SUMMER TRAINING

AT

INSTRUMENTS RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

ESTABLISHMENT

DEFENCE
RESEARCH &
DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION DEHRADUN

SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

BY
LALIT GANGWAR
B.Tech 2nd year Mechanical Engineering
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY UTTARAKHAND

INSTRUMENTS RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT ESTABLISHMENT

Ministry of Defence, Govt. of India

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Lalit Gangwar, student of Mechanical Engineering,

B.Tech (2nd year) from NIT Uttarakhand has undergone summer training at IRDE,
Dehradun from 3rd June 2016 to 14th July 2016 at Opto-Mechanical Engineering (OME)
Centre of IRDE.
He has undergone an orientation program during which he was familiarized with various
facilities available at OME. He studied various machines including precision machines such
as CNC machine, gear hobbing machine, jig boring machine and other high precision
machines.

(Dr. A. K. Sahani)
Scientist F
IRDE, Dehradun

(J. K. Bajpai)
Scientist G
GD (OME)
IRDE,Dehradun

DATE: 14/07/2016

CONTENT

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2. INTRODUCTON TO IRDE
3.OPTO-MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
3.1 MACHINE SHOP
3.2 CHEMICAL LAB
3.3 NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC) CENTRE
3.4 HOT AND COLD ANCILLARY
3.5 MECHANICAL INSPECTON LAB
3.6 CAD CENTRE
4. AN INTENSIVE STUDY ON RPT
5. CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Dr. S. S. Negi, Director of I.R.D.E., DEHRADUN for permitting me to do

the training in this organisation.
I am also very thankful to Mr J. K. Bajpai, Scientist G, Group Director of the OptoMechanical Engineering Design Centre and Dr. A. K. Sahani, Scientist F (OME) to provide
me with the facilities I required to undergo our summer training.
Last but not the least I am also thankful to all Scientists, Technicians and others who directly
or indirectly helped me during the tenure of my practical training.

INTRODUCTION
TO

INSTRUMENTS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

ESTABLISHMENT
Instruments Research and Development Establishment (IRDE), Dehradun is a premier
institution for research and development activities in the field of electronics and electrooptics in India. Formally known as Establishment of Inspectorate of Scientific Stores, it
originated in 1939. Later it underwent changes taking the shape of Technical Development
Establishment (Instruments and Electronics).
IRDE is one of the establishments of Defence Research and Development Organization
(DRDO). Ever since its existence from 1st December 1961, it has played a vital role in
serving India in the field of science, especially in electronics and optics.
Instruments Research and Development Establishment is an ISO 9001:2000 certified
establishment of Defence Research and Development Organization and came into its present
form in 2005.

IRDE VISION
With To achieve excellence in the fields of Optics & Electro-optical Instrumentation a
commitment to provide world class equipments.

QUALITY POLICY
IRDE, involved in the design & development of optical & electro-optical instruments and
related research activities for defence applications, resolves to provide state-of-art quality
equipments for self-reliance. IRDE will focus its activities to fulfill the needs and
requirements of the services in association with production agencies for achieving total user
satisfaction through a network of processes and continual improvement in the overall
organizational effectiveness.

MAJOR AREAS OF ACTIVITY

Its main areas of activity include hi-tech surveillance, fire control and guidance systems
which involve state-of-art electro-optical sensors, lasers, servo controls and computers,
holography, integrated optics, optical image processing & adaptive optics.
The laboratory has a strong R & D base in the fields of optical design, optical fabrication,
night vision technology, laser technology, thermal imaging, photonics & precision mechanics.

This establishment is at present devoted to the design and development of instrument in the
following area.

1. Conventional optical and fire control instrument

2. Vision instrumentation
3. Laser based instrument.
4. Gyro based instrument
5. Microprocessor techniques for solving ballistic problems.
6. Integrated fire control system.
7. Photonics

OPTO-MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Research and engineering works in IRDE is done in variousdivisions/departments; one of

them is Opto-mechanical engineering which deals with designing and manufacturing of
precision components and assemblies used in defence projects. OME is equipped with
different precise and accurate machine tools along with designing and analyzing softwares.
Opto-mechanical engineering is further sub-divided into various labs with different specific
works. Some of these labs are listed below:

Machine Shop
Chemical Lab
NC Centre
Hot Ancillary & Cold Ancillary
TDC & SPDT
Mechanical Inspection Lab
CAD Centre

MACHINE SHOP

As the name suggest, machine shop is used for machining or manufacturing the components
using various operations of machining. It is equipped with different types of machine tools
like simple lathe, precision lathe, production lathe, centreless grinder, universal milling etc.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MACHINES:

1. LATHE MACHINE:

Fig.1 Lathe Machine

Lathe is a versatile machine which makes shapes on metal or wood. It is invented by Henry
modulus, lathe machine works on the principle of surface, sliding and screw cutting.
It is a machine tool that rotates the work piece on its axis to perform various operations such
as cutting, knurling, drilling, facing, turning, grooving, threading, etc with tools that are
applied to the work piece to create an object with symmetry about an axis of rotations.
It consist various parts;
Bed-It made up of cast iron because of its high strength.
Carriage-It moves on the outer ways and used for mounting and moving most of the cutting
tools.
Headstock-It supports the main spindle in the bearings and aligns it properly.
Chuck- It is a work piece holding device and mounted to headstock spindle. It may be three
or four jaw.
Tailstock-It fits on the inner ways of the bed and can slide towards any position the
headstock to fit the length of work piece. An optional taper turning attachment would be
mounting to it.

Leadscrew- It is used for making threads. It has ACME threads over it which has an angle of
29 degrees. It has ACME threads because of ease of engagement and disengagement.
Gear train- It consist of gear system to achieve different speeds as per requirement.

LATHE OPERATIONS:
1. Facing
2. Plane Turning
3. Taper Turning
4. Step Turning
5. Chamfering

6. Threading
7. Grooving
8. Knurling
9. Drilling
10. Boring

CUTTING TOOL PARAMETERS:

Fig.2 Single Point Cutting Tool

Side cutting edge angle (Lead angle)

End cutting edge angle
Side clearance angle (Relief angle)
Front clearance angle ( End relief angle)
Back rake angle
Side rake angle
Nose Radius

2. MILLING MACHINE:

Fig.3 Milling Machine

Milling is a cutting process that uses a milling cutter to remove material from the surface
of a workpiece. The milling cutter is a rotary cutting tool, often with multiple cutting
points. The cutter in milling is usually moved perpendicular to its axis so that cutting
occurs on the circumference of the cutter. As the milling cutter enters the workpiece the
cutting edges(flutes or teeth) of the tool repeatedly cut into and exit from the material.

Types of milling machine:

A. Bed type-In bed type machine the work table is mounted directly on the bed, which
replaces the knee, and can move only longitudinally. These machines have high stiffness
and are used for high production work.
B. Knee and column type-It is used for general purpose milling operations, these are the
most common milling machine. The spindle to which the milling cutter is may be
horizontal(slab milling) or vertical(face and end milling)
C. Rotary table type-These are similar to vertical milling machine and are equipped with
one or more heads to do face milling operation.

CHEMICAL LAB

DIFFRENT METHODS OF COATING

1. ANODIZING- It is used to enhance the property like hardness, non-corrosive nature of
metals (especially for aluminium). The coating is non-conductive.
H2O ------- H+ +
2Al +

3/2O2

--------

OH-

Al2O3 (non-conductive)

2. CHROMATIZING- In this process 5-6 micron chromium ion coating is done on the
metals like aluminium. Sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7) is used in bath tub with sodium
chloride (NaCl) or sodium nitrite (NaN3) as a catalyst . After drying hexa-valent chromium
ion gets converted in trivalent. The metal become more hard, non-corrosive and partially
conductive.
This coating have an advantage of self healing in which trivalent aluminium ion gets
converted in hexa-valent ion.
Al3+ --------

Al6+

For Magnesium we use anodising or galvanic process.

