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PART A
1. What are the classifications of conducting materials?
Conducting materials are classified into
Zero resistive materials. Ex.Superconductors
Low resistive materials. Ex. Silver , Aluminium , Alloys
High resistive materials. Ex. Tungsten, platinum ,Nichrome
2. What are the sources of resistance in metals?
The resistance in metals is due to
Impurities present in metals
Temperature of the metal
Number of free electrons
3. Give any three postulates of classical free electron theory.
The free electrons in the metal move freely, similar to the gas molecules moving in a vessel
and it obeys the classical kinetic theory of gases.
These free electrons move in a constant potential field due to the ions fixed in the lattice
When the field is applied the free electrons move in a direction opposite to that of the field
direction
4. Define drift velocity. How is it different from thermal velocity of an electron?
It is the average velocity acquired by the free electron in a particular direction, due to the
application of electric field but thermal velocity is the velocity of an electron without any
external
filed. Here the electrons move in random direction.
5. Define the terms relaxation time, collision time and Mean free path of an electron.
Relaxation time: The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position
from
its disturbed position due to application of an external electric field is called relaxation time.
Collision time: It is the average time taken by a free electron between two successive collisions.
Mean free path: The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive
collisions in the presence of an applied field is known as mean free path.
6. The mobility of electron in copper is 3x10-3 m2/Vs. Assuming e = 1.6x10-19C and me= 9.1x10-31
kg, calculate the Mean free time.
Merits:
This theory attracts the electron quantum mechanically rather than
classically.
It explains the electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, specific heat
capacity of
metals, photoelectric effect and Compton Effect.
Demerits
Even though it explains most of the physical properties of the metals, it
fails to state the
difference between conductor, semiconductor and insulator.
It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall coefficient and some of the
transport
properties of metals.
14. Define Fermi level and Fermi energy with its importance.
Fermi level: It is the highest reference energy level of a particle at 0K.
Importance: It is the reference energy level that separates the filled energy
levels and vacant
energy levels.
Fermi energy: It is the maximum energy of the quantum state corresponding
to Fermi energy
level at 0K.
Importance: It determines the energy of the particle at any temperature.
15. Write down the expression for Fermi-Dirac distribution function and plot
it as a function of
energy.
Fermi distribution function is given by F(E) =
16. Calculate the Fermi energy of copper at 0 K if the concentration of
electrons is 8.5x1028 m-3
17. Define Density of Energy states.
Density of state Z (E) dE is defined as the number of available states present
in a metal
per unit volume in an energy interval E and E+ dE.
18. Define Lorentz number.
The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) of a metal to the product of electrical
conductivity
() of a metal and absolute temperature (T) of the metal is a constant. It is
called Lorentz number
and it is given by
Where L is Lorentz number whose value is 2.44 x 10-8 W K-2 at 293 K.
19. The thermal conductivity of a metal is 123.92 W/m/k. Find the electrical
conductivity and
Lorentz number when the metal possess relaxation time 10-14 seconds and
300 K.(Density of
electrons = 6 x 1028 /m3).
Electrical Conductivity
The net heat energy transferred from end A to B per unit area per unit time
Amount of heat transferred per unit area per unit time is given by
We know for metals relaxation time ( collision time
Therefore thermal conductivity
Wiedemann-Franz law: This law states that the ratio between the thermal
conductivity and
the electrical conductivity of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of
the metal.
Proof:
T
4. State and prove Wiedemann-Franz law. Why does the Lorentz number
determined
experimentally does not agree with the value calculated from the classical
theory.
Wiedemann-Franz law: This law states that the ratio between the thermal
conductivity and the
electrical conductivity of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the
metal.
Proof:
5. Derive an expression for the density of states and based on that calculate
the carrier
concentration in metals.
The Fermi function F (E) gives only the probability of filling up of electrons in
a given energy
state, it does not gives the information about the number of electrons that
can be filled in a
given energy state. To know that we should know the number of available
energy states, so
called density of states
Density of state N (E) dE is defined as the number of available states present
in a metal per
unit volume in an energy interval E and E+ dE.
Z(E)dE =
Z(E)dE =
Z(E)dE =
Carrier concentration
6. i) Starting with the density of energy states obtain the expression for the
Fermi energy of an
electron at 0 K and hence obtain the expression for the average energy of an
electron.
Carrier concentration
Expression for Fermi energy at 0K
ii) Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities of a metal with the
relaxation time of
10-14 second at 300 K. The electron density is 6x1026 m-3.
Thermal conductivity K = L
K = 1.241 W/m/K.
iii) Calculate the Fermi energy and Fermi temperature in a metal. The Fermi
velocity of
electrons in the metal is 0.86x106 m/s.
Fermi energy
Fermi Temperature
UNIT-II SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS
PART A
1. Define semiconductor and mention its properties.
The material which has the electrical conductivity between conductors and
insulators are
called semiconductors. It is special class of material very small in size and
sensitive to heat,
light and electricity.
The resistivity lies between 10-4 to 0.5 ohm meters.
At 0K, they behave as insulators.
They empty conduction band and almost filled valence band.
The conductivity of a semiconductor increases both due to the
temperature and
impurities.
They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
In semiconductors both the electron and holes are charge carriers and will
take part in
conduction.
2. What is the band gap energy Eg ? Give its value for Germanium & Silicon.
Energy band gap (Eg) is the region of energies which are not occupied by the
electrons
and is equal to the energy difference between minimum energy of
conduction band (Ec) and
the maximum energy of valence band (Ev).
3. What are the differences between elemental and compound
semiconductors? Give examples.
