 1 = 0
(i) x 2 + 6x + 12y + 45 = 0
(j) x 2 + 4y + 24 = 0
(k) y - 6y - 12x - 3 = 0
(l) y 2 - 8y - 4x + 8 = 0
3.
4.
5.
(ii) x
(ii) x
(ii) x
(ii) x
= -2
= -4
= -7
= -6
1
(ii) x = 4
(b) y 2 = 4x
(e) y 2 = !36x
6.
(c) y 2 = -16x
(f) y 2 = !8x
(m) y 2 - 8x + 32 = 0
(o) y + 2y - 8x - 7 = 0
(h) y 2 =
(s) y - 4y + 2x + 5 = 0
4.
1
1
1
(d) Focus d 1 , 0 n, directrix x = - 1 , focal length 1
2
2
2
1
1
1
(e) Focus d -1 , 0 n, directrix x = 1 , focal length 1
4
4
4
(f) Focus d
1
1
1
, 0 n, directrix x = - , focal length
12
12
12
(ii) y = -4
(ii) y = - 3
(ii) y = -2
(ii) y = - 4
(ii) y = -5
(ii) y = 4
(ii) y = 4
(ii) y = 3
(ii) y = 2
(ii) y = 5
5.
6.
x 2 - 12y + 36 = 0
7.
x 2 + 4x - 8y - 4 = 0, x 2 + 4x + 8y + 12 = 0
8.
x 2 - 2x - 4y - 19 = 0
9. y 2 - 12y + 12x + 12 = 0
10. x 2 - 2x - 12y + 1 = 0
11. x 2 - 2x - 28y + 29 = 0
12. y 2 + 4y + 24x - 44 = 0
13. y 2 - 6y - 32x + 9 = 0
14. x 2 - 6x + 8y - 15 = 0
15. y 2 + 2y - 16x + 49 = 0
(r) y 2 - 6y + 16x + 25 = 0
(t) y 2 - 2y + 2x - 6 = 0
1
x
2
(p) y 2 + 8y + 12x + 4 = 0
(q) y 2 - 2y + 4x - 11 = 0
(d) y 2 = 12x
(g) y 2 = 12x
(n) y 2 + 4y - 16x - 12 = 0
16. x 2 + 6x + 4y - 7 = 0
17. x 2 - 4x - 12y - 8 = 0
829
830
18. y 2 + 2y + 16x - 95 = 0
Exercises 11.8
1.
(a)
22. (a) 8x 2 + 9y - 72 = 0
23
9
n, y = 8
32
32
(b)
23. (a)
(c)
3
1
(b) d -1, -8 n, y = -9
4
4
24. x 2 + 4x + 8y - 20 = 0
25. 0.3 m
Exercises 11.7
1.
5.
m=
dy
dx
1
3
=x
2. m = -4
3. m = -1
6. x - y - 2 = 0
4. m =
1
2
7. x - 2y + 12 = 0
8.
x + y - 6 = 0, x - y - 18 = 0
9.
x - 2y - 2 = 0, 2x + y - 9 = 0
(d)
7 1
10. 4x + y - 8 = 0, M = d 1 , n
8 2
11. x + y - 9 = 0, P = ^ - 18, 27 h
12. Q = ^ 33, 60.5 h
13. x + 4y + 144 = 0, 4x + 2y + 9 = 0, ^ 18, -40.5 h ; show
the point lies on the parabola by substituting it into the
equation of the parabola
14. x - y - 4 = 0, R = ^ 4, 0 h
15. (a) Substitute P into the equation of the parabola
(b) x + py - 2p - p 3 = 0
(c) Substitute ^ 0, 1 h into the equation of the normal.
0 + p - 2p - p 3 = 0
0 = p3 + p
= p (p 2 + 1)
2
Since p ! 0, p + 1 = 0
(e)
ANSWERS
(f)
2.
(a) (i) p
(ii) -
1
p
(iii) y - px + p 2 = 0
(iv) x + py = p 3 + 2p
1
(iii) y - qx + 3p 2 = 0
(b) (i) q (ii) q
(iv) x + qy = 3q 3 + 6q
1
(iii) y - tx + 2t 2 = 0
(c) (i) t (ii) t
2.
(a) x - 2y - 2 = 0 (b) 2x - y - 11 = 0
(c) y = x 2 + 3x + 2 (d) y = 16x 2 - 1 (e) xy = 2
3.
(a) x = 2t, y = t 2
(iv) x + ny = 5n 3 + 10n
1
(iii) y - px + 6p 2 = 0
(e) (i) p (ii) p
(iv) x + py = 6p 3 + 12p
1
(iii) y + kx - 4k 2 = 0
(f) (i) k (ii)
k
(b) x = 6t, y = 3t 2
(d) x = 8t, y = 4t 2
(e) x = - 18t, y = - 9t
(f) x = 10t, y = 5t 2
t
t2
,y=
4
2
5t 2
(j) x = - 5t, y = 2
(iv) x + ty = 2t 3 + 4t
1
(iii) y - nx + 5n 2 = 0
(d) (i) n (ii) n
t
t2
,y=
4
8
3t
2
(h) x =
4.
5.
(iv) x - ky = 4k 3 + 8k
1
(iii) y - qx - q 2 = 0
(g) (i) q (ii) q
(iv) x + qy = -q 3 - 2q
1
(iii) y + tx - 2t 2 = 0
(h) (i) t (ii)
t
(iv) x - ty = 2t 3 + 4t
1
(iii) y - mx - 3m 2 = 0
(i) (i) m (ii) m
6.
(a) Q = ^ - 8, 4 h
7.
^ 4, 0 h, x = - 4
9.