In galvanic process we have salt sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7) or potassium dichromate
(K2Cr2O7) in bath tub. A conductive coating of 6-7 micron of chromium oxides and complex
compounds takes place. It produces black surface which is generally used in military
purposes.
For Mild Steel we use ortho-phosphoric acid in bath tub that results in the formation of
magnesium oxide (MgO) and zinc oxide (ZnO) layer over the metal surface. It is used for
blackening of surface that cause more roughness.
Blackening of strain resistive components (Cr-Ni alloy)- here we use molten salt method in
which sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7) and potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) are heated
between 400-450 degree celsius . Due to which the surface is coated by chromium oxide and
the surface turns from grey to black.
For Brass we use brenzing method in which we use cupric carbonate (Cu2CO3) in bath tub
that results in the formation of 6-7 micron copper oxide (CuO) on the brass surface. It
provides better adhesion, conductive layer and more roughness to the surface.

Metallisation of non conductive surfaces(glass/plastic):

Here the non conductive material is dipped into stainless chloride solution (SnCl2) that
results in sensitization of material. Then the material is reacted with Palladium(Pd) that cause
activation of the material surface.
Sn

------------

Pd (displacement reaction)

Electroless method is used on the active components in which the components are dipped into
electroless solution of copper sulphate(CuSO4). 4-5 micron copper coating takes place over
the non metallic surface and hence metallisation of non conductive materials takes place.

NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC) CENTRE

NC Centre consists of various Numerical control (NC) machines which are those machines,
automatically operated by commands that are received by their processing units. The input
information for controlling the machine tool motion is provided by means of punched tape or
magnetic tapes in a coded language. This information stored in the punched cards can be read
by automatic means and converted in electric signals, which operate the electrically
controlled servo system, i.e. the drive unit.

Main elements of a NC Machines:

1. The control unit: In the control unit, a tape reads the instructions (written in a coded
language) for manufacturing the component.
2. The drive unit: The instructions undergo electronic processing and the control unit sends
command signals to the drive units of the machine tool and also to the magnetic box.
Command signals sent to the drive units of the machine tool. Control the length of travel and
feed rate, while the command signals sent to the magnetic box control the other functions
such as spindle motor starting and stopping, selecting spindle speeds, coolant supply.
3. Feedback package: A feedback transducer provided in the machine tool checks whether
the required length of travel have been obtained or not. It sends the information of the actual
position achieved to the control unit.
4. Manual control: It assists the operator to perform some functions manually such as startstop, speed change, coolant supply etc.

Advantages of NC Machines:
1. Easier to program, easy storage of existing programs
2. Easy to change a program
3. Avoids human errors
4. NC machines are safer to operate
5. Complex geometry is produced as cheaply as simple ones
6. Usually generates closer tolerances than manually operated machines

Disadvantages of NC machines:
1. High capital and maintenance cost
2. Requires skilled labour

COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC) SYSTEM:

A computer numerical control system is an NC-system that utilizes a dedicated, stored
program computer to perform some or all of the basic numerical control function. Almost all
operations performed with conventional machine tools are programmable with CNC
machines. For instance, with CNC machines we can perform motion control in linear (along a
straight line) or rotary (along a circular path) axes. The axes of any CNC machine are
required for the purpose of causing the motions needed for the manufacturing process.

SALIENT FEATURES OF CNC SYSTEM

1. CNC system improves automation, the operator intervention related to producing work
pieces can be reduced or eliminated.
2. CNC technology gives consistent and accurate work pieces. Once a program is verified,
number of work pieces can be easily produced with precision and consistency.
3. Another benefit offered by most of forms of the CNC machine tool is flexibility. Since
these machines are run from program, running a different work piece is almost as easy as
loading different program. Once a program has been verified and executed for one production
run, it can be easily recalled the next time.
4. With CNC control its possible to obtain information on machine utilization which is useful
to the management.

Fig.4 Block Diagram of CNC

Having the computer control the machine is accomplished by a program that is written using
NC code. A CNC program is a series of instructions written in sentence-like format. These
statements are executed in sequential order, step by step. A special series of CNC words are
used to communicate what the machine is intended to do. CNC words begin with letter
addresses (like F for feed rate, S for spindle speed, and X, Y and Z for axis motion). When
placed together in a logical method, a group of CNC words make up a command that
resemble a sentence. For any given CNC machine type, there will only be about 40-50 words
used on a regular basis. As compared to NC, the CNC offers additional flexibility and
computational capability. CNC is often called as soft-wired NC because of reprogramming
capacity, both in case of part programs and in case of control system.

GEAR HOBBING PROCESS:

Gear hobbing is a method by which a special hobbing cutter and gear blank are rotated at the
same time to transfer the profile of the hob onto the gear blank. A majority of involute gears
are produced by this method. It looks like a worm but carries a number of straight flutes, cut
around parallel to its axis. The cutter and the blank must have a rotating axis parallel to each
other. This results in separate cutting teeth and cutting edges. In operation, the hob is rotated
at a suitable speed and fed into a gear blank .The blank also rotates simultaneously. The speed
of the two are so synchronized that the blank rotates through one pitch distance for each
complete revolution of the hob there is no intermittent motion of any of the two and the
generation of the motion continues steadily. The operation of gear hobbing starts with infeeds to the revolving hob, until it reaches the required depth of the gear tooth, or else
moving the gear blank towards the hob and acquiring the desired depth of tooth. It is
followed by feeding the hob in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the rotating the
gear blank. The gear hobbing process is the continuous one.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MILLING AND GEAR HOBBING

MACHINE
1. The very basic difference being that in the milling machine the cutter moves but the job is
stationary. In gear hobbing both the cutters as well as the job rotates.
2. In milling, one tooth is made at a time but in gear hobbing, all the teeth are generated
simultaneously and so it is a gear generation process.
3. In gear hobbing machine there is no indexing mechanism and hence the error in the
alignment is omitted.

HOT ANCILLARY AND COLD ANCILLARY

Hot ancillary is basically a foundry shop used for producing metal casting of the desired
object as required for defence projects while cold ancillary consists of carpentry shop,
maintenance shop and painting shop. Carpentry shop is used for making patterns in IRDE
because shape and size of pattern vary from project to project and is not used for mass
production, rather is used for producing small no. of castings as required. Carpentry shop is
equipped with different wood working hand tools and wood working machines. In hot
ancillary, there are induction furnaces, Muller mixture, oven and various other foundry
equipments.

PATTERN MAKING SHOP:

A pattern may be defined as a replica or facsimile model of the desired casting which, when
packed or embedded in a suitable moulding material, produces a cavity called mould. This
cavity, when filled with molten metal, produces the desired casting after solidification of the
poured metal. Since it is a direct duplication, the pattern very closely conforms to the shape
and size of the desired casting, except for a few variations due to the necessary allowances.
PATTERN MATERIAL: The material used for making patterns in this shop is wood. The
common woods used in pattern making are Deodar, Pine, Teak, Shisham etc.
WOOD WORKING HAND TOOLS : There is a fairly large number of hand tools used in
wood working. A broad classification of these tools, according to their use, is given below:

1. Marking and measuring tools: The common operations performed by these tools
include marking, measuring, setting out angles and parallel lines and testing.
i) Carpenters folding rule: It is a wooden scale consisting of four pieces, each 6 inches or
15 cm long, joined together by means of hinged joints to make it folding. When opened out,
its total length measures 2 feet or 60 cm and on being folded it measures equal to one piece
length i.e., 6 in. or 15cm. It is mainly used for measuring and setting out dimensions.
ii) Try square: It is used for measuring and setting out dimensions, testing the finish of a
planned surface, draw parallel lines at right angles to a plane surface, draw mutually
perpendicular lines over a plane surface and test the squareness of two adjacent surfaces.
iii) Marking gauge: It is made of wood and is a very prominent tool for marking. It is used
to scribe lines parallel to and at any desired distance from a finished face or edge.

2. Holding and supporting tools: This category includes those tools which are either
used to hold or support, or both, the job while other operations are performed on it.
i) Work bench: It is a heavy table of rigid construction made of hard wood, about 150 to 180
cm in length and nearly 90 cm in width. Two or four carpenters vices are fitted on opposite
sides to hold the jobs during the operation. One jaw of the vice is secured to the table and the
other is kept movable. Inside opposite faces of the jaws are fitted with wooden liners so as to
prevent damaging of the job surfaces, when it is firmly clamped between the jaws. Shelves or

racks can be provided in the table, below the top, to utilize this space for storing tools,
instruments or prepared jobs, etc.
ii) Clamps and screws: various types of clamps and screws are used by carpenters for
holding and supporting wood pieces in position for carrying out different operations.

3. Cutting tools: There are three types of cutting SAW

i) Those which are given a reciprocating motion by hand and carry teeth for cutting the wood
saws.
ii) Those which are driven into the wood by the application of blows chisels. CHISELS
tools used in wood work:
iii) Those which are given a swinging action by one hand or both hands and are struck against
the wood for cutting the same adze and axe.

4. Planing or paring tools: This category of wood working tools includes various types
of planes, spokes shave and draw knives etc.
i) Wooden jack plane: It is the most commonly used plane in carpentry. Its main parts
include a wooden body or stock and, a wooden handle for holding the plane during the
operation. The bottom face of the stock, called sole, is made perfectly smooth and level. The
main cutting parts, known as blade is fitted in the stock such that it remains inclined at an
angle of 450 with the sole. For this purpose the stock is provided with a through slot having
its back surface tapered at 450 with the sole, so that the blade after being fitted rests against
this surface and thus gets the desired inclination automatically.
ii) Iron jack plane: it is also used for the same purpose as a wooden jack plane, but it gives a
better finish than the latter. Its whole body is made of cast iron, provided with a wooden
handle at the back and a wooden knob at the front from holding it by both hands.

5. Boring tools: These tools are used to produce holes in wood and some commonly used
tools for this purpose are the following:
i) Auger: It consists of a steel bar carrying a fluted body for about half of its length from the
bottom. At the end of the flutes, that is at the bottom of the tool, is provided a screw point
which acts as a pilot and helps in centering the tool. The upper portion of the bar is left plain
and its top end forged to form an eye through which a wooden handle passes. It is available in
different sizes to produce holes up to 25 mm diameter.
ii) Hand drill: It consists of a forged body, on the top of which is provided a wooden handle
and at the bottom a chuck. Two bevel gears are also provided in it. The larger wheel is fitted
with a crank on the same shaft. The bit is held in the chuck and pressed against the wood by
one hand, which also holds and balances the drill simultaneously. By means of the other
hand, the crank is rotated, which rotates the larger wheel along with it. This in turn rotates the

smaller gear and, therefore, the spindle since the same is directly mounted on the spindle,
which carries the chuck at its bottom.

WOOD WORKING PROCESSES

The different operations performed in wood working are as follows:
i) Marking and laying out: It involves all the marking and measuring operations carried out
collectively to set out the given dimensions of the product on the wood.
ii) Sawing: Sawing is done to cut the wood into pieces of required sizes and shapes.
iii) Planing: Through this operation the wood surface is made perfectly smooth and plane
with the application of a suitable plane.
iv) Mortising and tenoning: Mortise is a cavity or slot made in a wood piece and the tenon
is the corresponding projection provided to another piece such that the two will fit each other
on assembly to form what is known as a mortise and tenon joint. The process employed to
produce the mortise is called mortising and that used for making a tenon is known as
tenoning.
v) Boring: This process is used for producing round holes in wood pieces.
vi) Grooving and tongueing: When very wide planks are needed, it is normally not possible
to procure them commercially. For this, the planks of standard widths are taken and joined to
form the desire width. One of the planks is provided with a groove on its longitudinal face
and adjacent plank with a corresponding projection called tongue, the two fitting with one
another to give the increased width.
vii) Moulding: Through this process different decorative shapes are produce along the
periphery of wood pieces by using the moulding plane.
viii) Rebating: It involves the use of a rebating plane to produce a step along the edge of
plank, either longitudinal or cross or both. ix) Recessing: It is a sort of mortising operation
with the difference that the cavity produced is blind and not through as is done in mortising.

WOOD WORKING MACHINES

Wood working machines play a vital role in the modern wood work, particularly where large
scale production of wooden articles is carried out. Modern developments in wood working
machinery, with regard to the greater safety for the operator, easy operation and greater
accuracy, have completely revolutionized the wood working industry.
i) Jig saw: It is used for cutting internal or external curves on thin stock. It can also be used
for angle sawing by tilting the table at a desired angle. The main parts of the machine are the
base, frame or arm, table, upper and lower chucks, tensionsleeve and guide assembly. The
guide assembly holds down the wooden stock in position during the operation. The size of the

machine is designated by the distance between the blade and the arm, measured in line with
the table.
The driving mechanism of jig saw is such that the rotary motion of the motor spindle is
converted into the vertical reciprocating motion of the saw blade. The arm, at its front end
carries a vertical tube called Tension sleeve, which can be adjusted vertically at a desired
height in order to accommodate saw blades of different lengths. A bar moves up and down
inside the sleeve and carries the upper chuck fastened at its lower end.
ii) Circular saw: It is also known as table saw and is one of the earliest machines designed
for wood working. However, it is still an indispensable machine tool in modern wood work.
Although it is primarily designed for ripping and cross-cutting the wood, many other
operations like grooving, rebating, tenoning, chamfering, beveling, tapering, mitering and
splinting, etc. can be successfully performed on this machine. Its principle parts include the
frame, arbor, table, blade, cut-off guide, fence and guard.
iii) Band saw: It is probably the most widely used and important of all wood working
machines. It is manufactured in many different sizes, ranging from the little bench saw to the
larger band mill having wheels of over 2 meters diameter. The smaller and lighter designs are
used for recutting previously sawn planks to required smaller sizes and other light production
work. The heavy duty band mills are specifically designed for mass cutting of heavy logs to
required lengths and sawing them to standard market sizes. Bench type smaller band saws
can be used for cutting curved and fine straight line work. The band saws used specifically
for cutting curves are also known as scroll saws. Some of these machines carry tilting type of
table which enables sawing at different angles.
iv) Wood turning lathe: It is one of the oldest types of wood working machines, which still
justifies its existence in the modern workshop. It essentially consists of a cast iron bed, a
headstock, tail stock, tool rest, live and dead centers and a speed control device. The drive in
all modern lathes is individual and is contained in the frame, the motor being mounted on a
base inside the frame. A cone pulley on the head stock spindle is connected by a belt to a
similar cone pulley on the motor shaft. The bed carries horizontal ways at its top on which the
tailstock and tool rest move. They can be clamped at any desired place along these ways. The
work piece is either clamped between two centers, the live centre on the head stock spindle
and the dead centre in the tail stock, or on a face plate. The operation done in the former case
is known as turning between centers, whereas in the latter case it is known as turning on a
face plate.
v) Drilling machines: A drilling machine or drill press, of suitable capacity is commonly
used for drilling and boring holes of different sizes in wood. Apart from the above two
operations, with proper attachments, it can also be used for mortising, routing, shaping,
counter sinking, circular cutting and sanding. Both bench drill and upright drilling machines
are commonly used in wood work.
vi) Wood shaping machine: The vertical spindle moulding or wood shaping machine is
primarily designed for cutting, moulding and shaping grooves of various shapes and sizes on

both the curved and straight wood work. Apart from this, it can also be used for fluting,
beading, tenoning and rebating operations. Its principal parts are the frame, vertical spindle,
cutter head, fence, table, spindle height adjusting wheel and guard.
vii) Jointer or hand planer: A jointer is a power driven machine, which does the work of a
hand plane and is capable of producing a true surface with enough accuracy and speed. It is
particularly useful in straightening the warped surfaces of wooden plank, joining edges of
boards to be glued, squaring surfaces, beveling, chamfering and general straight planing
work. The principal parts of a jointer are heavy cast iron base, front and rear tables, cutter
head, fence and safety guard.

