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TECHNOLOGY
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Soon after assuming office, Nehru appointed Indias development plans have consistently
a Scientific Man-power Committee and had the emphasised the need for sustained investment
satisfaction of seeing five Institutes of in research and related activities leading to
Technology come up at Kharagpur, Bombay, creation of substantial capacity and capabilities
Health and human development form Greece, it was introduced by the Arabs in India.
integral components of overall socio-economic It also adopts holistic approach. Main types of
development of any nation. Under the treatment are regimen therapy, diet therapy,
Constitution, Public health and sanitation, pharmaco-therapy and surgery.
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hospitals and dispensaries fall in the state list.
Naturopathy is commonly known as
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Population control and family planning, medical
drugless treatment of disease and is based mainly
education, adulteration of food stuffs and other
on the ancient practices of the application of the
goods, drugs and poisons, medical profession,
simple laws of nature. It lays special emphasis
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vital statistics, including registration of births
and deaths, lunacy and mental deficiency are on eating and living habits, adoption of
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in the concurrent list. Union Ministry of Health
and Family Welfare plays a vital role in the
national efforts to help citizens lead a healthy
purificatory measures, use of hydrotherapy, cold
packs, mud packs, baths, massage, etc.
Yoga is as old as Ayurveda. It was about
and happy life. The ministry is responsible for 2500 years back when Patanjali propounded it
implementing programmes of national in a systematic form, which consists of eight
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importance like family welfare, primary health components. Yoga helps in improving physical,
care services, prevention and control of disease, mental and social well-being as also builds up
etc. which form the main plank of our improved resistance to disease and endurance
development efforts.
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against stress.
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INDIAN MEDICINE SYSTEMS
Homeopathy is based on the principle of
The traditional systems of medicine are of Simila Similibus Curantur, i.e., like cures, and
great relevance to the health care of the people. that too with minute doses of medicines, and was
It is calculated that majority of the world discovered by the German physician Dr.
population are still relying on traditional system. Christian Frederick Samuel Hannemann.
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Kerala is the first state in the country, which Homeopathy has wide acceptability because of
separates the traditional systems of medicine into its holistic and intrinsic values, low cost medicines
Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Yoga & Naturopathy and absence of any side effects of the drug.
respectively. Indian systems of medicine (ISM)
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include all the non-allopathic systems of Sowa-Rigpa Became Part Of Indian Medical
medicine and regimens, excluding Homeopathy, System:
viz. Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Nature Cure,
The Parliament on August 31, 2010 adopted
Yoga, Tibbia and Amchi.
a Bill to recognise within the definition of Indian
Ayurveda and Siddha are the most ancient medicine the Sowa-Rigpa system practised in
ISM practised in India. These deal with sub-Himalayan region of the country. The Indian
preventive, promotive and curative concepts of Medicine Central Council (Amendment) Bill,
health and are holistic systems of medicine 2010 was then passed by a voice vote by the Lok
dealing with body, mind, soul and the Sabha. Rajya Sabha had passed the Bill on
phenomena of nature. Ayurveda makes use of August 25.
the medicinal properties of plants. Siddha is
practised mainly in Tamil-speaking and nearby It is practiced in the sub-Himalayan region
areas and other parts of the country, besides Tibet,
Mongolia, Japan and some other countries. The
Unani system of medicine has a long and Bill seeks to include registered practitioners of
impressive record in India. Having its origin in Sowa-Rigpa in the Indian Medical Council. The
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involving scientists of basic sciences, chemists,
development of the Sowa-Rigpa system with a pharmacologists, biologists as well as engineers
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regulatory body in place. The legal recognition has also been encouraged in core areas of
of Sowa-Rigpa will help in preserving this research in AYUSH systems. These include
ancient system of medicine along with boosting Fundamental Research comprising of
its education and practice. It will also open new
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interpretation and revalidation of basic principles
avenues of research and development of new
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medicines by combining new techniques with
Sowa-Rigpa.
of AYUSH systems; Literature Research covering
revival, preservation, translation, critical
analysis, systematization and publication of
The government had also decided to set up manuscripts; Drug Research including Medical,
a Pharmacopoeia Commission for Indian Ethnic and Botanical Surveys, Cultivation of
Medicinal Plants, Standardization and Quality
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Systems of Medicine, which now would also
include Sowa-Rigpa. The passage of the Bill will control, Preclinical safety, Toxicity and Biological
enable setting minimum standards for education activity screening and Clinical Research
and maintain a register of all practitioners of encompassing observation studies and phased
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Sowa-Rigpa. It was being done as recommended clinical trials. