Pressure

Pressure
4- 1
PRESSURE
The force that through the

green fuse drives the flower
Drives my green age.
- Dylan Thomas
Course 9050 - October 1996
Principles of Instrumentation and Control
4-2
Pressure
Synopsis
Gravity dependent and independent units of force and pressure are given. The concepts
of liquid head, static pressure and various other pressure definitions are introduced.
Important manometer types are surveyed and the essential principles of operation
explained.
Secondary elements (bellows, metallic diaphragm, force balance, bourdon spring) are
compared to more modern electronic versions (strain gauge, variable reluctance and
capacitance, vibrating wire and solid state sensors).
The important principles of pressure transmitter selection are outlined and reinforced
by the case study. Calibration of transmitters is outlined.

Force
Force can be defined independently of weight.
FORCE = MASS x ACCELERATION
The amount of effort it takes to accelerate an object horizontally (say) is the same no matter what
the gravity. Even on the moon!
The Newton is the unit of force which is gravity independent.
Units of Pressure - standard and commonly used

a.
P = Newton = Pascal (Pa)

m2
This unit (Pa) is also independent of gravity.
The common multiples are kPa or MPa.
b.
Gravity dependent units are:

i.
Imperial/Metric Units
- Pounds force per sq. inch
psi
= 6.895kPa
- Kilograms force per sq. cm
kg/cm2 = 98.07kPa
- Bar
bar
= 100kPa
- Atmosphere
atm
= 101.325kPa
- Torr (a unit of vacuum)
Torr
= 133.1 Pa
= 0.02 psi
Pressure
4- 3
Pressure Fundamentals
Pressure is a force applied to or distributed over a surface. The pressure (P) of a force (F) distributed
over an area (A) is defined as:
P= F
A
Consider the following arrangement whereby multiples of equal weights compress a volume of air
within a cylindrical container.
Fig. 4.1 The air compresses to its minimum

volume and exerts a force in all directions within
the cylinder. This is the static pressure exerted
by the gas.
As the weight increases, the pressure within the
cylinder increases.
Fig. 4.2 For the same cylinder (A =

constant), the increased downward push is
proportional to the height of the
accumulated weights h 1 and h2 as long as
the gas has not not approached the limits of
its easy compressibility.
Not only weights exert a force. A column of liquid or gas

stacks up and produces a downward push. The height of
the stack likewise represents the strength of the downward
force and is called the head pressure.
The units of head are nominally length but represent a force
applied over a unit area.
Traditionally, the downward push of this column of water
was expressed as:
Fig. 4.3
5 inches water gauge (or) water column.

Abbreviation - 5" W.G. or 5" W.C.
Denser liquids of a lower height produce the same downward force per unit of area.
4-4
Pressure
The downward forces referred to above are all weight forces which are local gravity dependent. It is
always necessary to compensate for local gravity when head pressures are cited in widely different
localities. The higher above sea level one goes, the less an object weighs. It is also latitude dependent.
Liquid Head
- Inches of water
(in.WG or inH2O)
1" W.G. @ 200C = 248.7 Pa
- mm of water
1 mm W.G. @ 200C = 9.79 Pa
- mm of Mercury
1 mm Hg @ O0C = 1 Torr
The usage of liquid head stems from the practical historical usage of manometers.
Manometers
Meniscus
Fig. 4.4a U-Tube

Manometer
Fig. 4.4b Well (Reservoir)

Manometer
Fig. 4.4d Mercury Float

Manometer
Fig. 4.4c Inclined Manometer
Fig. 4.5 Bell Manometer
Pressure
a.
4- 5
The U-Tube is the easiest to manufacture and most widely used type. Measurements are
taken from the topmost point of the curved surface (meniscus) of Hg and the lowest point of
H20.
Fig. 4.6
b.
The Well manometer amplifies the smaller level movement in the larger reservoir by using a
narrower scaled tube. This increases sensitivity of measurement in the ratio of the areas of the
tubes.
c.
In the Inclined manometer, the inclined leg further amplifies the small level fluctuations of
the larger well by the sine of the angle of inclination. The narrower tube can be parabolically
curved to extract the square root and read flow rate directly.
Often dyed oil is used in these devices and detergent is added to reduce frictional effects with
the glass. The instrument is supplied with the quoted specific gravity of the oil used.
d.
The Mercury Float manometer uses a metallic displacer which floats in mercury. The pointer
passes through the gland and indicates against a scale.
e.
The Bell-type manometer is used extensively in industry to measure low pressures, with a
range generally from 2 - 20cm of water. With proper design to minimise friction, this gauge
can be made responsive to the smallest pressure variations normally encountered in industry,
except for those measurements which might be termed high vacuum.
The theory of the bell-type gauge is extremely simple. When no pressure above atmosphere
or other reference pressure is applied, the bell just rests on the bottom. The counterbalance is
so adjusted that with no extra pressure under the bell, the bell will just sink. As pressure is
applied to the inside of the bell, the difference between the external atmospheric pressure and
the inside pressure becomes a lifting force. As the bell leaves the liquid, it loses some of its
buoyant force. It will rise until the forces balance again: the gravitational pull (weight) plus
the exterior force must equal the internal lifting force plus the buoyant forces.
Actual design will employ springs, lever, and weights to establish the force systems. The
range can be governed.
4-6
Pressure
Fig 4.7 With this design of the bell-type instrument, most of the
bell will be out of the liquid when the differential pressure is zero.
Increasing the differential will then force the bell down against
the action of the spring and the lower pressure. Whether the
pressure forces the bell up or down is of no concern in studying
the characteristics of this type of instrument.
Other Manometers
Ring Balance Type
This type of instrument is frequently used for the
measurement of low differential pressures of the order of a
few inches of water gauge. The essential portion of this
instrument consists of a hollow ring of circular section,
partitioned at its upper part and partially filled with a liquid
in order to form two pressure-measuring chambers. The body
of the ring is supported at its centre by a knife edge resting
on a bearing surface, or by roller-bearings or ball-bearings.
The force which operates the instrument is due to the
difference between the pressures on the two sides of the
partition.
Fig. 4.8 Ring balance
The fluids whose pressure difference is required are fed into the ring by flexible connections. These
are placed so that their length and movement are at the minimum. The ring is balanced by a control
weight which is at its lowest point when the pressure is the same on both sides of the partition.
This ring will therefore rotate in a counter-clockwise direction until this moment is balanced by the
torque of the counterweight.
The ring is attached directly to a pointer.
Pressure
4- 7
Fig 4.9 McLeod Gauge manometer can