FOUNDARY SHOP:
Metal casting: Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known.
Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the shape to be made, and
allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mold
either by breaking the mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called the
casting. By this process, intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity frequently not
obtainable by any other manufacturing process. The mold, into which the metal is poured, is
made of some heat resisting material. Sand is most often used as it resists the high
temperature of the molten metal. Permanent molds of metal can also be used to cast products.

CASTING TERMS
1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various
names such as drag lower molding flask, cope upper molding flask, cheek intermediate
molding flask used in three piece molding.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the
help of pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the
mold.
4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases.
It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of
the mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to
create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten
metal is poured.

8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the
mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.
9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its
own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as feed head.
13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.

STEPS IN MAKING SAND CASTINGS

There are five basic steps in making sand castings:
1. Patternmaking 2. Core making 3. Molding 4. Melting and pouring 5. Cleaning
1. Pattern making: The pattern is a physical model of the casting used to make the mold.
The mold is made by packing some readily formed aggregate material, such as molding sand,
around the pattern. When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the mold cavity,
which is ultimately filled with metal to become the casting. If the casting is to be hollow, as
in the case of pipe fittings, additional patterns, referred to as cores, and are used to form these
cavities.
2. Core making: Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity
to form the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the void space between the core and moldcavity surface is what eventually becomes the casting.
3. Molding: Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving
molten metal. Molding usually involves placing a molding aggregate around a pattern held
with a supporting frame, withdrawing the pattern to leave the mold cavity, setting the cores in
the mold cavity and finishing and closing the mold.
4. Melting and Pouring: The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as
melting. Melting is usually done in a specifically designated area of the foundry, and the
molten metal is transferred to the pouring area where the molds are filled.
5. Cleaning: Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and
excess metal from the casting. Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improve the surface
appearance of the casting. Excess metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and
gates, is removed. Inspection of the casting for defects and general quality is performed.

GREEN SAND MOLDING

Green sand is the most diversified molding method used in metal casting operations. The
process utilizes a mold made of compressed or compacted moist sand. The term "green"
denotes the presence of moisture in the molding sand. The mold material consists of silica
sand mixed with a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) and moisture.
Sand Mold Making Procedure: The procedure for making mold of a cast iron wheel is
described below:
1. The first step in making mold is to place the pattern on the molding board.
2. The drag is placed on the board.
3. Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non-sticky layer.
4. Molding sand is then riddled in to cover the pattern with the fingers; then the drag is
completely filled.
5. The sand is then firmly packed in the drag by means of hand rammers. The ramming must
be proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft.
6. After the ramming is over, the excess sand is levelled off with a straight bar known as a
strike rod.
7. With the help of vent rod, vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the flask as
well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases during pouring and solidification.
8. The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern.
9. Cope half of the pattern is then placed over the drag pattern with the help of locating pins.
The cope flask on the drag is located aligning again with the help of pin.
10. The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the pattern.
11. A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance from the pattern.
Also, riser pin, if required, is placed at an appropriate place.
12. The operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed in the same manner as
performed in the drag.
13. The sprue and riser pins are removed first and a pouring basin is scooped out at the top to
pour the liquid metal.
14. Then pattern from the cope and drag is removed and facing sand in the form of paste is
applied all over the mold cavity and runners which would give the finished casting a good
surface finish.
15. The mold is now assembled. The mold now is ready for pouring.

MOLDING MATERIAL AND PROPERTIES

A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds and cores.
They include molding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core
sand. The choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties. The properties
that are generally required in molding materials are:
1. Refractoriness: It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the
liquid metal to be poured so that it does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the
silica sand is highest.

2. Permeability: During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of

gases and steam is generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal
during melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding
and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be
entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome this problem the molding
material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the gases that are
generated inside the mold cavity.
3. Green Strength: The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The
green sand particles must have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength
to the mold. The green sand must have enough strength so that the constructed mold retains
its shape.
4. Dry Strength: When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold
cavity is quickly converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the
heat of the molten metal. At this stage the molding sand must possess the sufficient strength
to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to withstand
the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.
5. Hot Strength: As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high
temperature when the metal in the mold is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is
required to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot strength.
6. Collapsibility: The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the
contraction of the solidified casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in
cracks in the castings. Besides these specific properties the molding material should be cheap,
reusable and should have good thermal conductivity.

MOLDING SAND COMPOSITION

The main ingredients of any molding sand are:
1. Base Sand: Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands that are also
used for making mold are zircon sand, Chromite sand, and olivine. Silica sand is cheapest
among all types of base sand and it is easily available.
2. Binder: Binders are of many types such as: Clay binders, Organic binders and Inorganic
binders.
2.1 Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to
provide the strength. The most popular clay types are:
2.2
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)
2.3 The Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its bonding power.
3. Moisture: Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of
moisture. When water is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm,
which coats the surface of each flake of the clay. The amount of water used should be
properly controlled. This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay

flakes, helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity. A typical
composition of molding sand is given in table below.
Molding Sand Constituent
sand
Clay (Sodium Bentonite)
Water

Weight Percent

Silica
92
8
4

MELTING PRACTICES
Melting is an equally important parameter for obtaining a quality castings. A number of
furnaces can be used for melting the metal, to be used, to make a metal casting. The choice of
furnace depends on the type of metal to be melted. The furnace employed here is induction
furnace described below.

Induction furnace: Induction heating is a heating method. The heating by the induction
method occurs when an electrically conductive material is placed in a varying magnetic field.
Induction heating is a rapid form of heating in which a current is induced directly into the
part being heated. Induction heating is a non-contact form of heating.
The heating system in an induction furnace includes:
1. Induction heating power supply,
2. Induction heating coil,
3. Water-cooling source, which cools the coil and several internal components inside the
power supply.
The induction heating power supply sends alternating current through the induction coil,
which generates a magnetic field. Induction furnaces work on the principle of a transformer.
An alternative electromagnetic field induces eddy currents in the metal which converts the
electric energy to heat without any physical contact between the induction coil and the work
piece. A schematic diagram of induction furnace is shown below. The furnace contains a
crucible surrounded by a water cooled copper coil. The coil is called primary coil to which a
high frequency current is supplied. By induction secondary currents, called eddy currents are
produced in the crucible. High temperature can be obtained by this method. Induction
furnaces are of two types: cored furnace and coreless furnace. Cored furnaces are used almost
exclusively as holding furnaces. In cored furnace the electromagnetic field heats the metal
between two coils. Coreless furnaces heat the metal via an external primary coil.