(a) x 2 = 24y
(iv) x + my = -3m 3 - 6m
1
(iii) y + ax - 8a 2 = 0
(j) (i) a (ii)
a
(b) x - y + 12 = 0
(iv) x - ay = 8a 3 + 16a
8. P = ^ 4, -4 h; 4x + 3y - 4 = 0
(b)
1
4
10. 3x - y - 18 = 0
3.
(ii) 8 -4pq ^ p + q h, 4 _ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 i B
Exercises 11.9
1.
t+n
(a) (i)
2
(b) (i)
(c) (i)
(d) (i)
(e) (i)
p+q
2
m+n
2
p+q
2
a+b
2
(f) (i) -
p+q
2
a+b
(g) (i) 2
(h) (i)
p+q
2
s+t
2
p+q
2
1
(ii) y - ] t + n g x + 4tn = 0
2
(ii) 7 -2ab ] a + b g, 2 ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 + 2 h A
(d) (i) 6 3 ] s + t g, 3st @
(ii) y -
1
^ p + q h x + 2pq = 0
2
(ii) y -
1
] m + n g x + 3mn = 0
2
(ii) 7 -5tw ] t + w g, 5 ^ t 2 + tw + w 2 + 2 h A
(ii) y -
1
^ p + q h x + 5pq = 0
2
(ii) 8 -6pq ^ p + q h, -6 _ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 i B
(ii) y -
1
] a + b g x + ab = 0
2
(ii) y +
(ii) 7 -3st ] s + t g, 3 ^ s 2 + st + t 2 + 2 h A
(e) (i) 6 5 ] t + w g, 5tw @
(f) (i) 7 6 ^ p + q h, -6pq A
(g) (i) 6 4 ] m + n g, -4mn @
(ii) 7 -4mn ] m + n g, - 4 ^ m 2 + mn + n 2 + 2 h A
1
^ p + q h x - 2pq = 0
2
1
(ii) y + ] a + b g x - 6ab = 0
2
1
(ii) y - ^ p + q h x - 4pq = 0
2
(ii) y +
1
] s + t g x - st = 0
2
1
(ii) y - ^ p + q h x - 7pq = 0
2
4
x - x1 i
x1 _
6
x - x1 i
x1 _
831
832
8
x - x1 i
x1 _
14. ^ - 2, -1 h
2
x - x1 i
x1 _
10
(e) (i) xx 1 = 10 _ y + y 1 i (ii) y - y 1 = - _ x - x 1 i
x1
5.
(f) (i) xx 1 = -2 _ y + y 1 i
(ii) y - y 1 =
2
x - x1 i
x1 _
(g) (i) xx 1 = -4 _ y + y 1 i
(ii) y - y 1 =
4
x - x1 i
x1 _
(ii) y - y 1 =
12
x - x1 i
x1 _
(ii) y - y 1 =
22
x - x1 i
x1 _
(ii) y - y 1 =
14
x - x1 i
x1 _
(a) xx 1 = 8 _ y + y 1 i (b) xx 1 = 2 _ y + y 1 i
6.
7.
9.
- px + qx + ap 2 - aq 2 = 0
x (q - p) - a (q 2 - p 2) = 0
x (q - p) - a (q + p) (q - p) = 0
x - a (q + p) = 0
x = a (q + p)
Substitute in (1):
y - pa (q + p) + ap 2 = 0
y - apq - ap 2 + ap 2 = 0
y - apq = 0
y = apq
16. (a) 3x + 4y - 8 = 0
(e) xx 1 = 10 _ y + y 1 i (f) xx 1 = -2 _ y + y 1 i
(g) xx 1 = -12 _ y + y 1 i
(h) xx 1 = -4 _ y + y 1 i
(j) xx 1 = -18 _ y + y 1 i
(a) y - px + ap 2 = 0
(b) xx 0 = 2a _ y + y 0 i
1
] t + r g x + 2tr = 0
2
x2
y=18
dy
x
=9
dx
9t 2
o
At e -9t, 2
dy
-9t
n
= -d
9
dx
=t
y-
8. x + 2y - 36 = 0
For normal, m 1 m 2 = -1
1
t
The equation is given by
y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
` m2 = -
9t 2
1
= - (x + 9t)
t
2
2ty + 9t 3 = -2 (x + 9t)
= -2x - 18t
2x + 2ty + 9t 3 + 18t = 0
`
y+
10. x + ty = at 3 + 2at
11. 3x - 4y + 4 = 0
(2)
] 1 g - ] 2 g:
(c) xx 1 = 4 _ y + y 1 i (d) xx 1 = 6 _ y + y 1 i
(i) xx 1 = -8 _ y + y 1 i
(1)
(b) N = _ 0, ap 2 + 2a i
1
1
(b) N = c - , - m
4
32
(b) ^ - 6, 3 h c 2,
1
m
3
20. (a) F = ^ 0, 6 h
(b) 3x + 4y - 24 = 0
(c) Q = ^ - 24, 24 h
(d) P : x - 2y - 3 = 0; Q: 2x + y + 24 = 0
1
(e) m 1 m 2 = # -2 = -1, ` tangents at P, Q are
2
perpendicular
(f) R = ^ -9, -6 h
(g) directrix: y = - a = - 6, ` R lies on directrix
21. P = ^ -2, -1.5 h
22. x - y + 9 = 0
23. m 1 m 2 = pq
= - 1 (since pq = - 1 for focal chord)
` tangents are perpendicular
24. Tangents intersect at 6 a ^ p + q h, apq @
i.e.
y = apq
= - a (since pq = - 1 for focal chord)
Directrix: y = - a
` tangents meet on the directrix
25.
y=
x2
4a
dy
x
=
2a
dx
At P _ x 0, y 0 i,
dy
dx
x0
2a
ANSWERS
(c) Directrix y = -3
Point of intersection = ^ - 8, -3 h
So the point lies on the directrix.
