INTRODUCTION

Calculus is a branch in mathematics focused on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals,

and infinite series. This subject constitutes a major part of modern mathematics
education. It has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus, which
are related by the fundamental theorem of calculus. Calculus is the study of change, in
the same way that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of operations
and their application to solving equations. A course in calculus is a gateway to other,
more advanced courses in mathematics devoted to the study of functions and limits,
broadly called mathematical analysis. Calculus has widespread applications in science,
economics, and engineering and can solve many problems for which algebra alone is
insufficient. Historically, calculus was called "the calculus of infinitesimals", or
"infinitesimal calculus". More generally, calculus may refer to any method or system of
calculation guided by the symbolic manipulation of expressions. Some examples of other
well-known calculi are propositional calculus, variational calculus, lambda calculus, pi
calculus, and join calculus.

History

The product rule and chain rule, the notion of higher derivatives, Taylor series, and
analytical functions were introduced by Isaac Newton in an idiosyncratic notation which
he used to solve problems of mathematical physics. In his publications, Newton
rephrased his ideas to suit the mathematical idiom of the time, replacing calculations with
infinitesimals by equivalent geometrical arguments which were considered beyond
reproach. He used the methods of calculus to solve the problem of planetary motion, the
shape of the surface of a rotating fluid, the oblateness of the earth, the motion of a weight
sliding on a cycloid, and many other problems discussed in his Principia Mathematica. In
other work, he developed series expansions for functions, including fractional and
irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the principles of the Taylor series.

These ideas were systematized into a true calculus of infinitesimals by Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz, who was originally accused of plagiarism by Newton. He is now regarded as an
independent inventor of and contributor to calculus. His contribution was to provide a
clear set of rules for manipulating infinitesimal quantities, allowing the computation of
second and higher derivatives, and providing the product rule and chain rule, in their
differential and integral forms. Unlike Newton, Leibniz paid a lot of attention to the
formalism ± he often spent days determining appropriate symbols for concepts. Leibniz
and Newton are usually both credited with the invention of calculus.Newton was the first
to apply calculus to general physics and Leibniz developed much of the notation used in
calculus today. The basic insights that both Newton and Leibniz provided were the laws
of differentiation and integration, second and higher derivatives, and the notion of an
approximating polynomial series. By Newton's time, the fundamental theorem
of calculus was known.
The Gate was been used anywhere since early civilization such as in Mesapotamia
civilization as symbol of wealth. Our country Malaysia had used it for many functions as
in wedding and border area. Here is some history about it :

Brandenburger gate, landmark of Berlin and symbol of the German unit, was built from
1789 to 1791 by Carl Gotthard Langhans. Ten years after the 30 year war, in 1658 were
begun to extend Berlin into a fortress. In the place of the today's Brandenburg Gate, a
town-gate was established.

In the outgoing 18th century, the middle class won ever more influence. The king wished
himself a willful conclusion of the road "Unter den Linden". In 1769, one presented a
plan for the adornment of Berlin, which also showed a model of the new gate. But some
years went up to the conversion of the plan. Only in 1788 began one with the outline of
the old Brandenburg Gate.

Brandenburg Gate, 1770

In contrast of the rulers following to him, the king underestimated however the historical
meaning of the Brandenburg Gate and stayed away from the opening on August 6th,
1791. Neither a parade nor another opening celebration took place.

For the opening, the art objects and the Quadriga were still missed, but Schadow,
Langhans, and the coppersmith Jury had already conceptions in 1789, how the Quadriga
should look. Four years later, in the summer of 1793, the Quadriga was installed on the
Brandenburg Gate.

However, it remained on the gate only few years. When the French troops invaded Berlin
in October 1806, and marched through the Brandenburg Gate, the fate of the Quadriga
was sealed. In December, Napoleon let the Quadriga decrease and remove on the water
route to Paris. Only in April 1814, the Quadriga was returned again from Paris to Berlin,
and had been set up on the Brandenburg Gate. Now however with a new Trophaee, the
iron cross, crowned by the Prussian eagle.

Brandenburg Gate, 1930

Parades, marching-up, and demonstrations took place since then to feet of the Quadriga.
Napoleon's troops marched at first through the gate, followed by the Aufstaendigen of the
March revolution of 1848, and the troops of Prussia celebrated its triumphant advances.
Hitler let 1933 the SA march through the gate from cause of the seizure of power.

In the last war days of May 1945, the Brandenburg Gate and Quadriga were destroyed.
Berlin was divided in four sectors. The gate, now in the Soviet sector, became again fair
its original function as a town-gate. It separated the British and Soviet sector, east and
west. But still one could pass the gate.

In 1950, the relics of the Quadriga was removed at the instigation of the East-Berlin
authorities and predominantly destroyed. In East-Berlin, one was still uncertain itself
whether a new Quadriga should be built, or whether another symbol on the Brandenburg
Gate should be enthroned. Fortunately, one decides for the Quadriga. But, the gypsum
castings of the Quadriga was in West-Berlin, and between both quarters now a violent
controversy inflamed about the repatriation of the gypsum castings to East-Berlin.

Gate with Wall, 1969

The reconstruction of the gate was decided 1956 by the East-Berlin municipal authorities.
The West-Berlin senate grants to 1957 the financing of the production of the Quadriga. In
July 1958, the restoration of the Brandenburg Gate was terminated, and on August 1st
and 2nd, the Quadriga had been built up on Pariser Platz.

In the night from second to third August, the Quadriga had become however against all
arrangements secretly removed, had been templorarily stored in the Marstall in east
Berlin. In a further night and nebula action on September 16th, the iron cross and the
Prussian eagle had been removed. On September 27th, 1958, the Quadriga had then been
installed without cross and eagle on the Brandenburg Gate.

Brandenburg Gate, 1989

All these scandals were harbingers of a by far larger mischief. On August 13th, 1961,
when the sector boundary to West-Berlin had been closed, the gate had been closed one
day later. The area around the Brandenburger gate had not become the restricted area.
Driving through or strolling the gate was not possible any longer.
The gate remained closed nearly 30 years long. Only with the downfall of the wall in the
night of November 9th to 10th, 1989, it opened the chance of the reopening of the gate.
To 22.12.1989 it finally happened. At the "Brandenburger Tor" a border crossing had
been opened, and within fewer months the wall disappeared.

Brandenburg Gate, 2004

In the meantime, the buildings at Pariser Platz, destroyed in the war, were reconstructed
again. From March 1998, to 2002, cars could drive through the gate. However, since
2002, the passage is closed for motorized vehicles. The bus No. 100, from "Bahnhof
Zoo", makes an elbow around the gate.

Today, a red line on the roadway in front of the Brandenburg Gate marks the former
course of the border of the west wall.

Picture of Gate…