Advantages of Induction Furnace:

1. Induction heating is a clean form of heating
2. High rate of melting or high melting efficiency
3. Alloyed steels can be melted without any loss of alloying elements
4. Controllable and localized heating

Disadvantages of Induction Furnace:

1. High capital cost of the equipment
2. High operating cost

GATING SYSTEM
The assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into the mold cavity is
called the gating system. Alternatively, the gating system refers to all passage ways through
which molten metal passes to enter into the mold cavity. The nomenclature of gating system
depends upon the function of different channels which they perform.
Down gates or sprue
Cross gates or runners
Ingates or gates
The metal flows down from the pouring basin or pouring cup into the down gate or sprue and
passes through the cross gate or channels and ingates or gates before entering into the mold
cavity.

RISER
Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold cavity to compensate for
shrinkage which takes place in the casting when it starts solidifying. Without a riser heavier
parts of the casting will have shrinkage defects, either on the surface or internally.
Risers are known by different names as metal reservoir, feeders, or headers. Shrinkage in a
mold, from the time of pouring to final casting, occurs in three stages.
1. During the liquid state
2. During the transformation from liquid to solid
3. During the solid state
First type of shrinkage is being compensated by the feeders or the gating system. For the
second type of shrinkage risers are required. Risers are normally placed at that portion of the
casting which is last to freeze. A riser must stay in liquid state at least as long as the casting
and must be able to feed the casting during this time.

Functions of Risers:
1. Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage.
2. Allow mold gases to escape.
3. Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce mold details more exact.

CASTING DEFECTS
The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand castings
1. Gas defects 2. Shrinkage cavities 3. Molding material defects 4. Pouring metal defects
5. Mold shift

1. Gas Defects: A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten
metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the casting. The defects in this category
can be classified into blowholes and pinhole porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated
cavities present in the casting on the surface or inside the casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due
to dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of molten metal.
Causes: The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower venting,
lower permeability of the mold or improper design of the casting. The lower permeability is
caused by finer grain size of the sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive
moisture present in the mold.
1.Metal contains gas 2.Mold is too hot 3. Poor mold burnout
2. Shrinkage Cavities: These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the
solidification of the casting. To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is
required. For this reason risers are placed at the appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may
be too thin, too long or not attached in the proper location, causing shrinkage cavities. It is
recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities.
3. Molding Material Defects: The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal
penetration, fusion, and swell.
Cut and washes: These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by
erosion of molding sand by the flowing metal. This is caused by the molding sand not having
enough strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care
of by the proper choice of molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the proper design
of the gating system.
Metal penetration: When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result is
a rough casting surface. This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was applied
on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand grains more the metal penetration.
Fusion: This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle,
glassy appearance on the casting surface. The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand
particles are of lower refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high.
Swell: Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move back causing a
swell in the dimension of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will correct this defect.
Inclusions: Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products are trapped in
the casting during pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the gating system and the
pouring basin at the top of the mold can prevent this defect.
4. Pouring Metal Defects: The likely defects in this category are mis-run and cold shut.
A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity completely and thus
leaves unfilled cavities. A mis-run results when the metal is too cold to flow to the extremities
of the mold cavity before freezing. Long, thin sections are subject to this defect and should be
avoided in casting design.

A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do not fuse
together properly thus forming a discontinuity in the casting. When the molten metal is
poured into the mold cavity through more-thanone gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to
flow together and become one solid. If the flowing metal fronts are too cool, they may not
flow together, but will leave a seam in the part. Such a seam is called a cold shut, and can be
prevented by assuring sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick enough walls in the
casting design.
The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the mold or when
the section thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be improved by changing the
composition of the metal and by increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.
5. Mold Shift: The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not
been properly aligned.

Fig.5 Casting Defects

TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT CENTRE (TDC) AND SINGLE

POINT DIAMOND TURNING (SPDT)
MACHINE SPECIFICATIONS
i) Longitudinal traverse
ii) Cross traverse
iii) Centre height above carriage
iv) Slide speed
v) Spindle speed
vi) Spindle load capacity

: 152 mm (Z AXIS).
: 254 mm (X AXIS).
: 152 mm.
: 0 762 mm/ minute. .
: 0 3000 rpm
: 45 kg.

ACCESSORIES

Fig.6 Single Point Diamond Tool

a) Aspheric tool path generator.
b) FTS2TPG Software.
c) LVDT Tool setting station.
d) Spray Mist Coolant system.
e) Fly - Cutting tool holder.
f) Ultradex indexing head.
g) Refrigerant Air Dryer.
h) Temperature Control Unit.
i) Micro Adjustment tool holder.
j) Chip extraction system.

MACHINE CAPABILITIES
Materials
i) Non-ferrous metal
ii) Crystals
iii) Polymers

Shapes
Flats
Spheres
Aspheres

iv) Glasses
v) Ceramics

Cones
Polygons

SPDT PRODUCTS
1. Aspheric/spherical lenses.
2. High Dioptric PMMA lenses.
3. Aluminium alloy mirrors.
4. OFHC copper mirrors.
5. Germanium windows.
6. Geodesic lenses.
7. Mirrors for laser resonator.
8. Mirrors for millimetre wave guide.
9. Aspheric mirrors for high power laser.
10.Multi face scanners.

Fig.7 SPDT Products

MECHANICAL INSPECTION LAB

Mechanical inspection is employed for inspect the dimension of the work pieces after
machining, and for calibration. This lab is used for checking the dimensional accuracy,
tolerance of the work piece, whether it is suitable for the required purpose or not. Some of the
tools employs here for dimensional checking include Coordinate Measuring Machine, Depth
Micrometer, Bevel Protractor, Digital Height Gauge, Vision System and many other micro
equipments.

NEEDS OF INSPECTION
Need of inspection is due to the fact that no production process can be perfect and so there
are always chances of component being out of design specifications. So to know whether the
component produced conforms to the design with regard to the dimensions form of various
feather and surfaces quality it should be sent to the inspection lab.

MEASUREMENT CAPABILITIES
1. Linear dimensions.
2. Angular dimensions.
3. Geometrical parameters.
4. Thread parameters.
5. 2D or 3D data generation.
6. Digitizing of unknown profile.
7. Interface with CAD files.

FACILITIES
1. Coordinate measuring machine (CMM).
2. Vision system.
3. Micro height gauge.
4. Bore gauge and Dial gauge.
5. Gauge blocks.
6. Bevel protector.
7. Depth micrometer.
8. Verniers and micrometers.

CALIBRATION
It is the process of framing the scale of the instrument by applying some standardizes signals.
Calibration is a process of verifying the optional integrity of test and measuring instruments
of unverified accuracy by comparing them to standards of greater accuracy in order to detect,
correlate, report or eliminate by adjustment.

STANDARD
A standard is a defined as a something that is set up and established by authority as a rule for
the measurement of quality, weight, extent, value or quality etc.

SUB DIVISION OF STANDARDS:

1. Primary Standard: For precise definition of the unit, there shall be one, and only one
material standard, which is to be preserved under most care full conditions. It is called a
primary standard.
2. Secondary Standard: Secondary standard are made as nearly as possible exactly similar
to primary standards as regards design, material and length. They are compare d with primary
standards are kept at number of places for safe custody.
3. Tertiary Standard: The primary and secondary standards are applicable only as ultimate
control. Tertiary standards are the first standard to be used for reference purpose in the
laboratories and workshops.
4. Working Standard: Working standards are used more frequently in laboratories and
workshops. They are usually made of low grade material as compared to primary, secondary,
tertiary standards for the sake of economy.

