CHAPTER 10 WOOD

10.1

What are the two main classes of wood? What is the main use of each class? State the names
of two tree species of each class.
Endogenous not generally used for engineering applications (eg. Palm trees)
Exogenous produces softwood and hardwood (deciduous and conifers), used for furniture
and decorative veneers and for construction

10.2

What is the difference between earlywood and latewood? Describe each.

Earlywood is produced by rapid growth during the spring while latewood from
summer growth. Latewood consists of dense, dark, and thick-walled cells producing a stronger
structure than the earlwood.

10.3

A simple lab test for specific gravity, G, on two samples of lumber indicate that sample A has G
= 0.4 and sample B has G = 0.5 Based on this informa-tion alone, which wood sample would
you choose as a structural member for your construction project? Briefly explain why.
I would choose sample B because higher specific gravity indicates more cellulose
and a denser piece of lumber. Therefore, this specimen would probably make a stronger,
stiffer structural member.

10.4

Discuss the anisotropic nature of wood. How does this phenomenon affect the performance of
wood?
An anisotropic material means it has different and unique properties in each direction
longitudinal, parallel to the grain and tangential. This nature affects the physical and
mechanical properties of the wood such as shrinkage, stiffness and strength.

10.5

Briefly describe the chemical composition of wood.

Wood is composed of cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, extractives and ash-producing
minerlas. 50 percent of the wood substance is made up of cellulose and consists of the sugar,
glucose. Lignin accounts for 23% - 33% of softwood and 16% - 25% of hardwood by weight
and is basically the glue that holkds the tubular cells together. Hemicellulose is 20% - 30% of
hardwood and 15% - 20% of softwood and it is a polymeric unit made from sugar molecules.
The extractives compose of 5% - 30% of the wood substance in which tannins and other
polyphenolics, coloring matters, essential oils, fats, resins, waxes, gums, starches and simple
metabolic intermediates are included. Ash-forming materials account for 0.1% - 3% of the
wood materials and include calcium, potassium, phosphate and silica.

10.6

The moisture content of wood test was performed according to ASTM D4442 procedure and
produced the following data:
Weight of specimen in the green condition = 317.5 g
Weight of oven-dry specimen = 203.9 g
Calculate the moisture content of the given wood.
Moisture content =

10.7

317.5 203.9
203.9

100 = 55.7 %

What is the fiber saturation point? What is the effect of the fiber saturation point on the
shrinkage of wood in the different directions? How does this phenomenon affect the properties
of lumber?
The fiber saturation point is the level of saturation wherein the cell walls are
completely saturated but no free water exists in the cell cavities. It causes the wood to have
warping, checking, splitting, and structural performance problems. It is also the reason that the
sawing pattern of boards affects the amount of distortion when subjected to changes in
moisture.

10.8

A stud had dimensions of 38 mm * 89 mm * 2.438 m and a moisture content of 150% when it

was prepared. After seasoning, the moisture content was reduced to 7%. If the tangential,
radial, and longitudinal directions of the grains are on the same order as the dimensions
indicated above, what are the dimensions of the seasoned stud if the moisture-shrinkage
relation follows Figure 10.5?
According to Figure 10.5 the FSP = 28. The changes in dimensions are due
to the reduction of moisture below the FSP.
From Figure 10.5 the percentage of shrinkage due the changes of moisture from 28% to 7% are
as follows: tangential = 6 %, radial = 3.1 %, and longitudinal = 0.23 %. The new dimensions will
be:
Tangential = 38 x (1 - 0.06) = 35.7 mm
Radial = 89 x (1 - 0.031) = 86.2 mm
Longitudinal = 2.438 x (1 - 0.002) = 2.433 m

10.9

A wood pole with a diameter of 1 inch has a moisture content of 5%. The fiber saturation point
(FSP) for this wood is 30%. The wood shrinks or swells 1% in the radial direction for every 5%
change in moisture content below FSP.
a. What would be the percent change in the woods diameter if the woods moisture is
increased to 55%?
b. Would the wood swell or shrink?
c. What would be the new diameter?
a. No dimension change occurs above FSP.
Percent change in the wood diameter = (1/5) x (30 - 5) = 5.0%
b. Swell
c. New diameter = 1.050 in