Exercises 11.10
1.
x 2 = 2 a ^ y - 2a h
7.
y - px + 2p 2 = 0; y - qx + 2q 2 = 0; y = - 2
8.
x 2 = 16 ^ y - 6 h
dy
dx
1
n
2
dy
x
4
1
2
(a) y - px + p 2 = 0
(b) p 2 + 1
(c) R = _ 0, - p 2 i and F = ^ 0, 1 h
FR = p + 1
= PF
2
4.
5.
q
2
(b) y = - 6a
15. (a) x 2 = 9a ^ y - 5a h
= -1
So the tangents are perpendicular.
3.
2
4
dx
1
` m2 =
2
2.
; QO has gradient
1
m:
2
m 1 m 2 = -2 #
p
2
q
= -1
2
pq = - 4
`
(b) x 2 = 2a ^ y - 4a h
m1 m2 =
At P (8, 8):
dy
-8
=
4
dx
` m 1 = -2
At q c 2,
(b) x 2 = 2a ^ y - a h
10. (a) y = -a
(c) (3, 2)
(d)
9. x 2 = 2a ^ y - a h
11. x 2 = - 4 ^ y + 4 h
(a) 3x + 4y - 8 = 0
(b) Q = d 2,
6.
Test yourself 11
2. x 2 - 4x - 8y - 4 = 0
1.
8x + 6y - 29 = 0
3.
Centre ^ 3, 1 h, radius 4
5.
(a) ^ 8, 8 h
6.
x 2 + y 2 = 25
8.
x 2 + x + y 2 - 3y - 10 = 0
4. (a) ^ 1, - 3 h
(b) 2x - y - 8 = 0
7. (a) y = 2
9. x 2 - 8x + 16y - 16 = 0
(b) y = 0
(a) y + qx - 5q = 0
(b) R = _ 0, 5q 2 i
(c) F = ^ 0, - 5 h
FR = FQ = 5 _ q 2 + 1 i
So triangle FQR is isosceles.
` +FQR = +FRQ (base angles of isosceles triangle)
15. 4x - 3y - 16 = 0, 4x - 3y + 14 = 0
(a) 4x + 3y - 9 = 0
(b) Focus (0, 3)
Substitute into equation:
LHS = 4 ] 0 g + 3 ] 3 g -9
=0
= RHS
So it is a focal chord.
(ii) ^ 1, 2 h
(b) ^ 0, - 2 h
(a) y - tx + 3t 2 = 0
(b) Y = _ 0, - 3t 2 i
(c) F = ^ 0, 3 h
TF = FY = 3 ^ t 2 + 1 h
2
(b) ^ 4, - 3 h
11. 2x + 3y + 6 = 0
12. 14 units
13. y = - 24x
14. x - 8y + 16 = 0
16. y = x, y = - x
19. (a) x 2 = 12y
17. y 2 = 20x
18. (a) -
1
2
(b) 2
(b) y 2 = - 32x
20. (a) x - 4y + 72 = 0
1
(b) d 9, 20 n
4
23. 3x - 2y + 40 = 0
25. y - 3x + 9a = 0
833
834
27. (a) y a-
1
^ p + q h x + apq = 0
2
1
(p + q) # 0 + apq
2
a + apq
apq
pq
(b) Sub ^ 0, a h:
=0
(b) x 2 = 2a ^ y + 2a h
=0
= -a
= -1
19. y = 0
20. (a) T = ^ 6, - 20 h
28. x - 2y + 48 = 0
29. (a) x - y + 3 = 0
18. (a) N = f
(b) ^ 6, 9 h and ^ - 2, 1 h
m x = t and m y = s
m1 - m2
tan i =
1 + m1 m2
t-s
tan 45c =
1 + ts
t-s
1=
1 + ts
t-s
1=
1 + ts
1 + ts = t - s
1 + s = t - ts
= t (1 - s)
1+s
=t
1-s
t-s
-1 =
1 + ts
-1 - ts = t - s
s - 1 = t + ts
= t (1 + s)
s-1
=t
1+s
(c)
30. y = - a
Challenge exercise 11
1.
(a) 8x + 6y - 29 = 0
(b) Midpoint of AB lies on line; m 1 m 2 = -1
2.
(a) x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0
(b) Put y = 0 into equation
3.
y = 1 - 2x 2
5.
(a) 4x - 2y + 9 = 0; x + 2y - 24 = 0
(b) m 1 m 2 = - 1 (c) X = ^ 3, 10.5 h
(d) 3x - 4y + 8 = 0; focus ^ 0, 2 h lies on the line
6.
^ 0, 0 h
7.
(a) 2x - 4y - 1 = 0; 2x + y + 4 = 0
(b) Point lies on line y = - 1
8.
y = - 2 x 2 + 4x - 2
1
4. d 2 , - 3 n
2
or
9. 3x + y + 2 = 0
10.
(b) P = 6 a ] t + s g, ats @
m 2, m 3
4.
24 cm
2
6. (a)
3
2. 4x + 3y - 16 = 0
Centre ^ - 3, 5 h, radius 7
5.
1
(b) 3
(c) 1
1
9
7.
Focus ^ 0, -2 h, directrix y = 2
8.
x = - 5 or - 6
10.
3. x 2 = 8y
9. k = - 1
8 =2 2
11. 3x - 4y - 14 = 0, 3x - 4y + 16 = 0
2 3
3
14. 4 2 units
(b) 2x - y - 6 = 0
15. x + y - 2y - 2 = 0
2
13. x = 0, 3
14. k = 7.2 cm
15. x + 2y + 2 = 0
19. x 2 + 4x + y 2 + 6y - 12 = 0
ANSWERS
20. x 2 - 3x + y 2 - 6y - 17 = 0
21.