LINE AND END MEASUREMENTS:

1. Line Standard: When the length is measure as the distance between centers of two
engraved lines, it is called line standard. Both material standards yard and meter line
standard. The most common example of line measurements is the rule with division shows as
lines marked on it.
2. End Standard: When length is expressed as the distance between two flat parallel faces, it
is known as end standard. Examples measurement by slip gauges, end bars, ends of
micrometer anvils, vernier calipers etc.

ERRORS AND ITS TYPES

1. Static Errors: These errors results from the physical nature of the various components of
measuring system. These are three basic sources of static errors. The static error divided by
the measurement range gives the measurement precision.
a) Reading Error

b) Characteristic Error

2. Dynamic Error: Dynamic error is the error caused by the time variations in the
measurement. It results from the in ability of the system to respond faithfully to a time
varying measurement. It is caused by inertia, dumping, friction or the other physical
constraints in the sensing or display time.

3. Parallax Error: A very common error that may occur in an instrument while taking the
readings is parallax error.

Parallax error occurs when:

The line of division is not directly in line with the measuring scale and,
The scale and pointer are separated from each other.

LEAST COUNT AND RESOLUTION

Minimum value a mechanical or electronic instrument can be measure.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

1. Accuracy: Degree of closeness between the measured value and the true value.
2. Precision: Degree of closeness between the successive measurements of same dimensions.
3. Sensitivity: It is quotient of the increase in the observed variable (indicated by the pointer
or scale) and corresponding increase in the measured quantity.

IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT

1. Measured: Physical quantity or property like length angle etc being measured.
2. Comparison or Comparator: The means of comparing measured with some reference to
render a judgment.
3. Reference: The physical or property to which quantitative comparisons are made.

CLASSIFICATION OF MEASUREMENT
1. Direct method
2. Indirect Method
3. Comparison Method
4. Coincidence Method
5. Contact and Non-Contact Method
1. Direct Method: The value of quantity is obtained directly by comparing the unknown with
the standard. It involves no mathematical calculation to arrive at the result.
2. Indirect Method: Several parameters are measured directly and then the value is
determined by mathematical relationship.
3. Comparison Method: This method involves comparison with either a known value of the
same quantity or another quantity which is the function of the quantity to be measured
(Telescopic gauge).
4. Coincidence Method: Very small difference between the given quantity and the reference
is determined by the observation of the coincidence of scale marks (vernier caliper).
5. Contact method: The measuring tip of the instrument actually touches the surfaces to be
measured (like vernier caliper, micro height gauge).

6. Non-contact method: In non-contact method instrument doesnt actually touches the

surfaces to be measured in this image of surfaces are form and then we measured (tool room
micro scope).

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
1. Length measuring instruments.
2. Angle measuring instruments.
3. Instrument for checking the deviation from geometrical forms.
4. Instrument for determining the quantity of surface finish.

COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE (CMM):

Fig.8 Cordinate Measuring Machine

SPECIFICATIONS :
MAKE = Carl-Zeiss (contura select 7/7/6)
TYPE = Moving bridge type
MEASURING RANGE = 700*700*600mm
RESOLUTION = 0.1um (micro-meter)
ACCURACY = 2+L/300um
SOFTWARE = CALYPSO SOFTWARE, HOLOS NT SOFTWARE

CAPABILITIES:
1. Linear & angular dimensions.
2. Geometrical parameters.
3. 2D or 3D profile measurement.
4. Digitizing.
5. Interface with CAD files.
6. Scanning through VAST-XT probe.

VISION SYSTEM:
SPECIFICATIONS:
MAKE = Vision engineering (HAWK-7)
STAGE TRAVEL = 200mm x 150mm
MAGNIFICATION EYEPIECE = 10x , objective-50x
RESOLUTION = 0.5 micron
ACCURACY = 3+L/50 micron
ANGULAR RESOLUTION = 1 min.
SOFTWARE = Quadra-check-500

CAPABILITIES
1. Inspection of miniature component.
2. Non-contact measurement.
3. Linear & angular dimensions.
4. Geometrical parameters.
5. Thread parameters.
6. PCD of holes

VERNIER CALIPER: Verniercaliper is a measuring tool which measures the internal,

external diameter and depth of any component. It works on the principle of difference of two
scales.

FEATURES
Least count 0.02 mm
Measuring Range 0-150 mm, 150-300 mm.

VERNIER DIAL CALIPER: Instead of using a vernier mechanism which requires

some practice to use, the dial calliper reads the final fraction of a millimetre or in on a simple
dial.In this instrument, a some precise rack and pinion drives a pointer on a circular dial,
allowing direct reading without the need to read a vernier scale.

FEATURES
Least Count 0.02 mm
Range up to 0- 150 mm, 150 300 mm

SLIP GAUGE- Gauge blocks are a system for producing precision lengths. The individual
gauge block is a metal or ceramic block that has been precision ground and lapped to a
specific thickness.

OPTICAL BEVEL PROTRACTOR- It is probably the simplest instrument for

measuring the angle between two faces of components. It is capable of measuring of
measuring from 0 to 360 degrees.

MICROMETERS: It is a device incorporating a calibrated screw widely used for precise

measurement of components. Types of micrometer;- Outside micrometer, Inside micrometer
and Depth micrometer.

FEATURES
Range 0 25 mm, 25 50 mm, 50 75 mm
Resolution 0.001 mm

MICRO HEIGHT GAUGE:

SPECIFICATION
MAKE = Mitutoyo
RANGE = 0-900mm
RESOLUTION = 0.001mm
ACCURACY = 2+L/600mm
MINIMUM PROBE DIAMETER = 3mm

CAPABILITIES
1. Height measurement.
2. Circle (Bore/Shaft) measurement.
3. Width measurement.
4. Perpendicularity, Straightness and Inclination measurement.

DIGITAL HEIGHT GAUGE:

The main function of the height gauge is used to determine the height from the datum
surface.

FEATURES
Make= Mitutoyo
Range= 0-600
Least count= 0.010 mm

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTER:

Hardness is the resistance to wear or abrasion and is determine by knowing the depth of
indentation. RHT is used to check hardness in A, B, C scale. Scales are chosen according to
material. Hardness is expressed lie RA50, RC60 etc.

HAND HEAD METAL AND ALLOY ANALYZER :

To detect the right composition of metals in any component by using X-rays. It excites the
outer shell electron to the higher state and when these electrons loose the photons when they
come to the lower state then it detect the percentage composition of material within that
component.

CAD CENTRE
In CAD (Computer Added Design) centre, The Product is Designed as Computer Graphics
according to its given dimensions and analysed its properties using computer software.
Various Softwares used in CAD Centre are:
1. Solid Works
2. Ideas
3. Autodesk

Analysis Softwares are:

1. Solid Works (simulation)
2. ANSYS (Mechanical)

Solid Works: It is a solid modelling computer-aided design (CAD) and computer aided
engineering (CAE) computer program that runs on Microsoft Windows. Solid Works is
published by Dassault Systemes.

ANSYS Mechanical: It is a finite element analysis tool for structural analysis, including
linear, non -linear and dynamic studies. this computer simulation product provides finite
elements to model behaviour, and supports material models and equation solvers for a wide
range of mechanical design problembs. ANSYS mechanical also includes thermal analysis
and coupled-physics capabilities involving acoustics, piezoelectric, thermal-structural and
thermo electric analysis.

RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESSES

The professional literature in RP contains different ways of classifying RP processes.
However, one representation based on German standard of production processes classifies RP
processes according to state of aggregation of their original material.

Fig.9 Classification of RP processes

Here, few important RP processes namely Stereolithography (SL), Selective Laser Sintering
(SLS), Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) and Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) are
described.