S.No Elemental semiconductors Compound semiconductors
1 They are made up of single element. They are made up of compounds.
2 They are called indirect band gap
semiconductors.
They are called as direct band gap
semiconductors.
3 Here heat is produced during
recombination.
Here the photons are emitted during
recombination.
4 Life time of charge carriers is more. Life time of charge carriers is less.
5 Current amplification is more. Current amplification is less.
6 They are used in the manufacture of
diodes and transistors, etc.
They are used for making LEDs, laser
diodes, ICs, etc.
7 Examples: Ge, Si, etc. Examples: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO, etc.
4. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
5. Write an expression for electrical conductivity of an intrinsic
semiconductor
Electrical conductivity 2 e (me
* mh *) 3/4 e-Eg/2KT ( )
Where Intrinsic carrier concentration
Mobility of electron
Mobility of hole.
6. What are the limitations of intrinsic semiconductors?
Electrical conductivity is low. Germanium has a conductivity of 1.67 -1m-1
which is nearly
107 times smaller than copper.
Electrical conductivity is a function of temperature and increases
exponentially as temperature
increases.
7. What is meant by doping?
The addition of impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping and
added impurity is
called as doping agent or dopant.
S.No Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductors
1 Semiconductor in a extremely pure form is
called as intrinsic semiconductors.
Semiconductor which is doped with
impurities is called extrinsic
semiconductors.
2 Charge carriers are produced only due to
thermal agitation.
Charge carriers are produced due to
impurities and may also be produced due
to thermal agitation.
3 Low electrical conductivity High electrical conductivity
4 Low operating temperature High operating temperature
5 At 0K, the Fermi level exactly lies between
conducting band and valence band.
At 0K, the Fermi level lies closer to
conducting band in n type and lies near
valence band in p type semiconductor.
6 Eg: Si, Ge, etc. Eg: Si and Ge doped with Al, In, P, As,
etc.
Acceptors are trivalent impurity atoms like Ga, In etc., which can easily
accept
an electron from the pure semiconductors like Ge or Si. These energy levels
are acceptor energy
levels.
12. i) Define mobility.
Mobility is defined as the drift velocity acquired by a charge carrier per unit
electric field
Strength. Its unit is m2 V-1 s-1
ii) Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 cm long,1 mm wide, and
0.5mm thick at 300K.
For Ge, ni= 2.5 x 1019/m3, e= 0.39 m2V-1 S-1 and h= 0.19 m2V-1 S-1 at 300k.
13. Draw the diagram to show the variation of Fermi level with temperature
of a p-type
semiconductor for high and low doping level.
14. With increase of temperature the conductivity of semiconductor
increases while that of
metals decreases. Give reasons.
At 0K semiconductors behave as insulators. When the temperature is raised
or when
impurities are added, their conductivity increases. In the case of conductors
when the temperature
increases, the resistivity increases and hence the conductivity decreases.
15. Define Fermi level in the case of semiconductors. Mention its position in
intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductor at 0 K.
Fermi level is located half way between the valence band and conduction
band in an intrinsic
Semiconductors at 0 K. EF =
In n-type semiconductor at 0 K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the
donor level Ed and
the bottom of the conduction band Ec EF =
In p-type semiconductor at 0 K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the
acceptor level Ea and
the top of the valence band Ev EF =
16. For an intrinsic semiconductor with a band gap of 0.7 eV, determine the
position of EF at
T=300 k if mh* = 6 me*.
17. Given an extrinsic semiconductor, how will you find whether it is n-type
or p-type?
If Rh value is negative then it is n-type semiconductor.
If Rh value is positive then it is p-type semiconductor.
18. What is Hall Voltage?
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field,
an electric
(iii) A sample of silicon doped with 1023 phosphorous atoms/m3. Find the Hall
voltage in a sample with thickness =100 m, current, Ix=1mA and magnetic
field
Bz=0.1 Wb/m2.(Assume electron mobility e=0.07 m2/V.s)
Hall voltage
UNIT -3 - MAGNETIC AND SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS
PART A
DIAMAGNETIC
MATERIALS
PARA MAGNETIC
MATERIALS
FERRIMAGNETIC
MATERIALS
FERROMAGNETIC
MATERIALS
H+I=0
I = -H
Thus, when B = 0, magnetic susceptibility of a superconductor is found to be
negative
maximum. This is referred to as perfect diamagnetism.
ii) Discuss the important features and the prediction of BCS theory.
Important features of BCS theory
Electrons form pairs which propagate through the lattice.
The cooper pairs are propagated through the lattice without resistance
because the
electrons move in resonance with phonons.
Predictions
This could successfully predict the phenomenon of isotope effect.
It explains the existence of an energy gap between the ground state and
first excited
state.
It explains the quantization of the magnetic flux through a
superconducting ring.
8. i) Differentiate the Type I and Type II superconductors
S.No Type I Superconductors Type II Superconductors
1 Here, the transformation from
superconducting to normal state takes
place suddenly at the critical magnetic
field (HC).
Here, the transformation from superconducting
to normal state is gradually from HC1 to HC2.
2 They exhibit complete Meissner effect. They do not exhibit complete
Meissner effect.
3 They have only one critical magnetic
field
They have two critical magnetic fields.
4 They are known as soft
superconductors because the field
required to destroy the
superconducting state is small.
They are known as hard superconductors
because the field required to destroy the
superconducting state is high.
5 Examples: Al, Zn, Sn, Pb, etc. Examples: Vanadium, Niobium, etc.
6.
ii) Explain High temperature superconductors in detail.