+BCD
+DAB
+DBC
+BDC
`+BDC
` +DAE
22. - 0.75
24. a = 2, b = 1, c = 0
26. -
25. x = 33, y = 57
9 - x2
27. (a) y - px + ap 2 = 0
(b) R = f
a _ p2 - 1 i
p
, - ap
(c) 2px + _ p 2 - 1 i y + a - ap 2 = 0
28. x 2 - 4x - 16y + 20 = 0
29.
`
AC = BC and CD = CE (given)
AC
BC
=
CD
CE
+ACB = +ECD (vertically opposite angles)
39. a 2 0
D = b 2 - 4ac
= ] -1 g2 - 4 (1) (3)
= -11
10
Since a 2 0 and D 1 0, x 2 - x + 3 2 0 for all x
31. x 2 + 2x - 16y - 15 = 0
33.
32. x = 0, 2
a 10
D = b 2 - 4ac
= 1 2 - 4 (- 1) (- 9)
= - 35
10
Since a 1 0 and D 1 0, - x 2 + x - 9 1 0 for all x
40. k = 1
41. 3x + 2y - 9 = 0
(b) 153c
43. a = 3, b = - 18, c = - 34
45. (a) y = x 2 - 1
44. x 2 4, x 1 3
(b) ^ - 4, 15 h
(c) x - 8y + 124 = 0
50. k # 3
51.
52. 5x - 4y - 41 = 0
55. - 1
1
# y 1 -1
4
1+ 3
2
2
53. d 3 , -2 n 54.
5
5
3-1
56.
3 6 - 10 + 3 3 - 5
22
835
836
128
2187
61.
1
1
64. y = 1 , 3
2
65. 162c
b 2 - 4ac = -104 1 0
So Pl(x) has no real roots
15. Ql] x g = 3x 2 - 6x + 3
b 2 - 4ac = 0
So Ql] x g has equal roots
Exercises 12.2
70. x = 43
71. -
1
31
73. tan i
14. Pl] x g = 3x 2 - 2x + 9
63. 2x + 3y - 3 = 0
66.
58. x = 1
1.
3x 2 + 2x + 5 = ] x + 4 g ] 3x - 10 g + 45
2.
x 2 - 7x + 4 = ] x - 1 g ] x - 6 g - 2
3.
x 3 + x 2 + 2x - 1 = ] x - 3 g ^ x 2 + 4x + 14 h + 41
74. 8x ] 2x + 5 g (x 2 - 1) 3 + 2 (x 2 - 1) 4
= 2 (x 2 - 1) 3 (9x 2 + 20x - 1)
4.
4x 2 + 2x - 3 = ] 2x + 3 g ] 2x - 2 g + 3
5.
x 3 - 5x 2 + x + 2 = ^ x 2 + 3x h ] x - 8 g + ] 25x + 2 g
1
75.
4
6.
x 3 + x 2 - x - 3 = ] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 3x + 5 h + 7
7.
5x 3 - 2x 2 + 3x + 1 = ^ x 2 + x h ] 5x - 7 g + ] 10x + 1 g
78. px - y - 9p 2 = 0
8.
x 4 - x 3 - 2x 2 + x - 3
= ] x + 4 g ^ x 3 - 5x 2 + 18x - 71 h + 281
9.
2x 4 - 5x 3 + 2x 2 + 2x - 5 = ^ x 2 - 2x h ^ 2x 2 - x h + ] 2x - 5 g
76. x + 2x + y - 3y - 25 = 0
2
79. x - 2y - 36 = 0
1
^ p + q h x + apq = 0 (b) x 2 = 2a ^ y - 2a h
2
(c) Concave upward parabola, vertex (0, 2a)
80. (a) y -
81. (c)
82. (d)
83. (b)
88. (a)
87. (c)
84. (a)
85. (c)
86. (a)
10. 4x 3 - 2x 2 + 6x - 1 = ] 2x + 1 g ^ 2x 2 - 2x + 4 h - 5
11. 6x 2 - 3x + 1 = ] 3x - 2 g d 2x +
90. (c)
1
2
n+ 1
3
3
12. x 4 - 2x 3 - x 2 - 2 = ^ x 2 - x h ^ x 2 - x - 2 h + ] -2x - 2 g
Chapter 12: Polynomials 1
5
4
3
2
13. 3x - 2x - 3x + x - x - 1
4
3
= ] x + 2 g ^ 3x - 8x + 13x 2 - 25x + 49 h - 99
Exercises 12.1
14. x 2 + 5x - 2 = ] x + 1 g ] x + 4 g - 6
1.
2.
5.
(a) !3
6.
7.
(b) -5
(c) -2, 1
10. (a)
(d) 3
(e) a = 4
(e) x 5
(c) c = -6
(b) x = 2, -1
(d) 9
4
3
2
19. x - 2x + 4x + 2x + 5
= ^ x 2 + 2x - 1 h ^ x 2 - 4x + 13 h + ] - 28x + 18 g
20. 3x 5 - 2x 3 + x - 1 = ] x + 1 g ^ 3x 4 - 3x 3 + x 2 - x + 2 h - 3
Exercises 12.3
2.
` f ] x g has no zeros
(c) - 2
18. 2x 3 + 4x 2 - x + 8 = ^ x 2 + 3x + 2 h ] 2x - 2 g + ] x + 12 g
1.
D = b 2 - 4ac
= -8
-8 1 0
(b) 9x 3
16. 2x 4 - x 3 + 5 = ^ x 2 - 2x h ^ 2x 2 + 3x + 6 h + ] 12x + 5 g
17. x 3 - 3x 2 + 3x - 1 = ^ x 2 + 5 h ] x - 3 g + ] - 2x + 14 g
(d) 4 (e) 0
(b) b = 10
1
9. (a) -2
2
15. x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x + 4 = ] x - 3 g ^ x 3 + 3x 2 + 7x + 26 h + 82
(e) x =
(d) 0
13. x = 0, 1
2
, -1
3
(e) 2 (f) 4
3.