10.10 A glulam beam with a manufactured depth of 12 in. at 14% moisture content. Assuming
common values for estimating dimensional changes, compute the new depth of the beam if
the moisture content is increased to 35%?
Assume a 30% FSP. The change of moisture content from 14% to 35% causes swelling. Swell
does not occur above the FSP. Assume a 1% swelling per 5% increase in moisture content
below the FSP.
Increase in depth = (30-14) / 5 = 3.2%
New depth = 12 x 1.032 = 12.384 in.
10.11 Wood is cut at sawmills into a variety of products, with different sizes and shapes for
engineering applications. What are these products?

Dimension lumber
Heavy timber
Round stock
Engineered wood
Specialty items like lattice, handrails, spindles, radius edge decking, turned posts, etc.

10.12 Construction lumber can be cut from the tree using one of two methods or a combination of
them. Name these two methods and show a sketch of each. What is the main advantage of
each method?

Plainsawn

rapid and economic, shrinks

susceptible to collapse in drying

and

swells

less

in

thickness,

less

Quartersawn maximizes the amount of vertical-sawn cuts, shrinks and swells less in width,
does not allow liquids to pass through readily in some species and holds paint
better in some species
10.13 Why are the actual dimensions of lumber different from the nominal dimensions? Explain.

10.14 What are the factors considered in grading lumber?

Quality
Strength
Durability
workability

10.15 State five different imperfections that may be found in lumber, and briefly define them.

Shakes lengthwise separations in the wood occurring between annual rings and
develop prior to cutting the lumber and due to heavy winds
Wane bark or other soft material left on the edge of the board or absence of material
Sap streak heavy accumulation of sap in the fibers of the wood
Pitch pockets well-defined openings between annual rings that contain free resin
Splits lengthwise separations of the wood caused by either mishandling or seasoning

10.16 Draw a graph to show the typical stressstrain curve for wood. On the graph, show the
modulus of elasticity. State three different factors that affect this relationship.

Modulus of
Elasticity

The different factors that affect the relationship are type of specie, and variation in
moisture content and specific gravity.

10.17 Compute the modulus of elasticity of the wood species whose stressstrain relation is shown in
Figure 10.12, using both the SI and English units. Com-pare the results with the typical values
shown in Table 1.1 in Chapter 1 and comment about the results.
E = / = 20 / (0.00225) = 8,889MPa
E = / = 2.9 / (0.00225) = 1,289 ksi
10.18 What is the typical load duration used in designing wood structures? If a wood beam is
designed for use at a one-week event only, should the designer increase or decrease the
allowable fiber stress relative to the allowable stress used for normal applications? How much
increase or decrease?
The typical load duration used in designing wood structures is 10 years. For a one-week
event, the designer should increase the allowable fiber stress. According to Fig. 10.13, the
designer should increase the allowable fiber stress by 25%.
10.19 To evaluate the mechanical properties of wood, structural-size specimens or small, clear
specimens can be tested. Which technique is more important? Why? What is the most
common test used in each technique?
Testing of structural-size members is more important than testing small, clear
specimens since the design values are more applicable to the actual size members. The
bending test is more commonly used than the other tests.
10.20 A center-point bending test was performed on a 2 * 4 wood lumber according to ASTM D198
procedure with a span of 4 ft and the 4 in. side is positioned vertically. If the maximum load
was 240 kips and the corresponding deflection at the mid-span was 2.4 inches, calculate the
modulus of rupture and the apparent modulus of elasticity. See Experiment No. 29 for
equations.
The actual dimensions of the 2 x 4 lumber is 1.5" x 3.5".
Max bending moment = M = (240/2) x (16/2) = 960.0 in kips
Moment of inertia = I = (1.5 x 3.53) / 12 = 5.36 in.4
c = d/2 = 1.75 in
Modulus of rupture =

Mc
I

Apparent modulus of elasticity =

960 1.75
5.36
3
43

= 313.4 ksi

240(163 )
4(1.5)(3.53 )(2.4)

= 1.59 x 106 psi

10.21 A 4 * 4 wood lumber was subjected to bending with a span of 5 ft until fail-ure by applying a
load in the middle of its span. The load and the deflection in the middle of the span were
recorded as shown in Table P10.21.
a. Using a computer spreadsheet program, plot the loaddeflection relationship.
b. Plot the proportional limit on the graph.
c. Calculate the modulus of rupture (flexure strength).
Table P10.21
Load (lb)

97

195

341

730

1350

1898

2301

2956

3479

3990

4440

Deflection
(in)

134.1

204.3

265.5

328.5

363.6

393.3

412.2

451.8

483.3

522.9

554.4

a. The actual dimensions of the 4 x 4 lumber is 3.5" x 3.5".