In a superconductor if the transition temperature is high i.e., greater than
100K, then it
is called high temperature superconductor.
9. i) Discuss the applications of superconductors in detail.
levitation effect can be used for high speed transportation without frictional
loss.
UNIT - IV Dielectric Materials
PART A
1. What are Dielectrics?
Dielectrics are the insulating materials having electric dipoles permanently
or have an
ability to produce enormous induced dipoles by the application of external
electric field.
2. Define electric polarization and electric susceptibility.
The process of producing electric dipoles inside the dielectric by an electric
field is
called electric polarization in dielectrics.
The polarization vector is proportional to the total electric field intensity and
is
in the same direction of E. therefore the polarization vector can be written
as,
Where the constant is referred as the electrical
susceptibility and is a characteristic of every dielectric.
=
=
It relates the microscopic quantity with macroscopic quantity
It relates the dielectric constant of the material with polarisability.
16. If a NaCl crystal is subjected to an electric field of 1000V/m and the
resulting polarization is
4.3x10-8 C/m2. Calculate the relative permeability of NaCl.
17. State the properties of ferroelectric materials.
The dielectric constant of these materials does not vary with respect to
temperature.
(=
Derivation for
3. Explain the different types of polarization mechanisms involved in a
dielectric material.
Electronic Polarisation: Electronic polarisation is due to the displacement
of positively
charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons of an atom in opposite
directions on the
application of electric field. Ex : Inert gases
Derivation for e
Without electric field
With electric field
ind = e E where e = 4
Ionic Polarisation.
Ionic polarisation is due to the displacement of cations and anions in
opposite
directions. This occurs in ionic dielectrics. by the influence of external electric
field. Ex: Ionic
Derivation for
(=
Orientation Polarisation.
Orientation polarisation takes place only in polar dielectrics. Polar dielectrics
have molecules with permanent dipole moments even in the absence of an
electric field.
Derivation for
o =
]
Frequency range in Hz Type of polarisation
~ 1015 Electronic
~1013 Ionic + Electronic
~106 -1010 orientation +Ionic + Electronic
~102 Space charge + orientation +
Ionic+ Electronic
r
Temperature Dependence
Electronic Polarisation: Temperature independent.
Ionic Polarisation: Temperature independent.
Orientatinal Polarisation: increase in temperature decrease the
polarisation.
Space charge polarisation: increase in temperature increases the
polarisation.
5. What is meant by local field in a dielectric? And how it is calculated for a
cubic structure?
Deduce the Clausius Mosotti relation.
When a dielectric is kept in an external electric field (E), two fields are
exerted due to (i)
external Electric field (ii) dipole moment created. These long range Coulomb
field which is
responsible for polarization of each atom or molecule is known as internal
field or local
field and is given by,
Eint = E1 + E2 +E3 + E4
E1 = Electric field due to charges on the plates of the capacitor.
amorphous nature.
2. What is meant by glass transition temperature?
The temperature at which metals in the molten form transforms into glasses
ie liquid to
solid is known as glass transition temperature (Tg).
3. What do you understand by the term quenching?
Quenching is a technique used to form metallic glasses. Quenching means
rapid
cooling. Actually atoms of any material move freely in a liquid state. Atoms
can be arranged
regularly when a liquid is cooled slowly. Instead, when a liquid is quenched,
there will be an
irregular pattern, which results in the formation of metallic glasses.
4. Mention the merits of metallic glasses as transformer core materials.
Metallic glasses are ferromagnetic. They posses low magnetic losses, high
permeability and saturation magnetization with low coercivity. They also
have extreme
mechanical hardness and excellent initial permeability.
These properties make them useful as transformer core materials. Moreover
power transformers
made of metallic glasses are smaller in size and efficient in their
performance.
5. Mention any four properties of met glasses.
Metallic glasses have tetrahedral closely packed (TCP) structure rather
than hexagonal
closely packed structure (HCP) structure.
The metallic glasses are very strong in nature
They posses malleability, ductility, etc.
They exhibit very low hysteresis loss and hence transformer core loss is
very less.
6. Write any four application of met glasses.
Metallic glasses are very strong and hard and they can be used to make
different kinds of
springs.
Metallic glasses have high resistivity and they can be used to make
computer memories,
magneto-resistance sensors etc.
Since Metallic glasses can behave as superconductors, they are used in the
production of
high magnetic fields.
Metallic glasses are not affected by irradiation and so they can be used in
nuclear reactors.
Metallic glasses are high corrosion resistant and they can be used in
reactor vessels,
surgical clips, marine cables, etc.
7. What is transformation temperature?
with grain size at the nanometer range (10-9) ie in the order of 1-100 nm.
14. Mention few techniques for synthesis of nano phased materials.
Plasma-arching
Chemical vapor deposition
Sol-gel technique
Electro-deposition
Mechanical crushing- Ball milling
Laser synthesis
Inert gas condensation
15. What is top down and bottom up approach in nano materials?
Top down process: In this process bulk materials are broken into nano
sized particles. In top
down process, the buildings of nanostructures starting with small
components like atoms and
molecules that are removed from a bulk material so as to obtain desired
microstructure.
Examples: Nanolithography, Ball milling, etc.
Bottom up process: This process involves building larger objects from
smaller building blocks.
Nanotechnology seeks to use atoms and molecules as those building blocks.
This is the opposite
of top-down process. Instead of taking the material away to make structures,
the bottom up
process selectively adds atoms to create structures.
Example: pulsed lased deposition, chemical vapor deposition, etc.