measure very low pressures of the order
of a few hundredths of a Pascal.
The mercury reservoir
can be raised.
Using Manometers to Measure
Differential Pressure
Differential head type
flowmeters are the most
economical of all the flow-rate
devices. They perform well
with both liquids and gases. A
great deal of data and
experience are available to
support their position. Their
major limitations are difficulty
in reading low flow rates, a
square-root relationship in
readout, and inability to cope
with certain types of fluids (e.g.
slurries).
Some of these difficulties can
be overcome by other types of
flowmeters, such as the
magnetic flowmeter.
As the picture shows, the effect
of the measured pressure is to
increase the height of a column
of material above its
equilibrium state. The
Fig. 4. 10 Differential Pressure Profile with Orifice Plate
4-8
Pressure
difference in pressure between the process and reference is proportional to the height of fluid
supported.
Fig. 4.11
At the new Equilibrium State:

Pressure at A = Pressure at B
High Pressure + (h1 + h)d 1 = Low Pressure + (h1-h)d1 + 2hd
High Pressure - Low Pressure = (h1 - h)d1 + 2hd - (h 1 + h)d1
Differential Pressure = 2hd - 2hd1
Note: d is fill fluid; d1 is process fluid.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE = 2h(d - d1)
or
P = h x
The important point to note is that the differential pressure is not only related to the height difference
between the columns (2h) but also the difference in densities between the fill and process fluids (d
- d1). If this latter point is not taken into account, significant errors can arise.
Manometer measurements are reliant upon the weight of the fill fluid and as such are gravity
dependent. Corrections for local gravity can be important.
Pressure
4- 9
Glossary of Measurable Pressures

Absolute Pressure Measured above total vacuum or zero absolute. Zero absolute represents total
lack of pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure The pressure exerted by the earths atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure at
sea level is 14.696 psia. The value of atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
Barometric Pressure
Same as atmospheric pressure.
Differential Pressure The difference in magnitude between some pressure value and some
reference pressure. In a sense, atmospheric pressure could be considered as a differential pressure
with total vacuum or zero absolute as the reference. Likewise, gauge pressure (defined below)
could be considered similarly with atmospheric pressure as the reference.
Gauge Pressure The pressure above atmospheric. Represents positive difference between measured
pressure and existing atmospheric pressure. Can be converted to absolute by adding actual
atmospheric pressure value.
Hydrostatic Pressure
The pressure below a liquid surface exerted by the liquid above.
Line Pressure
a pipe wall.
Force per unit area exerted on the surface of the pipe by a fluid flowing parallel to
Static Pressure
Same as line pressure.
Vacuum
Pressure below atmospheric.
Working Pressure
Same as line pressure.
Dynamic Pressure
flow.
Pressure exerted by a flowing material parallel to the direction of such
Compound Pressure
nor total vacuum.
A measurement from a base reference point that is neither the atmosphere
Fig. 4.12 Definitions of pressure
4 - 10
Pressure
General Principles of Measurement

The measurement of pressure is considered the basic process variable in that it is utilised for
measurement of flow (difference of two pressures), level (head or back pressure), and even
temperature (fluid pressure in a filled thermal system). All pressure measurement systems consist
of two basic parts: a primary element, which is in contact, directly or indirectly, with the pressure
medium and interacts with pressure changes; and a secondary element, which translates this
interaction into appropriate values for use in indicating, recording and/or controlling.
Secondary Elements
A. Mechanical Transducers
Any material will be distorted when any force, no matter how small, is applied.
The most useful applications of this principle are:
i.
Bellows
ii.
Bourdon Tubes
iii.
Metallic Diaphragm
iv.
Force Balance
The first three act as springs and, as such, display the following properties.
a.
Deformation is proportional to applied force (Hookes Law)
b.
Hysteresis is negligible
c.
Very small percentage strain, ie. little potential movement, within elastic range, for an applied
force.
1. Bellows
A metallic bellows is a series of circular parts
so formed or joined that they can be expanded
axially by pressure.
To the extent it is desirable to limit their travel,
a range spring is employed so that the bellows
work against it.
Fig. 14.13 Bellows
The practical limitations of material selection usually limit the bellows to measurements from 0.5
to 70 psi. By increasing the diameter of the bellows force, pressures as low as 0.06 psi (400Pa) can
be measured.
Pressure
4- 11
2. Bourdon Tube
The original patent (1852, France)
described it as a curved or twisted tube
whose cross section isnt circular. The
application of internal pressure causes
the tube to unwind, or straighten out.
The movement of the free end is
Fig. 4.14 Bourdon Tubes
transmitted to a pointer or other
indicating element. Phosphor bronze,
beryllium copper, steel, chrome alloy and stainless steels are commonly used.
Indeed, they are the most widely used type of pressure gauge.
The pressure gauge can be filled with oil to limit the damage caused by vibration.
Fig. 4.15 High precision type of bourdon gauge.