1. Stereolithography: In this process photosensitive liquid resin which forms a solid

polymer when exposed to ultraviolet light is used as a fundamental concept. Due to the
absorption and scattering of beam, the reaction only takes place near the surface and voxels
of solid polymeric resin are formed. A SL machine consists of a build platform (substrate),
which is mounted in a vat of resin and a UV Helium-Cadmium or Argon ion laser. The laser
scans the first layer and platform is then lowered equal to one slice thickness and left for
short time (dip-delay) so that liquid polymer settles to a flat and even surface and inhibit
bubble formation. The new slice is then scanned. Schematic diagram of a typical
Stereolithography apparatus is shown in figure.
In new SL systems, a blade spreads resin on the part as the blade traverses the vat. This
ensures smoother surface and reduced recoating time. It also reduces trapped volumes which
are sometimes formed due to excessive polymerization at the ends of the slices and an island

of liquid resin having thickness more than slice thickness is formed. Once the complete part
is deposited, it is removed from the vat and then excess resin is drained. It may take long time
due to high viscosity of liquid resin. The green part is then post-cured in an UV oven after
removing
supportstructures.

Fig.10 Stereolithography
Overhangs or cantilever walls need support structures as a green layer has relatively low
stability and strength. These overhangs etc. are supported if they exceed a certain size or
angle, i.e., build orientation. The main functions of these structures are to support projecting
parts and also to pull other parts down which due to shrinkage tends to curl up. These support
structures are generated during data processing and due to these data grows heavily specially
with STL files, as cuboid shaped support element need information about at least twelve
triangles. A solid support is very difficult to remove later and may damage the model.
Therefore a new support structure called fine point was developed by 3D Systems and is
companys trademark.
Build strategies have been developed to increase build speed and to decrease amount of resin
by depositing the parts with a higher proportion of hollow volume. These strategies are
devised as these models are used for making cavities for precision castings. Here walls are
designed hollow connected by rod-type bridging elements and skin is introduced that close
the model at the top and the bottom. These models require openings to drain out uncured
resin.

Fig.11 Fine point structure for Stereolithography

2. Selective Laser Sintering: In Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) process, fine polymeric
powder like polystyrene, polycarbonate or polyamide etc. (20 to 100 micrometer diameter) is
spread on the substrate using a roller. Before starting CO2 laser scanning for sintering of a
slice the temperature of the entire bed is raised just below its melting point by infrared
heating in order to minimize thermal distortion (curling) and facilitate fusion to the previous
layer. The laser is modulated in such away that only those grains, which are in direct contact
with the beam, are affected. Once laser scanning cures a slice, bed is lowered and powder
feed chamber is raised so that a covering of powder can be spread evenly over the build area
by counter rotating roller. In this process support structures are not required as the unsintered
powder remains at the places of support structure. It is cleaned away and can be recycled
once the model is complete. The schematic diagram of a typical SLS apparatus is given in
figure.

3. Fused Deposition Modeling: In Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) process a

movable (x-y movement) nozzle on to a substrate deposits thread of molten polymeric
material. The build material is heated slightly above (approximately 0.5 C) its melting
temperature so that it solidifies within a very short time (approximately 0.1 s) after extrusion
and cold-welds to the previous layer as shown in figure. Various important factors need to be
considered and are steady nozzle and material extrusion rates, addition of support structures
for overhanging features and speed of the nozzle head, which affects the slice thickness.
More recent FDM systems include two nozzles, one for part material and other for support
material. The support material is relatively of poor quality and can be broken easily once the
complete part is deposited and is removed from substrate. In more recent FDM technology,
water-soluble support structure material is used. Support structure can be deposited with
lesser density as compared to part density by providing air gaps between two consecutive
roads

Fig.12 Selective Laser Sintering System

Fig.13 Fused Deposition Modeling Process

3. Laminated Object Manufacturing: Typical system of Laminated Object

Manufacturing (LOM) has been shown in figure. It can be seen form the figure that the slices
are cut in required contour from roll of material by using a 25-50 watt CO 2 laser beam. A
new slice is bonded to previously deposited slice by using a hot roller, which activates a heat
sensitive adhesive. Apart from the slice unwanted material is also hatched in rectangles to
facilitate its later removal but remains in place during the build to act as supports. Once one
slice is completed platform can be lowered and roll of material can be advanced by winding
this excess onto a second roller until a fresh area of the sheet lies over the part. After
completion of the part they are sealed with a urethane lacquer, silicone fluid or epoxy resin to
prevent later distortion of the paper prototype through water absorption.

Fig.14 Laminated Object Manufacturing Process

In this process, materials that are relatively cheaper like paper, plastic roll etc. can be used.
Parts of fiber-reinforced glass ceramics can be produced. Large models can be produced and
the building speed is 5-10 times as compared to other RP processes. The limitation of the
process included fabrication of hollow models with undercuts and reentrant features. Large
amount of scrap is formed. There remains danger of fire hazards and drops of the molten
materials formed during the cutting also need to be removed.

PART DEPOSITION PLANNING: A defect less STL file is used as an input to RP

software like QuickSilce or RPTools for further processing. At this stage, designer has to take
an important decision about the part deposition orientation. The part deposition orientation is
important because part accuracy, surface quality, building time, amount of support structures
and hence cost of the part is highly influenced. In this section various factors influencing
accuracy of RP parts and part deposition orientation are discussed.
1. Factors influencing accuracy
Accuracy of a model is influenced by the errors caused during tessellation and slicing at data
preparation stage. Decision of the designer about part deposition orientation also affects
accuracy of the model.
Errors due to tessellation: In tessellation surfaces of a CAD model are approximated
piecewise by using triangles. It is true that by reducing the size of the triangles, the deviation
between the actual surfaces and approximated triangles can be reduced. In practice, resolution
of the STL file is controlled by a parameter namely chordal error or facet deviation as shown
in figure . It has also been suggested that a curve with small radius (r) should be tessellated if
its radius is below a threshold radius (ro) which can be considered as one tenth of the part
size, to achieve a maximum chordal error of (r/ro) to power Alpha. Value of Alpha can be set
equal to 0 for no improvement and 1 for maximum improvement. Here part size is defined as
the diagonal of an imaginary box drawn around the part and Alpha is angle control value .
Errors due to slicing: Real error on slice plane is much more than that is felt, as shown in
figure. For a spherical model Pham and Demov (2001) proposed that error due to the
replacement of a circular arc with stair-steps can be defined as radius of the arc minus length
up to the corresponding corner of the staircase, i.e., cusp height (figure). Thus maximum
error (cusp height) results along z direction and is equal to slice thickness. Therefore, cusp
height approaches to maximum for surfaces, which are almost parallel with the x-y plane.
Maximum value of cusp height is equal to slice thickness and can be reduced by reducing it;
however this results in drastic improvement in part building time. Therefore, by using slices
of variable thicknesses (popularly known as adaptive slicing, as shown in figure), cusp height
can be controlled below a certain value.
Except this, mismatching of height and missing features are two other problems resulting
from the slicing. Although most of the RP systems have facility of slicing with uniform
thickness only, adaptive slicing scheme, which can slice a model with better accuracy and
surface finish without loosing important features must be selected.

2. Part building
During part deposition generally two types of errors are observed and are namely curing
errors and control errors. Curing errors are due to over or under curing with respect to curing
line and control errors are caused due to variation in layer thickness or scan position control.