The load versus deflection is shown below.

5000
4500
4000

Load, lb

3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Deflection, 0.001 in

b. By inspection, extend the straight line backward until it meets the x-axis and this will be the
new origin. The proportional limit is at a load of 3479 lb and a deflection of 0.483 in.
c. Max bending moment = M = (3479/2) x (60/2) = 52, 185 in lb
Moment of inertia = I = (3.5 x 3.53) / 12 = 12.51 in.4
c = d/2 = 1.75 in
Modulus of rupture =

Mc
I

52,185 1.75
12.51

= 7,300 psi

10.22 A wood specimen was subjected to bending until failure by applying a load in the middle of its
span. The specimen has a cross section of 1 in. * 1 in. (actual dimensions) and a span of 14 in.
between the simple supports. The load and the deflection in the middle of the span were
recorded as shown in Table P10.22.
a. Using a computer spreadsheet program, plot the loaddeflection relationship.
b. Plot the proportional limit on the graph.
c. Calculate the modulus of rupture (flexure strength).
d.
Table P10.22
Load (lb)

16

28

60

111

156

198

243

286

328

365

Deflection
(in)

0.149

0.227

0.295

0.365

0.404

0.437

0.468

0.502

0.537

0.581

0.616

400
300
Load, lb

200
100
0
0

100

200
300
400
(Deflection,0.001in)

500

600

700

b. By inspection, extend the straight line backward until it meets the x-axis and this will be the
new origin. The proportional limit is at a load of 280 lb and a deflection of 0.52 in.
c. Max bending moment = M = (365/2) x (14/2) = 1,277.5 in lb
Moment of inertia = I = (1 x 1 3) / 12 = 0.08333 in.4
c = d/2 = 0.5 in
Modulus of rupture =

Mc
I

1,277.5 0.5
0.08333

= 7,665 psi

10.23 A wood specimen having a square cross section of 2 in. * 2 in. (actual dimen-sions) was tested
in bending by applying a load at the middle of the span, where the span between the simple
supports was 28 in. The deflection under the load was measured at different load levels as
shown in Table P10.23.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Using a computer spreadsheet program plot the loaddeflection relationship.

Plot the proportional limit on the graph.
Calculate the modulus of rupture (flexure strength).
Does the modulus of rupture computed in (c) truly represent the extreme fiber stresses in the
specimen? Comment on the assumptions used to compute the modulus of rupture and the
actual response of the wood specimen.
Load (lb)

Deflection (10-3 in.)

100

27.9

200

55.6

300

83.2

400

111.2

500

140.0

600

166.7

700

194.3

800

222.2

900

250.1

1000

275.4

1100

314.8

1200

359.5

1300

405.0

1400

468.6 (failure)

a. The load versus deflection is shown below.

Load, lb

1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0

100

200

300

400

500

Deflection, 0.001 in.

b. By inspection, the proportional limit is at a load of 1,000 lb and a deflection of 0.275 in.
c. Bending moment at failure = M = 700 x 14 = 9,800 in.lb
Moment of inertia = I = (2 x 2 3) / 12 = 1.333 in.4
c = d/2 = 1 in
Mc
9,800 1
Modulus of rupture =
=
= 7,300 psi
I

1.333

d. The modulus of rupture computed does not truly represent the extreme fiber stresses in the
specimen because the assumptions used in the derivation of the equation consider that the
material is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic. These assumptions are not exactly satisfied.
10.24 A wood specimen was prepared with actual dimensions of 1 in. * 1 in. * 6 in. and grain parallel
to its length. Displacement was measured over a 4 inch gauge length. The specimen was
subjected to compression parallel to the grain to failure. The loaddeformation results are as
shown in Table P10.24.
Table P10.24
Load (lb)

10

87

530

1705

2864

3790

4606

5338

5116

4468

4331

Deflectio
n (in)

0.01
2

0.06
8

0.16
4

0.18
0

0.20
8

0.23
6

0.26
8

0.30
0

0.32
4

0.36
0

0.38
4

0.41
3

a. Using a computer spreadsheet program, plot the stressstrain relationship.

b. Calculate the modulus of elasticity.
c. What is the failure stress?