16. Give any four non-linear optical properties.
The few non-linear optical phenomena observed are
Higher harmonic generation
Optical mixing
Optical phase conjugation
Solition
17. What is meant by second harmonic generation?
In some non-linear crystals which lack centre of symmetry, when intense
radiation is
passed through, the frequency of radiation is doubled, i.e., wavelength is
halved. Such process is
known as second harmonic generation.
18. What are bio-materials?
The materials which are used for structural applications in the field of
medicine are
known are known as biomaterials. They are used to make device to replace
damaged or diseased
body parts in human and animal bodies.
19. What are the types of bio-materials?
They are classified s four types.
Metals and alloys biomaterials
Ceramics biomaterials
Polymer biomaterials
Composite biomaterials
20. What are the applications of biomaterials?
Applications:
Stainless steel is a predominant alloy widely used in implant and
orthopedic applications.
Protosal from cast alloy of Co-Cr-Mo is used to make stem and head of
implant hip
endoprosthesis.
PART B
1. What are metallic glasses? Describe the preparation and properties and
applications of metallic
glasses.
Metallic Glasses
Metallic glasses are amorphous metallic solids which combines both the
properties of
metals and glasses. They have high strength, good metallic and corrosion
resistance
properties. Eg: Alloys of Fe, Ni, Al, Mn, Cu, etc.
Preparation Technique
Melt spinning method
Properties of Metallic Glasses
Structural properties
Mechanical properties
Electrical properties
Magnetic properties
Chemical properties
Application of Metallic Glasses
Structural application
Electrical and Electronics
Metallic glasses as transformer core material
Nuclear reactor engineering.
Bio medical application.
2. How are metallic glasses prepared? Explain how the melt spinner device
can be used to
produce met glasses.
Preparation of metallic glasses
1. Twin roller
2. Melt spinning
3. Melt extraction
Melt spinning technique Extreme rapid cooling of the molten metal alloy
(rapid quenching).
Due to rapid cooling atoms are arranged irregularly and form metallic
glasses.
3. Explain the properties and application of metallic glasses also mentions its
types with
examples.
Properties of Metallic Glasses
Structural properties
They do not have any crystal defects.
They have tetrahedral close packing structure.
Mechanical properties
They have extremely high strength.
They have high elasticity.
They have high ductility.
They are not work-harden but they are work-soften.
Electrical properties
Electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary with
temperature.
Eddy current loss is very small.
Temperature coefficient is zero or negative.
Magnetic properties
They have both soft and hard magnetic properties.
They exhibit high saturation magnetisation.
They have less core losses.
Metallic glasses have very narrow hysteresis loop.
Chemical properties
They are highly resistance to corrosion due to random ordering.
They are highly reactive and stable.
They act as a catalyst.
Application of Metallic Glasses
Structural application
Electrical and Electronics
Metallic glasses as transformer core material
Nuclear reactor engineering.
Bio medical application.
4. What are shape memory alloys? Describe the characteristics of SMA and
its applications.
Shape Memory Alloys: The ability of metallic alloys to regain its original
shape while
heating or cooling is called as shape memory alloys. Ex: Ni-Ti alloys, Cu Zn
Al, Cu Al Ni, AuCd, Ni-Mn-Ga and Fe based alloys.
Phases of Shape Memory Alloys
Austenite High temperature phase having cubic structure.
Martensite Low temperature phase having monoclinic structure.
Characteristics of Shape Memory Alloys
1. Shape Memory Effect: the change of shape of a material at low
temperature by loading
Composite biomaterials
Applications
Protosal from cast alloy of Co-Cr-Mo is used to make stem and used for
implant hip
endoprosthesis.
Ni-Ti shape memory alloy is used in dental arch wires, micro surgical
instruments,
blood clot filters, guide wires, etc.
Ceramic implants such as Al2O3 with some SiO2 and alkali metals are used
to make
femoral head.
Carbon has good biocompatibility with bone and other tissues.
wire carries a current of 10 A. Assume that each copper atom contributes one electron of the
electron gas. Given n = 8.5x1028 /m3.
Drift velocity
11. A conducting rod contains 8.5x1028 electrons per m3. Calculate the electrical conductivity at
room temperature if the collision time for electron is 2 X 10-14 s.
12. State any three assumptions of quantum free electron theory.
The potential energy of an electron is uniform or constant throughout the metal.
The electrons have wave nature.
The free electrons obey Fermi Dirac statistics.
13. What are the merits and demerits of quantum free electron theory?
Merits:
This theory attracts the electron quantum mechanically rather than classically.
It explains the electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity of
metals, photoelectric effect and Compton Effect.
Demerits
Even though it explains most of the physical properties of the metals, it fails to state the
difference between conductor, semiconductor and insulator.
It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall coefficient and some of the transport
properties of metals.
14. Define Fermi level and Fermi energy with its importance.
Fermi level: It is the highest reference energy level of a particle at 0K.
Importance: It is the reference energy level that separates the filled energy levels and vacant
energy levels.
Fermi energy: It is the maximum energy of the quantum state corresponding to Fermi energy
level at 0K.
Importance: It determines the energy of the particle at any temperature.
15. Write down the expression for Fermi-Dirac distribution function and plot it as a function of
energy.
Fermi distribution function is given by F(E) =
16. Calculate the Fermi energy of copper at 0 K if the concentration of electrons is 8.5x1028 m-3
17. Define Density of Energy states.
Density of state Z (E) dE is defined as the number of available states present in a metal
per unit volume in an energy interval E and E+ dE.