(g) 3
(c) k = 15 299
(f) 37
(d) k = 6
8
9
ANSWERS
4.
5.
(a) P ] - 3 g = 81 - 81 - 81 + 81 = 0
` x + 3 is a factor
(b) P ] x g = x ] x + 3 g 2 ] x - 3 g
7
17
a = -1 , b = -1
12
48
Exercises 12.4
1.
(a)
6. a = - 6
7.
(a) P ] 3 g = 140 ! 0
` x - 3 is not a factor of P ] x g
(b) k = - 39 8. a = -2, b = -1
9.
(a) a = 3, b = 11
(b) f ] x g = ] x + 1 g ^ 3x 3 + 8x 2 + 7x + 2 h
(c) g ] -1 g = 0 (d) f ] x g = ] 3x + 2 g ] x + 1 g3
-1
(b)
(c) Yes
-4
13. P ] x g = ] x + 1 g ] x - 4 g ] x + 3 g2
14. (a) P ] -6 g = P ] 5 g = 0
(b) P ] x g = ] x - 4 g ] x + 6 g ] x - 5 g
15. (a) P ] u g = ] u - 2 g ] u - 1 g 2
(b) x = 2, 3
16. (a) f ^ p h = ^ p - 1 h ^ p + 2 h ^ p - 3 h
17. (a) P ] k g = ] 2k - 1 g ] k + 1 g2
(c)
1
(b) x = 0, -1 , 1
2
23. a = 1, b = -3, c = -6
(d)
-2
837
838
(e)
(d) (i) A ] x g = x ] 2x - 5 g ] x + 3 g
-5
(ii)
50
-2
2.
(a) (i) P ] x g = x ] x - 4 g ] x + 2 g
(e) (i) P ] x g = - x 2 ] x - 3 g ] x + 1 g
(ii)
1
22
-3
(ii)
-2
-1
(b) (i) f ] x g = - x ] x - 1 g ] x + 5 g
(ii)
3.
(a) x = 0, 1, -2
y
(b)
-5
-2
(c) (i) P ] x g = x 2 ] x + 1 g ] x + 2 g
4.
(ii)
(a) P ] 2 g = 8 - 12 - 8 + 12
=0
(b) P ] x g = ] x - 2 g ] x - 3 g ] x + 2 g
y
(c)
12
-2
-1
x
-2
ANSWERS
5.
(a)
-4
(e)
-2
-24
-3
-18
y
(f)
(b)
-3
-1
-2
-8
-9
y
(c)
(g)
12
-4
(d)
(h)
12
3
-4
x
-3
839
840
(i)
(c) P ] 4 g = ] 4 + 1 g ] 4 - 4 g2
=0
Pl(x) = 3x 2 - 14x + 8
Pl(4) = 3 ] 4 g2 - 14 (4) + 8
=0
-2
6.
(a) ] x + 3 g 3 = x 3 + 9x 2 + 27x + 27
Dividing by x 3 + 9x 2 + 27x + 27 gives
x 4 + 7x 3 + 9x 2 - 27x - 54 = ^ x 3 + 9x 2 + 27x + 27 h ] x - 2 g
so ] x + 3 g 3 is a factor
(b) f ] x g = ] x - 2 g ] x + 3 g 3
(c) f ] -3 g = ] -3 - 2 g ] -3 + 3 g 3
=0
f l(x) = 4x 3 + 21x 2 + 18x - 27
f l(-3) = 4 ] -3 g3 + 21 ] -3 g2 + 18 (-3) - 27
=0
7.
8.
(a)
(j)
-1
Exercises 12.5
1.
2.
(a) (i) Positive (ii) Even (b) (i) Negative (ii) Odd
(c) (i) Negative (ii) Even (d) (i) Negative (ii) Odd
(e) (i) Positive (ii) Odd (f) (i) Positive (ii) Even
(g) (i) Positive (ii) Odd (h) (i) Negative (ii) Even
(i) (i) Positive (ii) Odd (j) (i) Positive (ii)Even
3.
P ] x g = ] x + 4 g 2 Yes, unique
4.
5.
(a) ] x - 4 g2 = x 2 - 8x + 16
Dividing by x 2 - 8x + 16 gives
x 3 - 7x 2 + 8x + 16 = ^ x 2 - 8x + 16 h ] x + 1 g so ] x - 4 g 2 is
a factor
(b) P ] x g = ] x + 1 g ] x - 4 g2
(b)
x
(b) P ] x g = 5 ] x - 1 g3
ANSWERS
(c)
-1
11.
(d)
10.
12.
y
(e)
-3
13.
9.
841
842
14.
-1
15.
-2
16.
-2
x
19. Odd function with positive leading coefficient starts
negative and turns around at both the double roots.
It then becomes positive as x becomes very large so it
must cross the x-axis again. So there is another root at
k 22
y
-3
ANSWERS
Test yourself 12
1.
2.
(a) 3
3.
P (x) = (x - 6) (x - 1) (x + 2)
= x 3 - 5x 2 - 8x + 12
4.
(a) x 2 + 3x + 2
5.
(a) 3 (b) - 3
(b) 9
(c) 1
(d)
1
9
(b) p ] x g = ] x - 5 g ] x + 3 g ] x + 1 g ] x + 2 g
(c) - 3, 0, 1
(d) x 3
6.
k
Exercises 12.6
1.
(d) (i) 2
3.
1
(ii) -3
4
2
3
1
(c) (i) (ii) 3
2
(iii) -8
(iii) -1
(iii) -2 (iv) -7
15. (a)
4
2
, q = -17
15
15
1 1
18. x = - , 1
2 2
(a) a = 3
(b) - 5
8.
p (-7) = ] -7 g3 - 7 ] -7 g2 + 5 (-7) - 4
= - 725 ! 0
9.
x = - 1, !3
10. a = 2, b = - 18, c = 40
(b) a + b + c = 1, abc = -6
14. a = 1; a + b = -2
(b) p = 8
7.