Figures illustrate effect of over curing on part geometry and accuracy. Adjustment of chamber
temperature and laser power is needed for proper curing. Calibration of the system becomes
mandatory to minimize control errors. Shrinkage also causes dimensional inaccuracy and is
taken care by choosing proper scaling in x, y and z directions. Polymers are also designed to
have almost negligible shrinkage factors. In SL and SLS processes problem arises with
downward facing layers as these layers do not have a layer underneath and are slightly
thicker, which generate dimensional error. If proper care is not taken in setting temperatures,
curling is frequently observed.

Fig.15 Slicing of a ball, (a) No slicing (b) Thick slicing (c) This slicing (d) Adaptive slicing

3. Part finishing
Poor surface quality of RP parts is a major limitation and is primarily due to staircase effect.
Surface roughness can be controlled below a predefined threshold value by using an adaptive
slicing. Further, the situation can be improved by finding out a part deposition orientation that
gives minimum overall average part surface roughness. However, some RP applications like
exhibition models, tooling or master pattern for indirect tool production etc. require
additional finishing to improve the surface appearance of the part. This is generally carried by
sanding and polishing RP models which leads to change in the mathematical definitions of
the various features of the model. The model accuracy is mainly influenced by two factors
namely the varying amount of material removed by the finishing process and the finishing
technique adopted. A skilled operator is required as the amount of material to be removed
from different surfaces may be different and inaccuracies caused due to deposition can be
brought down. A finishing technique selection is important because different processes have
different degrees of dimensional control. For example models finished by employing milling
will have less influence on accuracy than those using manual wet sanding or sand blasting.

Fig.16 Over-curing effects on accuracy in Stereolithography

4. Selection of part deposition orientation
This is one of the crucial decisions taken before slicing the part and initiating the process of
deposition for a particular RP process. This decision is important because it has potential to
reduce part building time, amount of supports required, part quality in terms of surface finish
or accuracy and cost as well. Selection of part deposition orientation is process specific where
in designer and RP machine operators should consider number of different process specific
constraints. This may be a difficult and time consuming task as designer has to trade-off
among various conflicting objectives or process outcomes. For example better part surface
quality can be obtained but it will lead to increase in the building time

APPLICATIONS OF RAPID PROTOTYPING: RP processes are widely used in

aerospace, automobile, biomedical and jewelry industries.

Fig.17 Applications of RP processes

Study of a new class of materials for 3D printing (3DP)

3DP is an ink-jet-based technology that offers a number of advantages:
1) It is currently the fastest RP process. Through the use of commercial ink-jet heads and the
development of appropriate binder systems, 3DP systems allow high build speeds that are
more or less independent of shape complexity and part size.
2) 3DP systems are cheap since key components of these systems are also used in largevolume products like ink-jetprinters.
3)3DP is currently the only RP process that allows the fabrication of fully colored models. Up
to now 3DP has also suffered from a number of drawbacks:
1) After the build process is complete, the part has to be removed from the powder bed.
During this process fragile features of the parts might break off.
2) Without inltration, 3DP parts are mechanically weak and their use as functional parts is
limited.
3) Because of the use of powders, the surfaces of 3DP parts are fairly rough. The rst and
second drawbacks can potentially be eliminated by using polymer ionomers. One of the
major drawbacks of RP is that only a selected range of materials can be processed directly. In
particular, in the eld of biomedical applications post-treatment processes or molding
techniques have to be used to obtain biocompatible and/or biodegradable parts. A fairly large
number of biomaterials, e.g., bioceramics, biodegradable polymers, or silicones, are
accessible by molding techniques. But from a practical point of view, direct methods are
preferred. Direct printing of biopolymers and biocomposites has been achieved by using
fused deposition modeling by 3D printing and by stereolithography. Biopolymers which can
be processed by these techniques are mostly based on poly(propylene fumarate), block
copolymers of oligo ethylene glycol with lactic acid, or polycaprolactone. Therefore, there is
a strong demand for alternatives that can be processed easily. It has have recently shown that
polymer ionomers are a promising class of materials that can be printed directly without the
need of post-treatment processes.
Chemistry and Material Properties of Zinc Ionomers
The concept of polyelectrolyte cements was developed in 1963, which led to the rst
application of zinc polycarboxylate cements as dental lling materials. This combination
belongs to the class of materials known as acidbase reaction cements. The constituents are
poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) and a deactivated zinc oxide powder. For deactivation ZnO is mixed
with small amounts of magnesium oxide and fused at ca.1200 0C. By this pre-treatment,
evaporation of oxygen gives a non-stoichiometric material ZnO (1-x) where x is less than or
equal to 70 ppm. This and the addition of magnesium oxide reduces the reactivity towards the
acid and, therefore, adjusts the setting time. The zinc ions released from the ZnO particles
crosslink the PAA chains and effectively render them insoluble.

ZnO

2(-CH2-CH(COOH)-)

--------

(-CH2-CH(COOH)-)2Zn

H2O

Crosslinking was reported to take place via a sort of bridge between the divalent zinc
cation and the hydrophilic functional groups on the polymeric chain. The set cement consists
of unreacted metal oxide particles embedded in a zinc polyacrylate matrix. It should be noted
that inclusion of magnesium oxide in the cement powder increases the water sensitivity of the
materials because of non-specic binding. Low molecular weight and narrow distribution in
the PAA is important to avoid cob-webbing in the cement mix. The zincPAA cement is
reasonable brittle, though it shows some plasticity for sometime after formation. It behaves in
many ways like thermoplastic composites, as the chain length of the PAA had signicant
inuence over the fracture properties and Youngs modulus. Typical compressive strength is
in the order of 80100 MPa for a mixture consisting of three parts of a 40wt.-% aqueous PPA
and one part of metal oxide powder, which sets within 2 4 min. The maximum strength is
usually achieved after one week. The nal porosity can be tuned by the chemical composition
of the composite. A ZnO/PAA ratio of 0.6 resulted in minimal porosity. Besides good physical
properties, such formulations also have good adhesion properties, e.g., to tooth tissues where
Ca2+ could also interact with the PAA chain. It should be noted that zinc ions are more
strongly bound to polyacids as they have a smaller radius and greater electronegativity than
calcium ions. The zincPAA cements can be considered as good biomaterials because they
are characterized by low toxicity. Zinc is fundamental for cell growth, development, and
differentiation. It is also known to assist in the prevention of bacterial infection and to support
wound healing. Further developments were targeted towards glass ionomer cements,
because dental materials from zinc and other metal oxide cements were opaque and
unaesthetic. Several excellent overviews have been published recently. The rst practical
glassionomer cements were introduced in 1972. Important factors are the Al 2O3/SiO2 ratio
and the application of tartaric acid to improve the setting properties. The organic polymer

consists of PAA or copolymers with itaconic acid. Poly(vinyl phosponic acid) or N-acryloylsubstituted amino acids were described as suitable alternatives. Future aspects of 3D printing
using polymer ionomers might be seen in the application of glass ionomers for medical
applications, since a further increase in strength and stiffness can be expected from such
developments. Dual cure systems utilizing photopolymerizable monomers, e.g., hydroxyethyl
methacrylate (HEMA), 2,2-bis[4(2-hydroxy-3-methacryloxyprop-1-oxy)-phenyl]propane
(Bis-GMA), or triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) in resin-modied glass
ionomers can further improve and tune the mechanical properties towards the desired
application. In addition, this concept may open the ability for 3D tuning of the material
properties by selective irradiation of the composite material.

CONCLUSION:

I want to convey my immense thanks to the IRDE premises, specially Opto-Mechanical

Engineering Department for the profound dedication and diligence they put in me. The
technically advanced labs and machinery are both fascinating and learning. The practical
ways of learning make me familiar with the real industrial world and enhance the theoretical
part of me. I am very grateful to have the opportunity to learn under the guidance of such
intellectuals and get their experiences.