6000

Stress, psi

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12 Strain, in./in.

b. The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-stain line. The first part of the curve includes an
experimental error probably due to the lack of full contact between the machine head and the
specimen. Therefore, ignore the first portion of the curve and draw the best fit straight line up to
the maximum stress. The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the line as shown on the figure
below:
6000
y = 132951x - 5274.2
5000

Stress, psi

4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0.00

0.02

0.04
0.06
Strain, in./in.

0.08

0.10

E = / = 132, 951psi
c. Failure stress = 5,338 psi
10.25 A pine wood specimen was prepared with actual dimensions of 50mm x 50mm x 250mm and
grain parallel to its length. The deformation was measured over a gauge length of 200 mm. The
specimen was subjected to compression parallel to the grain to failure. The loaddeformation results
are as shown in Table P10.25.10.26
a. Using a computer spreadsheet program, plot the stressstrain relationship.
b. Calculate the modulus of elasticity.
c. What is the failure stress?
a. Stress (MPa) = Load (MN) / (0.05 m x 0.05 m)

Strain (m/m) = Deformation (mm) / 200 mm

b. The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-stain line. The first part of the curve includes
an experimental error probably due to the lack of full contact between the machine head and the
specimen. Therefore, ignore the first portion of the curve, draw the best fit straight line, and
extend the line backward until it meets the x-axis. The intersection of the line and the x-axis (0.002
m/m) is the new origin. The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the line, say at a stress of 40 MPa.
E= / = 40 / (0.009 0.002) = 5,714 MPa
c. Failure stress = 44.52 MPa
10.26 A wood specimen was prepared with dimensions of 1 in. x 1 in. x 4 in. and grain parallel to its
length. The specimen was subjected to compression paral-lel to the grain to failure. The load (P)
versus deformation (L) results are as shown in Table P10.26. Using a spreadsheet program, complete
the table by calculating engineering stress () and engineering strain (). Determine the toughness of
the material (ut) by calculating the area under the stressstrain curve, namely,

=
0
f

where is the strain at fracture. This integral can be approximated numerically using a trapezoidal
integration technique:

= =
=1

=1

1
( + 1 )( 1 )
2

10.27 A short round wood column with an actual diameter of 10 inches is to be constructed. If the
failure stress is 4.3 ksi, what is the maximum load that can be applied to this column, using a factor of
safety of 1.3?
Pmax = x A = 4.3 x ( x 52) = 702.10 kips
For F.S = 1.3, Pmax =702.10/1.3 = 540.1 kips
10.28 For the purpose of designing wood structures, laboratory-measured strength properties are
adjusted for application conditions. State five different application conditions that are used to adjust
the strength properties.
The five different application conditions that are used to adjust the strength properties are
Load duration, Wet service, Temperature, Beam stability and Size.
10.29

What are three types of organisms that attack wood?

The three types of organisms that attack wood are fungi, insects and bacteria.

10.30 What are the two types of preservatives that can be used to protect wood from decay? How
are these preservatives applied?
The two types of preservatives that can be used to protect wood from decay are PetroleumBased Solutions and Waterborne Preservatives. These preservatives are very effective, but some
are environmentally sensitive. They are commonly used where a high degree of environmental
exposure exists and human contact is not a concern. Applications include utility poles, railroad
ties, and retaining walls.

10.31

What are the main types of engineered wood products?

10.32

What are the main advantages of engineered wood products over natural-timber members?

An engineered product consists of wood stock material glued together with an appropriate
adhesive. These are predominantly wood materials, so they are liable to the same concerns as
natural wood products with respect to the effects of moisture and decay.