18. Define Lorentz number.
The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) of a metal to the product of electrical conductivity
() of a metal and absolute temperature (T) of the metal is a constant. It is called Lorentz number
and it is given by
Where L is Lorentz number whose value is 2.44 x 10-8 W K-2 at 293 K.
19. The thermal conductivity of a metal is 123.92 W/m/k. Find the electrical conductivity and
Lorentz number when the metal possess relaxation time 10-14 seconds and 300 K.(Density of
electrons = 6 x 1028 /m3).
Electrical Conductivity
20. The Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi velocity.
m/s.
PART B
1. i) Define Electrical conductivity. Derive an expression for electrical conductivity of a metal by
using classical free electron theory.
Electrical conductivity: The quantity of electric charge flows in unit time per unit area of
cross section of the conductor per unit potential gradient.
ohm1 m1
Expression for electrical conductivity
ii) Find the mobility of electrons in copper if there are 9x1028 valence electrons/m3 and the
conductivity of copper is 6x107 mho/m.
4.166 X
2. i) Define thermal conductivity Derive an expression for thermal conductivity of a metal.
Thermal Conductivity (K): The amount of heat flowing through an unit area of a material
per unit temperature gradient.
K = - W/m/K.
The negative sign indicates that heat flows from hot end to cold end.
Expression for thermal conductivity
ii) Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities for a metal with a relaxation time 10-14
second at 300 K. Also calculate Lorentz number using the above result. (Density of electrons
=6x1028 m-3).
Thermal conductivity
K = 123.80 W/m/K
3. Deduce mathematical expression for electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of a
conducting material and hence obtain Wiedemann-Franz law.
Electrical conductivity:
When an electric field of strength (E) is applied to the conductor, the force
experienced
by the free electrons is given by F = e E
From Newtons 2nd law of motion, the force acquired by the electrons can be
written as
F=ma
Equating the above equations e E = m a
Thermal conductivity:
The average kinetic energy of an electron at hot end A of temperature (T) =
Proof:
T
4. State and prove Wiedemann-Franz law. Why does the Lorentz number
determined
experimentally does not agree with the value calculated from the classical
theory.
Wiedemann-Franz law: This law states that the ratio between the thermal
conductivity and the
electrical conductivity of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the
metal.
Proof:
5. Derive an expression for the density of states and based on that calculate
the carrier
concentration in metals.
The Fermi function F (E) gives only the probability of filling up of electrons in
a given energy
state, it does not gives the information about the number of electrons that
can be filled in a
given energy state. To know that we should know the number of available
energy states, so
called density of states
Density of state N (E) dE is defined as the number of available states present
in a metal per
unit volume in an energy interval E and E+ dE.
Z(E)dE =
Z(E)dE =
Z(E)dE =
Carrier concentration
6. i) Starting with the density of energy states obtain the expression for the
Fermi energy of an
electron at 0 K and hence obtain the expression for the average energy of an
electron.
Carrier concentration
Expression for Fermi energy at 0K
Expression for Mean energy at 0K
=
=
=
ii) The Fermi energy of silver is 5.51 eV. What is the average energy of a free
electron at 0 K.
7. i) Define mobility.
When electric field (E) is applied to metals, the electrons move in the
direction
opposite to the field direction with the velocity v, then mobility of an
electron is defined as the
velocity acquired by the electron per unit electric field (E).
Unit: m2V-1s-1.
ii) What are Fermi particles or Fermions?
Fermi particles or fermions or particles with integral spin values. Eg.,
electrons.
iii) A uniform silver wire has a resistivity of 1.54x10-8 ohm/m at room
temperature. For an
electric field along the wire of 1 Volt/cm, compute the average drift velocity
of electron assuming
that there is 5.8x1028 conduction electrons/m3. Also calculate the mobility.
8. Write an expression for the Fermi energy distribution function F (E) and
discuss its behaviour
with change in temperature. Plot F (E) versus E for T=0K, and T > 0K.
Fermi distribution function: The probability F (E) of an electron occupying a
given energy
level is given by Fermi-Dirac distribution function
At T =0K and E< Ef
At T =0K and E> Ef
At T =0K and E= Ef
At T = any K
Due to the supply of thermal energy electrons in the lower energy level
absorb
the supplied energy and move to higher energy level thereby creating vacant
energy levels
below the Fermi energy level.
9. i) Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F (E) for the
level just 0.01eV
above the Fermi level at 200 K.
ii) Evaluate the Fermi function of energy KBT above the Fermi energy.
10. i) The density of silver is 10.5x103 kg/m3. The atomic weight of silver is
107.9. Each silver
atom provides one conduction electron. The conductivity of silver at 20C is
6.8 x107-1m-1.
Calculate the density of electron and also the mobility of electrons in silver.
ii) Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities of a metal with the
relaxation time of
10-14 second at 300 K. The electron density is 6x1026 m-3.
Thermal conductivity K = L
K = 1.241 W/m/K.
iii) Calculate the Fermi energy and Fermi temperature in a metal. The Fermi
velocity of
electrons in the metal is 0.86x106 m/s.
Fermi energy
Fermi Temperature
UNIT-II SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS
PART A
1. Define semiconductor and mention its properties.
The material which has the electrical conductivity between conductors and
insulators are
called semiconductors. It is special class of material very small in size and
sensitive to heat,
light and electricity.
The resistivity lies between 10-4 to 0.5 ohm meters.
At 0K, they behave as insulators.
They empty conduction band and almost filled valence band.
The conductivity of a semiconductor increases both due to the
temperature and
impurities.
They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
In semiconductors both the electron and holes are charge carriers and will
take part in
conduction.