3. Metallic Diaphragms
Gauges employing diaphragms gave better and more positive
indication than the Bourdon type of gauge for low pressure
ranges (below 15 psi).
Fig. 4.16 Diaphrams
The principle employed simply requires that the deformed

middle section of the diaphragm push against and deflect a
pointer on a scale. The aneroid barometer is an example of
just such a system.
4 - 12
Pressure
Fig. 4.17 Force Balance Pressure Transmitter.
4. Force Balance
Force balance pressure transmitters are closed loop feedback devices. In a force balance unit,
pressure displaces an element. The amount of displacement is detected and the element is returned
to a null or zero displacement position by a restoring force which can be pneumatic.
Force balance type transmitters have been around for a long time and are familiar to many users.
They are rugged and work well with high pressures. But, they are big and can be sensitive to
vibration and temperature.
In the situation above, a force-balance principle is employed to generate a pneumatic signal
proportional to the diaphragm deformation.
As the force bar is deflected towards the nozzle, back pressure in the nozzle is communicated to the
output signal and the feedback bellows.
These bellows bring the force bar to a new equilibrium position.
B.
Electronic Transducers
The common pressure measurement techniques are strain gauge, force balance, variable reluctance,
capacitance, vibrating wire, and solid state.
- Strain gauges exhibit a change in electrical resistance that is proportional to a deformation that
occurs when they are stretched. Thus, strain gauge elements can be used to convert mechanical
displacement caused by pressure into an electronic signal. Strain gauge pressure sensors are classified
by the material used for the strain gauge element and the method used to mount it to a mechanical
element (diaphragm or beam) that will be deformed under pressure. In most instances, variable
resistive strain gauge elements are configured into a Wheatstone bridge. The circuit will also
include other resistors to provide adjustment capability and temperature compensation.
Metallic strain gauge elements are generally bonded or thin film types. In bonded strain gauges,
the metallic element is cemented to the strained element. In thin film sensors, the strain gauge is
vapour deposited or sputtered onto a mechanical sensing element. Piezoresistive strain gauges are
solid state devices in which the resistive element is imbedded or diffused in the strained member.
Pressure
4- 13
There is a difference in pressure transmitters using thin film or diffused strain gauge sensors so its
worth taking a moment to examine them a little closer. Diffused strain gauges are more sensitive
than metallic thin film devices and thus produce a measurable signal at lower strains. However,
they require extra circuitry for temperature compensation and they will not operate at as high a
temperature as those devices using a thin film strain gauge. The upper temperature limit for diffused
silicon strain gauge based transmitters runs between 125 0C and 2000C, depending upon the
manufacturer.
A strain gauge is accurate but non linear. They are inherently temperature sensitive and require
compensation. In addition, some mechanical method must be included in the overall sensing element
to provide overpressure protection.
Accuracy of strain gauge based transmitters can vary from 0.1% to 1.0% F.S., depending upon the
amount of temperature compensation and other circuitry built into them. Obviously, then, price is
a function of accuracy.
- Variable reluctance transmitters operate on the principle of a moveable element changing position
within a magnetic field. As a result, inductance changes to produce an output voltage that is
proportional to the pressure applied to the moveable element. The transmitters are small and
accurate, but they have complicated circuitry and mechanical overpressure protection is required.
- Variable capacitance transmitters operate by having one plate of a capacitor moved when a
pressure is applied. The movement changes the capacitance signal in proportion to the applied
pressure. Capacitance based transmitters are accurate and small in size and weight. They are
simple, reliable, and remain stable over a wide temperature range. These are still the most widely
used method of measuring differential pressure.
The important member of the variable
capacitance family is the differential capacitance
transducer shown right.
Different pressures applied to the external
diaphragms compress silicon oil along ceramic
channels which in turn deform the capacitor
plates (up to .1mm maximum) differently relative
to the sensing diaphragm. The errors inherent in
the separate capacitance measurement are
negated when the difference is taken
electronically. The rigid insulation is glass.
The potential damage to external diaphragms due
Fig. 4.18 Electronic Transmitter
to overpressure is significantly reduced by the
moulded face of the sensor body. The diaphragm
is simply pushed back into this moulding and its own shape thereby reinforced.
- Vibrating wire devices rely on an applied pressure to change the frequency of a vibrating wire.
The change in frequency is proportional to the applied pressure. Transmitters using this measurement
method are very accurate, but the sensor tends to be complicated and its operating pressure range is
limited.
- Solid state pressure sensors are usually made of a single silicon crystal and measure a change in
resistance or capacitance as pressure is applied. As pressure is applied, the diaphragm distorts.
Capacitive sensors detect the distortion directly and resistive sensors detect the resulting strain in
4 - 14
Pressure
the diaphragm. Resistive sensors typically have four resistors in the diaphragm, connected as a
Wheatstone bridge. The resistors are formed by diffusion or ion implantation inside the silicon, or
deposited in a thin film on top of the silicon.
Single crystal silicon is an excellent material for sensors because it exhibits almost no hysteresis
and its electrical properties can be controlled with semiconductor processing.
The sensors are small (less than 1 cm on a side) and the processing equipment is borrowed from the
semiconductor electronics industry, so many sensors can be put on a single wafer. Rather than
handling each sensor individually, 100 sensors can be processed in each operation. Often the
wafers can be handled in a group, allowing the manufacturing cost per sensor to be cut dramatically.
Pressure transmitters using a solid state sensor retain the media isolation benefit of a stainless steel,
oil filled isolator to transmit the pressure signal to the sensor. Because the sensors are so small,
little oil is needed. As a result, sensor performance is not compromised.
Advantanges/Disadvantanges of Pressure Sensing Methods