19. x =
4
15
16. 1
1
1
,!
3
2
17. -5
1 2
20. x = ! 3 , -1 ,
2 3
17. k = - 14
18. 4
14. k = 7.4
843
844
24.
20. f ] 5 g = 5 3 - 6 ] 5 g 2 + 12 ] 5 g - 35 = 0
x
21. (a) f ] 5 g = 5 3 - 7 ] 5 g 2 - 5 ] 5 g + 75
=0
(b) f l] x g = 3x 2 - 14x - 5
f l(5) = 3 ] 5 g2 - 14 (5) - 5
=0
(c) Double root at x = 5 (d) f ] x g = ] x + 3 g ] x - 5 g 2
y
22.
25. (a) a = 2, b = - 3, c = 4, d = 5
Challenge exercise 12
1.
P ] x g = ] x - 1 g ] x + 1 g2 ^ x 2 + x + 1 h
2.
23. (a) P ] x g = ] x + 6 g 3Q ] x g
(b)
3.
4.
(a) 3x - y + 2 = 0
(b) ^ 2, 8 h
5. (a)
a - 33
4
(b) a = -14
6.
(a) - 3
(b) 17
8. a = - 5
If x - a is a factor of P ] x g
Then P (x) = (x - a) Q (x)
P (a) = (a - a) Q (a)
`
=0
10. ^ - 1, -1 h, ^ -3, 5 h 11. P ] x g = - ] x + 1 g 2 ] x - 2 g 3
9.
-6
12.
a1
a2
ANSWERS
Exercises 13.1
16
33
1.
1
10 000
2.
5.
98.5%
6. (a)
8.
1
3
1
9. (a)
6
2
9
3.
4
7
3
7
7.
1
(b)
3
5
(c)
6
(b)
1
20 000
4.
3
20
6.
8.
5040
9. 6
12. 1.3 # 10 12
14. (a) 720
16. (a)
1
4
10. 720
(b) 120
(b)
(c) 48
3
31
(c)
(b)
8
15
(c)
3
5
(b)
19
43
(c)
67
86
1
62
(b)
11. (a)
1
15
13. (a)
29
86
15. (a)
1
6
(b)
4
5
(b) 36
17. (a)
20.
329
982
22. (a)
14
59
1
2
1
3
(c)
24. 19%
35
59
20. (a)
14. 32
1
2
24
59
(b)
20
31
(b)
(d)
(b)
1
2
(e)
23
44
16. (a)
21
44
(c)
38
59
4
31
23.
19.
(d)
5
18
(b) 91
(c)
6
19
11
31
5
24
(d)
1.
Exercises 13.2
456 976
5.
26 10 # 10 15
8. 300
3. 26 5 # 10 4
2. 67 600
6. 1 000
1
11. (a) 84 (b)
84
1
67 600 000
14.
1
17.
5184
18. 6
1
9900
16. Yes
20. 360
1
720
Exercises 13.3
1.
2.
(a) 720 (b) 3 628 800 (c) 1 (d) 35 280 (e) 120
(f) 210 (g) 3 991 680 (h) 715 (i) 56 (j) 330
362 880
3. 720
1
12
18.
1
120
8!
8 # 7 # 6 #...# 2 # 1
=
4#3#2#1
4!
=8#7#6#5
11!
11 # 10 # 9 #...# 2 # 1
=
6#5#4#3#2#1
6!
= 11 # 10 # 9 # 8 # 7
n ] n - 1 g ] n - 2 g ... ] r + 1 g r ] r - 1 g ... 3.2.1
n!
=
r!
r ] r - 1 g ] r - 2 g ... 3.2.1
= n # ] n - 1 g # ] n - 2 g #...# ] r + 1 g
= n (n - 1) (n - 2) #...# (r + 1)
n ] n - 1 g ] n - 2 g ... ] n - r + 1 g ] n - r g ... 3.2.1
n!
=
]n - r g!
] n - r g ] n - r - 1 g ] n - r - 2 g ... 3.2.1
= n ] n - 1 g ] n - 2 g ... ] n - r + 1 g
5. 120
5!
= 20
]5 - 2 g!
6!
= 120
]6 - 3 g!
(d)
10!
= 640 800
] 10 - 7 g !
(f)
7!
= 2520
]7 - 5 g!
(h)
11!
= 6 652 800
] 11 - 8 g !
(j)
15. 7
19. 6840
22. 210
(b)
(a)
7. 1 000 000
13. Yes
4. 260
3
10.
10 000
9. 64
15. 5040
Exercises 13.4
25. 0.51
1.
12. 8
(d)
19
31
(c)
99
124
(d)
18. (a)
21. (a)
(b)
1
2
11. 5040
1
24
7. 40 320
(b)
(g)
(e)
8!
= 336
]8 - 3 g!
(c)
9!
= 60 480
]9 - 6g!
8!
= 20 160
]8 - 6g!
(i)
9!
=9
]9 - 1 g!
6!
= 720
]6 - 6 g!
2.
(a) 650
(b) 15 600
3.
(a) 648 (b) 432 (c) 144 4. (a) 20 (b) 4 (c) 12 (d) 8
5.
(a) 24
7.
(a) 120
8.
9.
(b) 24
6. (a) 4536
(b) 48
(c) 96
(b) 2016
(d) 72
(c) 3528
(e) 60
10. (a) 60 480 (b) 2520 (c) 907 200 (d) 151 200
(f) 453 600 (g) 360 (h) 2520 (i) 59 875 200
(j) 90 720
11. (a) 24 (b) 5040
(e) 39 916 800
12. (a) 6
(b) 720
(c) 40 320
(c) 5040
(e) 60
845
846
n!
' (n - r) !
]n - n + r g!
n!
1
=
#
]n - r g!
r!
n!