2. What is the band gap energy Eg ? Give its value for Germanium & Silicon.
Energy band gap (Eg) is the region of energies which are not occupied by the
electrons
and is equal to the energy difference between minimum energy of
conduction band (Ec) and
the maximum energy of valence band (Ev).
3. What are the differences between elemental and compound
semiconductors? Give examples.
S.No Elemental semiconductors Compound semiconductors
1 They are made up of single element. They are made up of compounds.
2 They are called indirect band gap
semiconductors.
They are called as direct band gap
semiconductors.
3 Here heat is produced during
recombination.
Here the photons are emitted during
recombination.
4 Life time of charge carriers is more. Life time of charge carriers is less.
5 Current amplification is more. Current amplification is less.
6 They are used in the manufacture of
diodes and transistors, etc.
They are used for making LEDs, laser
diodes, ICs, etc.
7 Examples: Ge, Si, etc. Examples: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO, etc.
4. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
5. Write an expression for electrical conductivity of an intrinsic
semiconductor
Electrical conductivity 2 e (me
* mh *) 3/4 e-Eg/2KT ( )
Where Intrinsic carrier concentration
Mobility of electron
Mobility of hole.
6. What are the limitations of intrinsic semiconductors?
Electrical conductivity is low. Germanium has a conductivity of 1.67 -1m-1
which is nearly
107 times smaller than copper.
Electrical conductivity is a function of temperature and increases
exponentially as temperature
increases.
7. What is meant by doping?
The addition of impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping and
added impurity is
called as doping agent or dopant.
S.No Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductors
1 Semiconductor in a extremely pure form is
called as intrinsic semiconductors.
Semiconductor which is doped with
impurities is called extrinsic
semiconductors.
2 Charge carriers are produced only due to
thermal agitation.
Charge carriers are produced due to
impurities and may also be produced due
to thermal agitation.
3 Low electrical conductivity High electrical conductivity
4 Low operating temperature High operating temperature
5 At 0K, the Fermi level exactly lies between
conducting band and valence band.
At 0K, the Fermi level lies closer to
conducting band in n type and lies near
valence band in p type semiconductor.
6 Eg: Si, Ge, etc. Eg: Si and Ge doped with Al, In, P, As,
etc.
8. What are n-type and p-type semiconductors?. Give examples.
N-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure semiconductor with
pentavalent
impurity. The majority carriers in N-type semiconductor are electrons. Ex.
Germanium doped
with Phosphorous, arsenic, antimony
P-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure semiconductor with
trivalent
impurity. The majority carriers in P-type semiconductor is holes. Ex
Germanium doped with
Boron, aluminium, etc.
9. Give any four differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors.
S.No n-type semiconductors p-type semiconductors
1 n-type semiconductor is obtained by
doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
pentavalent impurity.
p-type semiconductor is obtained by
doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
trivalent impurity.
2 Here electrons are majority charge
carriers and holes are minority charge
carriers.
Here holes are majority charge carriers and
electrons are minority charge carriers.
3 It has donar energy levels very close to
conduction band.
It has acceptor energy levels very close to
valence band.
4 When temperature is increased these
semiconductors can easily donate an
electron level to the conduction band.
When temperature is increased these
semiconductors can accept an electron
from valence band to acceptor energy
level.
10. Why compound semiconductors are called direct band gap
semiconductors? Give its
application.
During recombination the photons are emitted so they are called as direct
band gap
Semiconductors.
11. What is meant by donor and acceptor level?
Donors are pentavalent impurity atoms like P, As, etc., which donates an
electron to the pure semiconductors like Ge or Si. These energy levels are
donor energy levels.
Acceptors are trivalent impurity atoms like Ga, In etc., which can easily
accept
an electron from the pure semiconductors like Ge or Si. These energy levels
are acceptor energy
levels.
12. i) Define mobility.
Mobility is defined as the drift velocity acquired by a charge carrier per unit
electric field
Strength. Its unit is m2 V-1 s-1
ii) Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 cm long,1 mm wide, and
0.5mm thick at 300K.
For Ge, ni= 2.5 x 1019/m3, e= 0.39 m2V-1 S-1 and h= 0.19 m2V-1 S-1 at 300k.
13. Draw the diagram to show the variation of Fermi level with temperature
of a p-type
semiconductor for high and low doping level.
14. With increase of temperature the conductivity of semiconductor
increases while that of
metals decreases. Give reasons.
At 0K semiconductors behave as insulators. When the temperature is raised
or when
impurities are added, their conductivity increases. In the case of conductors
when the temperature
increases, the resistivity increases and hence the conductivity decreases.
15. Define Fermi level in the case of semiconductors. Mention its position in
intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductor at 0 K.
Fermi level is located half way between the valence band and conduction
band in an intrinsic
Semiconductors at 0 K. EF =
In n-type semiconductor at 0 K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the
donor level Ed and
the bottom of the conduction band Ec EF =
In p-type semiconductor at 0 K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the
acceptor level Ea and
the top of the valence band Ev EF =
16. For an intrinsic semiconductor with a band gap of 0.7 eV, determine the
position of EF at
T=300 k if mh* = 6 me*.
17. Given an extrinsic semiconductor, how will you find whether it is n-type
or p-type?
If Rh value is negative then it is n-type semiconductor.
If Rh value is positive then it is p-type semiconductor.