Technique
Advantages
Disadvantages
Strain
Simple Circuitry
Small
Accurate
Temperature Sensitive
Mechanical Overpressure
Static Pressure Sensitive
Force Balance
Familiar
Safe in hazardous areas
Vibration Sensitive
Large
Complex
Temperature Sensitive
Variable Reluctance
Small
Accurate
Complex
Differential Capacitance
Small
Very Rugged
Accurate
Simple Sensor
Static Pressure Sensitive
Vibrating Wire
Accurate
Complex
Limited Pressure Range
Vibration Sensitive
Gauge
Table 4.1
Pressure
4- 15
Pressure Transmitter - Selection

This section presents a number of considerations that should be viewed in selecting a transmitter.
They include Functional Specifications, Performance Specifications, Material Selection and desirable
features.
Also included are the definitions of these specifications and the relationship to functional and
performance requirements.
A.
Functional Specifications
1.
Temperatures
Both the maximum process and ambient temperatures need to be considered. Often the process
temperature will exceed the limits of the sensing element. The sensing element of most electronic
pressure transmitters will not operate properly above 110C This will require the use of good impulse
piping practices to get the transmitter temperature back within operating limits. High ambient
temperatures on solid state electronics adversely affect component life. Most electronics are not
rated for service above 90C and there are many components with a 85 C rating. High temperatures
tend to cause more electronic failures. Again it is good engineering practice to keep the electronics
package as cool as possible.
Winterising, either by steam tracing, electrical heaters, or heater controlled enclosures may also be
a consideration.
2.
Pressure
Both the operating pressure range and the maximum pressure should be considered. Gauge pressure
transmitters should have an overpressure rating of at least 150 percent of the maximum rating
operating pressure rating with no other ill effect than having to recalibrate.
The minimum pressure should also be considered. As part of the normal operation, a vacuum may
be applied. Many transmitters have to be ordered specially to obtain this capability.
On differential pressure transmitters, overpressure may be accidentally applied to either the high or
low side of the unit when a three-valve manifold is mis-sequenced. High overpressure capability
eliminates a possible shut-down while the unit is being recalibrated or repaired.
The static line pressure for differential transmitters should also be considered. Units are available
on the market with standard line pressure capability from 5000 to 6000 psi (3-4 MPa).
3.
Environment
The transmitter should be capable of operating in environments with 0 to 100% relative humidity.
The working fluid and the ambient environment should be considered for corrosiveness. For instance,
transmitters used on offshore oil rigs are subject to corrosion from salt water. Another example is
a transmitter in a steam or cooling water system in the vicinity of acids or bases that tend to get into
the atmosphere. The above applications have a non-corrosive working fluid, and a very corrosive
ambient.
4.
Flame-proof Enclosure
Flame-proof enclosure means an enclosure for electrical apparatus which is capable of withstanding,
without damage, an explosion which may occur within it, of a specified gas or vapor, and capable of
4 - 16
Pressure
preventing ignition of a specified gas or vapor surrounding the enclosure from sparks or flames
from the explosion of the specified gas or vapor within the enclosure.
To make a system flame-proof, the enclosure must be capable of withstanding an explosion and the
system must be installed per the national standards for hazardous locations.
5.
Intrinsically Safe Equipment
Intrinsically safe equipment and wiring are incapable of releasing sufficient electrical energy under
normal or abnormal conditions to cause ignition of a specific hazardous atmospheric mixture.
Abnormal conditions will include accidental damage to any part of the equipment or wiring, insulation
or other failure of electrical components, application of overvoltage, adjustment and maintenance
operations, and other similar conditions.
6.
Damping
There are applications where pumps or other process noise pulses must be damped out to get good
control or indication. The more the unit is damped, the slower the response time.
Fig. 4.19
Damping is defined in terms of the time constant. It is the time taken to complete 63.2% of the
total rise or decay.
However, there are other cases where system dynamics require a fast transmitter response for ultimate
performance. In this case, one needs to consider that a units output will be affected by the
compounded time constants of its mechanical and electronic operation.
7.
Zero Elevation or Suppression
Zero Elevation - for an elevated zero range the amount the measured variable zero (true zero) is
above the lower range value. It may be expressed either in units of measured variables or in percent
of span.
Fig. 4.20
Pressure
4- 17
Zero Suppression - for a suppressed zero range, the amount the measured variable zero (true zero)
is below the lower range value. It may be expressed either in units of the measured variable or in
percent of span.
These become important when the transmitter needs to be mounted remotely from the process. For
example, in a high temperature application, a wet leg may be employed to distance the transmitter
and allow the process fluid to cool to an amount that wont damage the sensor.
Compensation for the wet leg will be required in the calibration of the transmitter. In the case
above, zero will be suppressed.
Two Wire Transmitters
Fig. 4.21
The two-wire device, as the name implies, has only two wires to the transmitters. These wires are
used for both power and signal. The two-wire unit requires an external DC voltage power supply.
The three-wire device also requires an external DC voltage power supply with one lead as common
for both signal and power.
The four-wire device has two wires for signal and two for power. The power required is usually 115
or 230 VAC, and the unit has a built-in transformer, rectifier and regulator.
Power Supply and Load Limits

The choice of a power supply for two-wire transmitters will depend on the load. Most transmitters
are capable of operating over a wide range of load limits.
Fig. 4.22
4 - 18
Pressure
Wiring should consist of twisted pairs. Most transmitters do not require shielding, but it is
recommended to eliminate noise pickup from electric motors, inverters or other noise generating
electrical equipment in the area.
The size of the wire is usually not critical; 18 gauge is usually sufficient. The resistance of the wire
adds to the total load, and in most cases simply requires a
power supply of sufficient voltage to handle the entire
voltage drop across the System.
Fig. 4.23
Special consideration is required when using computers,

especially where sampling times are short. Electronic
transmitters often have internally generated driving
frequencies which may show up as high frequency noise
on the output. As an example, assume the sample time is
85 micro-seconds, and assume some 50 kHz frequency noise
on the line, which would have an equivalent period of
approximately 6.4 micro-seconds. The integration time to
average out this noise is only 13.4 cycles. This does not
allow enough time to completely integrate a high level noise.
If it is significantly high, a filter should be considered.
B. Performance Specifications
In order to evaluate the performance specifications of a transmitter and be able to compare the
specifications of various manufacturers, their definitions must be understood.
a.
Reference Accuracy - Point Accuracy?