=
] n - r g !r!
n
n
Pn - r
Pr
=
]n - r g!
r!
=
14. (a) 720 (b) 120 15. (a) 362 880 (b) 40 320
16. (a) 3 628 800 (b) 362 880 (c) 181 440
17. (a) 24 (b) 12 (c) 24
20.
2
9
1
336
P3
=
=
=
=
P5
5!
=
=
=
=
Pr + r n Pr - 1 =
=
1
6
=
=
3!
29. (a)
23.
7
20
Pr =
1
5
n+1
30.
P3
3!
3!
8!
' 3!
5!
8!
1
#
5!
3!
8!
5!3!
8!
]8 - 5 g!
5!
8!
' 5!
3!
8!
1
#
3!
5!
8!
5!3!
8
=
=
=
=
`
1.
P5
Pr
=
=
=
=
Pn - r
]n - r g!
n+1
Pr = Pr + r Pr - 1
Exercises 13.5
n!
]n - r g!
r!
n!
' r!
]n - r g!
n!
1
#
]n - r g!
r!
n!
] n - r g !r!
n!
(n - 5 n - r ? ) !
]n - r g!
(a)
9!
= 126
] 9 - 5 g !5!
(c)
8!
= 56
] 8 - 3 g !3 !
(e)
11!
= 462
] 11 - 5 g !5!
(b)
(d)
12!
] 12 - 7 g !7!
3.
(a) 28
4.
(b) 84
(c) 462
= 792
10!
= 210
] 10 - 4 g !4!
2.
5!
r!
(d) 3! ] x - 2 g !
8!
]8 - 3g!
(b)
(c) 2! ] x - 2 g !
]n + 1g!
]n + 1 - r g!
n!
n!
+r
]n - r g!
^n - 5r - 1?h !
n!
n!
+r
]n - r g!
^n - 5r - 1?h !
n!
rn!
+
]n - r g! ]n - r + 1g!
] n + 1 - r g n!
rn!
+
]n + 1 - r g]n - r g! ]n + 1 - r g!
] n + 1 - r g n!
rn!
+
]n + 1 - r g!
]n + 1 - r g!
n $ n! + n! - rn! + rn!
]n + 1 - r g!
nn! + n!
]n + 1 - r g!
] n + 1 g n!
]n + 1 - r g!
]n + 1g!
]n + 1 - r g!
(v) 1
(d) 5005
(e) 38 760
R1R2
R2R3
R3B1
B1B2
R1R3
R2B1
R3B2
B1B3
R1B1
R2B2
R3B3
R1B2
R2B3
R1B3
(b) 77 520
B2B3
ANSWERS
5.
15 504
6. 210
8.
7. 2 598 960
10!
b 10 l =
4
] 10 - 4 g !4!
10!
=
6!4!
9!
9!
b9 l + b9 l =
+
4
3
] 9 - 4 g !4! ] 9 - 3 g !3!
9!
9!
=
+
5!4! 6!3!
6 # 9!
4 # 9!
=
+
6 # 5!4! 4 # 6!3!
6 # 9! 4 # 9!
=
+
6!4!
6!4!
6 # 9! + 4 # 9!
=
6!4!
10 # 9!
=
6!4!
10!
=
6!4!
10 l b 9 l b 9 l
b
`
4 = 4 + 3
28.
n!
bn l =
r
] n - r g !r!
n!
b n l=
n-r
(n - 5 n - r ? ) ! ] n - r g !
n!
=
]n - n + r g! ]n - r g!
n!
=
r! ] n - r g !
n
n
` br l = bn - r l
11. 4845
27.
12. 2925
5
12
(c)
5
33
15. (a) 100 947 (b) 462 (c) 924 (d) 36 300 (e) 26 334
(f) 74 613 (g) 27 225
16. $105
17. (a) 2 042 975 (b) 55 (c) 462 462 (d) 30 030
18. (a) 3003 (b) (i) 2450 (ii) 588 (iii) 56 (iv) 1176
19. (a) 1.58 # 10 10
(e) 12 271 512
20. (a) 395 747 352 (b) 32 332 300 (c) 4 084 080
(d) 145 495 350 (e) 671 571 264
21. (a) 170 544 (b) 36 (c) 20 160 (d) 17 640 (e) 6300
22. (a) 7 (b) 27 132 (c) 13 860 (d) 20 790 (e) 27 720
23. (a) 5 (b) 360 (c) 126
24. (a) 792 (b) 792
(c)
25.
12!
] 12 - 5 g !5!
12!
=
7!5!
12!
12
C7 =
] 12 - 7 g !7!
12!
=
5!7!
12
12
` C5 = C7
12
9
8
C5 =
C 6 = 84
C 6 + C 5 = 28 + 56
= 84
9
8
8
`
C6 = C6 + C5
26.
13!
b 13 l =
7
] 13 - 7 g !7!
13!
=
6!7!
13!
b 13 l =
6
] 13 - 6 g !6!
13!
=
7!6!
13
13
`b 7 l=b 6 l
29.
Pr =
n!
]n - r g!
n!
] n - r g !r!
n!
=
]n - r g!
r! n C r = r! #
` n Pr = r! n C r
n!
n
30. b l =
k
] n - k g !k!
]n - 1 g!
]n - 1 g!
bn - 1 l + bn - 1 l =
+
k-1
k
] n - 1 - ] k - 1 g g ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - 1 - k g !k!
]n - 1 g!
]n - 1 g!
=
+
] n - k g ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - 1 - k g !k!
]n - k g]n - 1 g!
k ]n - 1 g!
=
+
k ] n - k g ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - k g ] n - 1 - k g !k!
k ]n - 1 g! ]n - k g]n - 1 g!
=
+
] n - k g !k!
] n - k g !k!
]k + n - k g]n - 1 g!
=
] n - k g !k!
n ]n - 1 g!