18. What is Hall Voltage?
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field,
an electric
(iii) A sample of silicon doped with 1023 phosphorous atoms/m3. Find the Hall
voltage in a sample with thickness =100 m, current, Ix=1mA and magnetic
field
Bz=0.1 Wb/m2.(Assume electron mobility e=0.07 m2/V.s)
Hall voltage
UNIT -3 - MAGNETIC AND SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS
PART A
DIAMAGNETIC
MATERIALS
PARA MAGNETIC
MATERIALS
FERRIMAGNETIC
MATERIALS
FERROMAGNETIC
MATERIALS
H+I=0
I = -H
Thus, when B = 0, magnetic susceptibility of a superconductor is found to be
negative
maximum. This is referred to as perfect diamagnetism.
ii) Discuss the important features and the prediction of BCS theory.
Important features of BCS theory
Electrons form pairs which propagate through the lattice.
The cooper pairs are propagated through the lattice without resistance
because the
electrons move in resonance with phonons.
Predictions
This could successfully predict the phenomenon of isotope effect.
It explains the existence of an energy gap between the ground state and
first excited
state.
It explains the quantization of the magnetic flux through a
superconducting ring.
8. i) Differentiate the Type I and Type II superconductors
S.No Type I Superconductors Type II Superconductors
1 Here, the transformation from
superconducting to normal state takes
place suddenly at the critical magnetic
field (HC).
Here, the transformation from superconducting
to normal state is gradually from HC1 to HC2.
2 They exhibit complete Meissner effect. They do not exhibit complete
Meissner effect.
3 They have only one critical magnetic
field
They have two critical magnetic fields.
4 They are known as soft
superconductors because the field
required to destroy the
superconducting state is small.
They are known as hard superconductors
because the field required to destroy the
superconducting state is high.
5 Examples: Al, Zn, Sn, Pb, etc. Examples: Vanadium, Niobium, etc.
6.
ii) Explain High temperature superconductors in detail.
In a superconductor if the transition temperature is high i.e., greater than
100K, then it
is called high temperature superconductor.
9. i) Discuss the applications of superconductors in detail.
levitation effect can be used for high speed transportation without frictional
loss.
UNIT - IV Dielectric Materials
PART A
1. What are Dielectrics?
Dielectrics are the insulating materials having electric dipoles permanently
or have an
ability to produce enormous induced dipoles by the application of external
electric field.
2. Define electric polarization and electric susceptibility.
The process of producing electric dipoles inside the dielectric by an electric
field is
called electric polarization in dielectrics.
The polarization vector is proportional to the total electric field intensity and
is
in the same direction of E. therefore the polarization vector can be written
as,
Where the constant is referred as the electrical
susceptibility and is a characteristic of every dielectric.
=
=
It relates the microscopic quantity with macroscopic quantity
It relates the dielectric constant of the material with polarisability.
16. If a NaCl crystal is subjected to an electric field of 1000V/m and the
resulting polarization is
4.3x10-8 C/m2. Calculate the relative permeability of NaCl.
17. State the properties of ferroelectric materials.
The dielectric constant of these materials does not vary with respect to
temperature.
(=
Derivation for
3. Explain the different types of polarization mechanisms involved in a
dielectric material.
Electronic Polarisation: Electronic polarisation is due to the displacement
of positively
charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons of an atom in opposite
directions on the
application of electric field. Ex : Inert gases
Derivation for e
Without electric field
With electric field
ind = e E where e = 4
Ionic Polarisation.
Ionic polarisation is due to the displacement of cations and anions in
opposite
directions. This occurs in ionic dielectrics. by the influence of external electric
field. Ex: Ionic
Derivation for
(=
Orientation Polarisation.
Orientation polarisation takes place only in polar dielectrics. Polar dielectrics
have molecules with permanent dipole moments even in the absence of an
electric field.
Derivation for
o =
]
Frequency range in Hz Type of polarisation
~ 1015 Electronic
~1013 Ionic + Electronic
~106 -1010 orientation +Ionic + Electronic
~102 Space charge + orientation +
Ionic+ Electronic
r
Temperature Dependence
Electronic Polarisation: Temperature independent.
Ionic Polarisation: Temperature independent.
Orientatinal Polarisation: increase in temperature decrease the
polarisation.
Space charge polarisation: increase in temperature increases the
polarisation.
5. What is meant by local field in a dielectric? And how it is calculated for a
cubic structure?
Deduce the Clausius Mosotti relation.
When a dielectric is kept in an external electric field (E), two fields are
exerted due to (i)
external Electric field (ii) dipole moment created. These long range Coulomb
field which is
responsible for polarization of each atom or molecule is known as internal
field or local
field and is given by,
Eint = E1 + E2 +E3 + E4
E1 = Electric field due to charges on the plates of the capacitor.
amorphous nature.
2. What is meant by glass transition temperature?
The temperature at which metals in the molten form transforms into glasses
ie liquid to
solid is known as glass transition temperature (Tg).
3. What do you understand by the term quenching?
Quenching is a technique used to form metallic glasses. Quenching means
rapid
cooling. Actually atoms of any material move freely in a liquid state. Atoms
can be arranged
regularly when a liquid is cooled slowly. Instead, when a liquid is quenched,
there will be an
irregular pattern, which results in the formation of metallic glasses.
4. Mention the merits of metallic glasses as transformer core materials.
Metallic glasses are ferromagnetic. They posses low magnetic losses, high
permeability and saturation magnetization with low coercivity. They also
have extreme
mechanical hardness and excellent initial permeability.
These properties make them useful as transformer core materials. Moreover
power transformers
made of metallic glasses are smaller in size and efficient in their
performance.
5. Mention any four properties of met glasses.
Metallic glasses have tetrahedral closely packed (TCP) structure rather
than hexagonal
closely packed structure (HCP) structure.