% URL?
% Span?
b.
Hysteresis
c.
Repeatability
d.
Reproducibility
e.
Temperature Effect
f.
Overpressure Effect
g.
Static Pressure Effect
h.
Vibration Effect
k.
Power Supply & load limitations
Pressure
4- 19
Considerations for Mounting Transmitters

The following points may prove useful in ensuring the best possible conditions for accurate and low
maintenance operation.
-
Keep corrosive or hot process material away from the transmitter.
Avoid sediment deposit in the impulse piping.
Balance the liquid head on both legs of the impulse piping.
Keep impulse piping as short as possible.
Avoid ambient temperature gradients and fluctuations.
For liquid flow measurement, tap into the side of the line to avoid sediment deposits. Mount the
transmitter beside or below the taps so gases will vent into the process line.
For gas flow measurement mount the transmitter above the line to prevent liquid accumulation.
Taps should be made to the side of the line for transmitters having side vent\drains. For liquid
service, the side vent/drain should be mounted upward to allow venting of gases. For gas service,
it should be mounted down to allow draining of any accumulated liquid.
-
Slope piping at least 3 cm in 30 cm up toward the process connection for liquid and steam
service.
Slope piping at least 3cm in 30cm down toward the process connections for gas service.
Avoid high points in liquid lines and low points in gas lines.
Keep both impulse legs at the same temperature.
Use impulse piping of sufficient diameter to avoid friction effects.
Vent gas from liquid piping legs.
Fill both piping legs to the same level when using sealing fluid.
-
Avoid purging through the transmitter. Make the purge connection close to the process taps
and purge through equal lengths of the same size pipe.
Calibrating Pressure Transmitters

The Dead Weight Tester (Piston Type)
In this type of instrument, the force produced on a piston of known area is measured directly by the
weight it will support.
Fig. 4.24 Dead weight tester
4 - 20
Pressure
A measured Weight Force (W) acts on the piston to produce a

Pressure equal to
W
A
The cylinder may be filled with a light acid-free and resin-free mineral oil for pressure up to 1.2
MPa and with castor oil for higher pressures.
It can also be pneumatically operated.
In order to eliminate the effects of friction, the piston is rotated while a reading is being taken. In
the low pressure types, the weights are placed directly on the top of the piston. For higher pressures
this method is not suitable since the stack of weights becomes unwieldy and excessive frictional
errors may be introduced if the weights are piled out of centre.
In the high pressure models (up to 14.5 MPa) an overhang design is used. The piston, which may
have an area of as little as .3cm2, is fitted with a head-and-ball socket to support the weight carrier.
The weight carrier consists of a platform around the bottom of a long tube. The top of the tube is
domed and rests on the ball, and is the centre of the piston, avoiding all side stresses.
The dead-weight tester is fitted with a pump for priming and a screw press for producing the
pressure, the size and design of the press depending upon the highest pressure involved.
Fig. 4.25 Dead-weight tester with dual range piston unit.
Pressure
4 - 21
Case Study
Fig. 4.26
Model 3051C
Differential Pressure Transmitter
Introduction
The Model 3051C Coplanar Smart Pressure Transmitter is a high-performance extension of the
Rosemount pressure instrument line. The Model 3051C is one of a distinguished Rosemount
SMART FAMILY group of microprocessor-based field instruments.
The Model 3051C benefits from the proven capacitance cell technology pioneered by the Rosemount
Model 1151. Digital technology used in the Model 3051C ensures maximum accuracy and
rangeability, as well as an easy interface between the field and the control room. In addition, the
output is software-selectable for linear or square root.
The extensive use of application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) and surface-mount electronic
technology significantly reduces the size and weight of the transmitter. This, coupled with the
Coplanar process connection, ensures easy installation.
4 - 22
Pressure
All SMART FAMILY instruments communicate using the HART (Highway Addressable Remote
Transducer) protocol with the hand-held HART Communicator and Rosemount System 3 process
control systems. Figure 4.29 shows the Model 3051C and the HART Communicator.
In addition to remote communications, the Model 3051C allows you to adjust the analog output
span and zero locally through the use of integral adjustments. An optional digital meter adds
diagnostic capabilities and allows you to read the digital process variable at the transmitter.
Definitions
ASIC TECHNOLOGY
SURFACE MOUNT
(Application Specific Integrated Circuit)
TECHNOLOGY
Definition:
A unique circuit designed and
manufactured for a specific function
Definition:
A process where surface mounted
components are placed on the
surface of the substrate, not
through it like conventionally
mounted components. Surface
mounted components are also
smaller
than
conventional
components and may be mounted
on both sides of the PWB.
Benefits:
*
Increased reliability of complex

circuits
- Reduces I/O count
- Fewer solder joints
Benefits:
*
Greater functionality
* Size reduction of electronics
- at I/S power limits
-Smaller housings
- at a smaller size
- Greater functionality in same

or less space
- at a lower price
* Improved electricial performance

*
Small circuit size leads to smaller,

lighter weight packaging
* Lower price
Table 4.2
Pressure
4 - 23
The Sensor Module