=
] n - k g !k!
n!
=
] n - k g !k!
n
=b l
k
847
848
Test yourself 13
1.
13
(b)
22
4
2. (a)
11
3.
(a) 24 (b) 12
5.
7.
120
17
(c)
22
4.
(a) ] n - 1 g !
(b)
6.
(a) 792
5
44
8. 2.4 # 10 18
9.
7.
6. 29%
1
9
11. 990
12. (a) 40 320 (b) 362 880
(c) 80 640 (d) 168
13. (a) 19 958 400 (b) 4 989 600 (c) 181 440
(d) 9 979 200 (e) 181 440
n!
n
14. b l =
k
] n - k g ! k!
16. 1.08 # 10 17
20. (a) 1
n
n!
c m=
] n - 0 g ! 0!
0
n!
=
n! 0 !
=1
n!
n
c m=
n
] n - n g ! n!
n!
=
0!n!
=1
n
n
` c m=c m
0
n
3.
n!
bn l =
k
] n - k g ! k!
Pr =
(d)
21
40
9.
(c)
3
40
4
35
(b)
1
4
8.
(d) 93 024
17
35
1
2
4.
2. P ] x g = ] x - 1 g ] x + 1 g ] x + 4 g 3. y = 3x 4
(b) 4320
7. (a) - 4
5. -1, 2
6.
^ 19, 10 h
8.
9.
3060c; 161c3l
d=
(b) 2
(d) 10
2
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
a2 + b2
40
10
=4
= radius
` line is tangent
=
]n - 1 g!
]n - 1 g!
bn - 1 l + bn - 1 l =
+
k-1
k
(n - 1 - 5 k - 1 ? ) ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - 1 - k g ! k!
]n - 1 g!
]n - 1 g!
=
+
] n - k g ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - k - 1 g ! k!
]n - k g]n - 1g!
k ]n - 1g!
=
+
k ] n - k g ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - k g ] n - k - 1 g ! k!
k ]n - 1 g! ]n - k g]n - 1 g!
=
+
] n - k g ! k!
] n - k g ! k!
k ] n - 1 g !+ ] n - k g ] n - 1 g !
=
] n - k g ! k!
] n - 1 g !5 k + n - k ?
=
] n - k g ! k!
] n - 1 g !n
=
] n - k g ! k!
n!
=
] n - k g ! k!
n
n-1
n-1
` bk l = bk - 1 l + b k l
(b) 246
Challenge exercise 13
1.
5. (a) 90 720
` n Pr = r! n C r
10. (a)
k!
n!
]n - r g!
n!
r! n C r = r!
] n - r g !r!
n!
=
]n - r g!
n
17. (a) 1 709 316 (b) 203 490 (c) 167 580
(b)
(b)
]n - k + 1g!
11. k = -2
1
2
14. x 1 - 2, x 2 2
15. P ] x g = ] x - 2 g2 Q ] x g
Pl(x) = ] x - 2 g2 Ql(x) + 2 (x - 2) Q (x)
P (2) = ] 2 - 2 g 2Q (2)
=0
Pl(2) = ] 2 - 2 g2 Ql(2) + 2 (2 - 2) Q (2)
=0
16. (a) 1
17. 126
(b) 3
(c) ab = -
18. 7
1
,a+b=0
10
19. 7.1 m
ANSWERS
21. (a) P ] x g = ] x - 1 g ] x - 3 g2
(b)
y
32.
+ACB
+ABC
AC
` by AAS, DABC
33. 46 m2
1
34. x + y - 3 = 0
35. x 2 - 12x + 36 = ] x - 6 g2
-9
22.
4 1
39. d - 1 , 7 n
7 7
40. (a) 9x - y + 16 = 0
(c) Q = ^ - 20, 0 h
(b) x + 9y + 20 = 0
(d) 27c 21l
d
=0
a
(b) 1 (c) -1
25. P ] x g = ] x - 3 g 2 Q ] x g
P ]3 g = ]3 - 3 g 2 Q ]3 g
= 0Q ] 3 g
=0
Pl] x g = 2 ] x - 3 g Q ] x g + ] x - 3 g 2 Ql] x g
Pl(3) = 2 (3 - 3) Q (3) + ] 3 - 3 g 2 Ql(3)
= 2 (0) Q (3) + 0Ql(3)
=0
45.
(c)
^ 3 + 1 h2
8
44. X = ^ 7.5,17.5 h
47. x = 150c
1
1
n
(b) R = d 7 , 17
64
8
t 4 + 2t 3 - 6t 2 + 2t + 1
^ 1 + t2 h 2
50. f ] x g = 3x 3 - 7x 2 - 5x - 3
f ]3g = 3]3g3 - 7]3g2 - 5]3g - 3
= 81 - 63 - 15 - 3
=0
So x - 3 is a factor of f ] x g = 3x 3 - 7x 2 - 5x - 3
49.
51. a = 1, b = - 3, c = -1
52. 3x - y - 1 = 0, x + 3y - 7 = 0
28. a = 3, b = -14, c = 9
54. y 1 - 3, - 2 1 y 1 -1
55.
30. (a) !1
(b) P (1) = ^ 1 2 - 1 h (1 2 + 5)
=0
2
3
Pl(x) = 6x ^ x 2 - 1 h (x 2 + 5) + ^ x 2 - 1 h $ 2x
3
(c) x = 270c
56
65
(b) x = 0c, 90c, 360c
849
850
57. (a) 0
(b)
61. y = - x 4
62. (a) 4
(d) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
63. P ] x g = ] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 1 h + 5
65. P ] x g = - ] x - 5 g ] x + 1 g 2
59. 8c 8l
1
2
(e) 22
64. 15 504
66. 63
68. (b)
69. (c)
71. (b)
72. (b)
73. (a)
75. (d)
67. (a)
74. (d)