The metallic glasses are very strong in nature
They posses malleability, ductility, etc.
They exhibit very low hysteresis loss and hence transformer core loss is
very less.
6. Write any four application of met glasses.
Metallic glasses are very strong and hard and they can be used to make
different kinds of
springs.
Metallic glasses have high resistivity and they can be used to make
computer memories,
magneto-resistance sensors etc.
Since Metallic glasses can behave as superconductors, they are used in the
production of
high magnetic fields.
Metallic glasses are not affected by irradiation and so they can be used in
nuclear reactors.
Metallic glasses are high corrosion resistant and they can be used in
reactor vessels,
surgical clips, marine cables, etc.
7. What is transformation temperature?
with grain size at the nanometer range (10-9) ie in the order of 1-100 nm.
14. Mention few techniques for synthesis of nano phased materials.
Plasma-arching
Chemical vapor deposition
Sol-gel technique
Electro-deposition
Mechanical crushing- Ball milling
Laser synthesis
Inert gas condensation
15. What is top down and bottom up approach in nano materials?
Top down process: In this process bulk materials are broken into nano
sized particles. In top
down process, the buildings of nanostructures starting with small
components like atoms and
molecules that are removed from a bulk material so as to obtain desired
microstructure.
Examples: Nanolithography, Ball milling, etc.
Bottom up process: This process involves building larger objects from
smaller building blocks.
Nanotechnology seeks to use atoms and molecules as those building blocks.
This is the opposite
of top-down process. Instead of taking the material away to make structures,
the bottom up
process selectively adds atoms to create structures.
Example: pulsed lased deposition, chemical vapor deposition, etc.
16. Give any four non-linear optical properties.
The few non-linear optical phenomena observed are
Higher harmonic generation
Optical mixing
Optical phase conjugation
Solition
17. What is meant by second harmonic generation?
In some non-linear crystals which lack centre of symmetry, when intense
radiation is
passed through, the frequency of radiation is doubled, i.e., wavelength is
halved. Such process is
known as second harmonic generation.
18. What are bio-materials?
The materials which are used for structural applications in the field of
medicine are
known are known as biomaterials. They are used to make device to replace
damaged or diseased
body parts in human and animal bodies.
19. What are the types of bio-materials?
They are classified s four types.
Metals and alloys biomaterials
Ceramics biomaterials
Polymer biomaterials
Composite biomaterials
20. What are the applications of biomaterials?
Applications:
Stainless steel is a predominant alloy widely used in implant and
orthopedic applications.
Protosal from cast alloy of Co-Cr-Mo is used to make stem and head of
implant hip
endoprosthesis.
PART B
1. What are metallic glasses? Describe the preparation and properties and
applications of metallic
glasses.
Metallic Glasses
Metallic glasses are amorphous metallic solids which combines both the
properties of
metals and glasses. They have high strength, good metallic and corrosion
resistance
properties. Eg: Alloys of Fe, Ni, Al, Mn, Cu, etc.
Preparation Technique
Melt spinning method
Properties of Metallic Glasses
Structural properties
Mechanical properties
Electrical properties
Magnetic properties
Chemical properties
Application of Metallic Glasses
Structural application
Electrical and Electronics
Metallic glasses as transformer core material
Nuclear reactor engineering.
Bio medical application.
2. How are metallic glasses prepared? Explain how the melt spinner device
can be used to
produce met glasses.
Preparation of metallic glasses
1. Twin roller
2. Melt spinning
3. Melt extraction
Melt spinning technique Extreme rapid cooling of the molten metal alloy
(rapid quenching).
Due to rapid cooling atoms are arranged irregularly and form metallic
glasses.
3. Explain the properties and application of metallic glasses also mentions its
types with
examples.
Properties of Metallic Glasses
Structural properties
They do not have any crystal defects.
They have tetrahedral close packing structure.
Mechanical properties
They have extremely high strength.
They have high elasticity.
They have high ductility.
They are not work-harden but they are work-soften.
Electrical properties
Electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary with
temperature.
Eddy current loss is very small.
Temperature coefficient is zero or negative.
Magnetic properties
They have both soft and hard magnetic properties.
They exhibit high saturation magnetisation.
They have less core losses.
Metallic glasses have very narrow hysteresis loop.
Chemical properties
They are highly resistance to corrosion due to random ordering.
They are highly reactive and stable.
They act as a catalyst.
Application of Metallic Glasses
Structural application
Electrical and Electronics
Metallic glasses as transformer core material
Nuclear reactor engineering.
Bio medical application.
4. What are shape memory alloys? Describe the characteristics of SMA and
its applications.
Shape Memory Alloys: The ability of metallic alloys to regain its original
shape while
heating or cooling is called as shape memory alloys. Ex: Ni-Ti alloys, Cu Zn
Al, Cu Al Ni, AuCd, Ni-Mn-Ga and Fe based alloys.
Phases of Shape Memory Alloys
Austenite High temperature phase having cubic structure.
Martensite Low temperature phase having monoclinic structure.
Characteristics of Shape Memory Alloys
1. Shape Memory Effect: the change of shape of a material at low
temperature by loading
Composite biomaterials
Applications
Protosal from cast alloy of Co-Cr-Mo is used to make stem and used for
implant hip
endoprosthesis.
Ni-Ti shape memory alloy is used in dental arch wires, micro surgical
instruments,
blood clot filters, guide wires, etc.
Ceramic implants such as Al2O3 with some SiO2 and alkali metals are used
to make
femoral head.
Carbon has good biocompatibility with bone and other tissues.