The Model 3051C incorporates a high-accuracy capacitance sensor.
Fig 4.27
Fig 4.28 Self-Compensating Sensor Design.
4 - 24
Pressure
Communication Format
The Model 3051C communicates via the HART protocol, which uses an industry standard Bell 202
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) technique. Remote communiation is accomplished by superimposing a high-frequency signal on top of the 4-20 mA output signal. The Rosemount implementation
of this technique allows simultaneous communications and output without compromising loop
integrity. The Model 3051C will communicate with any host that incorporates the HART protocol.
HART Communicator may be connected to

any termination point in the signal loop.
Signal loop must have 250 ohms minimum
load for communications. Do not use
inductive-based transient protectors.
Figure 4.29 Model 3051C Pressure Transmitter Field Wiring Connections.
Software Functionality
The HART protocol allows the user easy access to the Configuration, Test, and Format capabilities
of the Model 3051C.
Configuration
The Model 3051C can be configured easily from the Model 268 or 275 hand-held interface or a
Rosemount control system. Configuration consists of two parts. First, the transmitter operational
parameters are set, which include:
*
4 and 20 mA points
*
Linear or square root output
*
Damping
*
Engineering unit selection
Second, informational data can be entered into the transmitter to allow identification and physical
description of the transmitter. This data includes:
Tag: 8 alphanumeric characters
Descriptor: 16 alphanumeric characters
Message: 32 alphanumeric characters
Date
Integral Meter Installation
Pressure
Flange Type
Flange Material
Drain/Vent Material
0-ring Material
Remote Seal Information
4 - 25
In addition to the configurable parameters discussed here, the Model 3051C software contains
several kinds of information that are not user-changeable: transmitter type, sensor limits, minimum
span, fill fluid, isolator material, module serial number, and transmitter software revision level.
Test
The Model 3051C performs continuous self-tests. In the event of a problem, the transmitter activates the user-selected analog output warning. A Model 268 or 275 or Rosemount control system
can then interrogate the transmitter to determine the problem. The transmitter outputs specific
information to the Model 268 or 275 or control system identifying the problem for fast and easy
corrective action. If an operator believes there is a loop problem, the transmitter can be directed to
give specific outputs for loop testing.
Format
The format function is used during the initial setup of a transmitter and for maintenance of the
digital electronics. It allows the sensor and the 4-20 mA output to be trimmed to meet plant
pressure standards. In addition, a characterize function allows the user to prevent accidental or
deliberate adjustment of the 4 and 20 mA setpoints.
4 - 26
Pressure
Fig. 4.30 Model 3051C Differential Pressure

Transmitter Exploded View.
Pressure
4 - 27
Fig. 4.31 Level Flange Option.
Specifications
Functional Specifications
-300 to 300 psi.
Service
-2,000 to 2,000 psi.
Liquid, gas, and vapor applications.
Output
Ranges
Option Code A
Code
Two-wire 4-20 mA, user-selectable for linear or square root output. Digital process
variable superimposed on 4-20 mA signal,
available to any host that conforms to the
HART protocol.
0-0.5 to 0-25 inH 20 (0-0.12 to 0-6.22 kPa).
2
0-2.5 to 0-250 inH20 (0-0.62 to 0-62.2
kPa).
3
0-10 to 0-1,000 inH2 0 (0-2.48 to 0-248
kPa).
4
0-3 to 0-300 psi (0-20.7 to 0-2,070 kPa).
5
0-20 to 0-2,000 psi (0-138 to 0-13,800
kPa).
Sensor Limits
1
-25 to 25 inH20.
-250 to 250 inH20.
-1,000 to 1,000 inH 20.
Option Code M
Three wire 1-5 V dc or 0.8-3.2 V dc (Option
Code C2) user-selectable output. Also user
selectable for linear or square root output configuration. Digital process variable superimposed on voltage signal, available to any host
conforming to the HART protocol.
Power Supply
External power supply required. Transmitter operates on 10.5-55 V dc with no load.
4 - 28
Pressure
Intrinsically Safe for Class 1, Division 1,

Groups A, B, C, and D when connected
in accordance with Rosemount drawing
03031-1024. Temp. Code T3C.
Load Limitations
Maximum loop resistance is determined by the
voltage level of the external power supply, as
described by:
Max. Loop Resistance = 43.5(Power Supply Voltage - 10.5)
BASEEFA/CENELEC Intrinsic Safety

Certification
l1 EEx ia IIC T5 (Tamb = 40 0C).
EEx ia IIC T4 (Tamb = 70 0C).
BASEEFA Type N Certification
Nl
ExNllCT5(Tamb =70 0C).
CESI/CENELEC Flameproof Approval

E8
Fig. 4.32
Indication
Optional 4-digit LCD meter.
Hazardous Locations Certifications
EEx d IIC T6 (Tamb = 40 0C). EEx d IIC

T5 (Tamb = 70 0C).
Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) Flameproof Certification

E4
Ex sd IIC T5 (Tamb = 60 0C)
Standards Association of Australia (SAA)

Factory Mutual (FM) Approvals
E5 Explosion Proof for Class 1, Division,
Groups B, C, and D. Dust-Ignition Proof
for Class 11, Division 1, Groups E, F,
and G. Suitable for Class III, Division 1,
indoor and outdoor (NEMA 4X) hazardous locations.
Flameproof Approval
E7
Ex d IIC T6.
Class 1, Zone 1.
Standards Association of Australia (SAA) Intrinsic

Safety Approval
15 Intrinsically Safe for use in Class 1,

Division 1, Groups A, B, C, and D;
Class 11, Division 1, Groups E, F, and
G; Class 111, Division I when connected
in accordance with Rosemount drawings
03031-1019 and 00268-0031. Temp.
Code T4. Non-incendive for Class 1,
Division 2, Groups A, B, C, and D.
Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
Approvals
C6 Explosion Proof for Class 1, Division 1,
Groups B, C, and D. Dust-ignition Proof
for Class 11, Division 1, Groups E, F,
and G. Suitable for Class 111, indoor
and outdoor hazardous locations, CSA
enclosure 4; factory sealed. Approved
for Class 1, Division 2, Groups A, B, C,
and D.
17
Ex ia IIC T6.
Class 1, Zone 0.
Zero Elevation and Suppression

Can be set anywhere within the sensor limits as
long as the span is greater than or equal to the
minimum span, the lower range value does not
exceed the lower range limit, and the upper range
value does not exceed the upper range limit.
Overpressure Limit
0 psia to 3,626 psig (25 MPa) on either side without damage to the transmitter for Ranges 2 and
3. 0 psia to 2,000 psig (13.8 MPa) for Range 1.
Burst pressure on Coplanar or Traditional Flange
is 10,000 psig (69 MPa).
For Options Fl, F2, GI, and G2, limit is 0 psia to
the flange rating.
Pressure
Static Pressure Limit

Operates within specifications between static line
pressures of 0.5 psia and 3,626 psig (2,000 psig
for Range 1).
For Options Fl, F2, GI, and G2, limit is 0.5 psia
to the flange rating.
4 - 29
will be from 0 to 36 seconds for one time constant. This is in addition to sensor response time
of 0.2 second (0.4 second for inert fill).
Performance Specifications
Temperature Limits
(Zero-based spans, reference conditions, silicone oil fill,

316 SST isolating diaphragms, and digital trim values
equal to the 4-20 mA span setpoints.)
Process (1):
Accuracy
Silicone fill sensor: -40 to 250 0F (-40 to 121

C)(2). Inert fill sensor: 0 to 185 0F (-18 to 85
0
C)(3).
0
Ambient:
-40 to 185 0F (-40 to 85 0C).
With integral meter: -4 to 175 0F (-20 to 80 0C).
Storage:
-50 to 230 0F (-46 to 110 0C).
With integral meter: -40 to 185 0F (-40 to 85
C).
(1)
(2)
(3)
Process temperatures above 185 0F (85 0C)

require derating the ambient limits by a 1.5:1
ratio.
220 0F (I 04 0C) limit in vacuum service.
160 0F (71 0C) limit in vacuum service.
0.075% of span for spans from 1:1 to 10:1 of

URL.
For Range 1, accuracy equals 0.1% of span
for spans from 1:1 to 15:1 of URL.
For spans less than 10:1 (15:1 for Range 1)
rangedown, accuracy =
URL
[0.025 + 0.005 ( Span ) ]% of Span

(Reference accuracy includes hysteresis, terminal-based linearity, and repeatability of the pressure sensor.)
Stability
0.1% of URL for 12 months (0.2% for Range
1).
Static Pressure Effect
Failure Mode Alarm

If self-diagnostics detect a gross transmitter failure, the analog signal will be driven either below 4 mA or above 20 mA to alert the user. High
or low alarm signal is user-selectable by internal
jumper.
Humidity Limits
0-100% relative humidity.
Turn-on Time
Performance within specifications less than 2.0
seconds after power is applied to transmitter.
Volumetric Displacement Less than 0.005 in3
(0.08 cm3).
Damping
Zero Error (can be calibrated out at line

pressure)
0.1% of URL/1,000 psi (6.9 MPa) for line
pressures from 0 to 2,000 psi (0 to 13.7 MPa),
0.2% of URL/ 1,000 psi (6.9 MPa) for line
pressures above 2,000 psi (13.7 MPa).
0.25% of URL/1,000 psi (6.9 MPa) for
Range 1.
Span Error
0.2% of reading/1,000 psi (6.9 MPa).(1)
0.4% of reading/1,000 psi (6.0 MPa) for
Range 1.
(1) Ranges 4 and 5; See manual for calibration procedure.
Analog output response to a step input change
4 - 30
Pressure
Ambient Temperature Effect
Wetted 0-rings
(0.025% URL + 0. 125% span) per 50 0F for

Ranges 2 and 3. (0.l% URL + 0.25% span) per
50 0F for Range 1.
Glass-filled TFE.
Vibration Effect
Less than 0. 1% of URL per g when tested from
15 to 2000 Hz in any axis relative to pipemounted process conditions.
Power Supply Effect
Less than 0.005% of calibrated span per volt.
Mounting Position Effect
Zero shifts up to 1.25 in H20 (0.31 kPa), which
can be calibrated out. No span effect.
RFI Effects
Fig. 4.33 Transmitter Option Weights
0.1% of span when tested with shielded conduit and grounding from 20 to 1000 MHz, and
for field strength up to 30 V/m.
Non-Wetted Parts
Electronics Housing
Physical Specifications
Low-copper aluminum or 316 SST.NEMA

4X, IP 65.
Electrical Connections
Bolts
1/2-14 NPT, PG 13.5, and CM 20 conduit.
Model 268 or 275 SMART FAMILY Interface
connections permanently fixed to terminal block.
Plated carbon steel per ASTM A449, Grade

5; or Austenitic 316 SST.
Process Connections
Fill Fluid
1/4-18
NPT on 21/8 -in. centers;
1/2-14
NPT on 2-, 21/8 -, or 21/4-in. centers.
Silicone or inert oil.

Paint
Epoxy-polyester.
Process-Wetted Parts
Cover 0-rings
Isolating Diaphragms
316L SST, Hastelloy
material.
Buna-N.
C-276, or Monel
Drain/Vent Valves
316 SST, Hastelloy C, or Monel material.
Weight
Transmitter approximately 5.5 lb (2.5 kg) without options. See Table 1 for option weights.
Flanges
Plated carbon steel, 316 SST, Hastelloy C, or
Monel.
Pressure
4 - 31
Figure 4.34 Optional LCD Meter Exploded

View.
Figure 4.35 Optional Transient Protection

Terminal block (Option Code T1).
4 - 32
Pressure
Activity
Use the information in the Case Study to deal with the following considerations.
(i)
Very high static pressures can be a source of error in some types of capacitative transducers.
(ii)
Increased R & D costs in specialised electronics need to be offset by efficient design.
(iii) In the field, interfacing with the instrument should be convenient and safe.
(iv) The instrument should withstand a hostile environment.
(v)
Mounting the instrument should be as direct as possible, be low cost and protected from
spurious effects.
(vi) A wide rangeability is pivotal to greater application flexibility and hence lower inventory
and design planning costs result.
(vii) Zero and span adjustments should be convenient.
(viii) Trouble-shooting should be easy.
(ix) Overpressure rating at least 150% above maximum rating pressure is desirable.
(x)
In an unprotected location, my instrument will be subjected to ambient extremes of 0-500C

during a 24 hour period. Im measuring a span of 100-200 kPa and would like an accuracy
of output of, at worst, 1%. All else neglected will this instrument deliver? What considerations are relevant?
In the accompanying sketch, what amount of

zero suppression or elevation is required for the
Transmitter to read STEAM PRESSURE (in mm
W.G.)
_______________________________
mm.W.G.
_______________________________ elevation
or suppression?
Fig. 4.36
Pressure
4 - 33
Summary
Pressure is defined as Force per Area.
The Newton is a unit of force which is independent of gravity.
The S.I. Unit for pressure is the Pascal = Newton/m2.
Pressure can also be expressed as head.
Absolute Pressure is measured from full vacuum, whereas Gauge Pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure.
Differential pressure can be used with devices to infer flow.
Mechanical Pressure Transducers include bellows, Bourdon tube, metallic diaphragms and force
balance.
Electronic Pressure Transducers include strain gauges, variable reluctance, variable capacitance,
vibrating wire and solid state.
In selecting a pressure transmitter consideration should be given to: temperature, pressure, environment, calibration, power supply.
Transmitters should be mounted according to the process conditions.
For accurate readings pressure transmitters should periodically be re-calibrated against a known
standard.
4 - 34
Pressure
Test
Pressure
1.
What is the S.I. Derived unit of pressure:

a. kPa
b. kg/cm 2
c. psig
d. psia
e. Pa
2.
In the figure below, what will be the readings on the following gauges?
Differential Pressure Gauge (a)
kPa
Gauge Pressure Gauge (b)
kPa
Absolute Pressure Gauge (c)
kPa
Fig. 4.37
3.
A vessel has a pressure of 1305 kPa (gauge) registering on its pressure gauge. Atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa.
What would be the absolute pressure in the vessel?
Pressure
4.
4 - 35
a. In the accompanying sketch, what amount of zero suppression or elevation is required

for the transmitter to read 0-600 kPa (1mmH2O) = 9.8Pa)
__________________________ kPa
__________________________ elevation or suppression
Fig 4. 38
5.
6.
Two objects of identical mass are dropped from identical heights at precisely the same
time, one over Sydney, the other over Melbourne. Assuming the resistance to motion due
to air buoyancy and friction is identical, which object will reach mean sea level first?
a.
Sydney
b.
Melbourne
c.
both the same
A pressurised vessel has a pressure gauge to measure internal pressure with the main
objective of ensuring that it does not reach a point where the vessel may burst. Would you
use an instrument to measure:
a.
Absolute pressure
b.
Gauge pressure
c.
Differential pressure
4 - 36
7.
Pressure
What is the differential pressure (P1 - P2) being applied to the manometer in the figure.
_______________________ kPa
Fig. 4.39 Simple U-Tube
8.
Which arrangement would be used for:

Gas Pressure Measurement
a or b
_______________________________
Liquid Pressure Measurement
a or b
_______________________________
Fig. 4.40
Third Printing: October 1996
Second Printing: July, 1993
First Printed: October 1991

Pressure

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The force that through the

Course 9050 - October 1996

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Units of Pressure - standard and commonly used

P = Newton = Pascal (Pa)

Gravity dependent units are:

- Kilograms force per sq. cm

- Torr (a unit of vacuum)

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Course 9050 - October 1996

Fig. 4.1 The air compresses to its minimum

Fig. 4.2 For the same cylinder (A =

Not only weights exert a force. A column of liquid or gas

5 inches water gauge (or) water column.

Course 9050 - October 1996

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

1" W.G. @ 200C = 248.7 Pa

1 mm W.G. @ 200C = 9.79 Pa

Fig. 4.4a U-Tube

Fig. 4.4b Well (Reservoir)

Fig. 4.4d Mercury Float

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Fig. 4.4c Inclined Manometer

Fig. 4.5 Bell Manometer

Course 9050 - October 1996

Course 9050 - October 1996

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Fig. 4.8 Ring balance

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Course 9050 - October 1996

Fig 4.9 McLeod Gauge manometer can

Using Manometers to Measure

Course 9050 - October 1996

Fig. 4. 10 Differential Pressure Profile with Orifice Plate

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

At the new Equilibrium State:

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Course 9050 - October 1996

Glossary of Measurable Pressures

Same as atmospheric pressure.

The pressure below a liquid surface exerted by the liquid above.

Same as line pressure.

Pressure below atmospheric.

Same as line pressure.

Pressure exerted by a flowing material parallel to the direction of such

A measurement from a base reference point that is neither the atmosphere

Fig. 4.12 Definitions of pressure

Course 9050 - October 1996

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

General Principles of Measurement

Deformation is proportional to applied force (Hookes Law)

Fig. 14.13 Bellows

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Course 9050 - October 1996

Fig. 4.15 High precision type of bourdon gauge.

Fig. 4.16 Diaphrams

Course 9050 - October 1996

The principle employed simply requires that the deformed

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Fig. 4.17 Force Balance Pressure Transmitter.

Principles of Instrumentation and Control

Course 9050 - October 1996

Course 9050 - October 1996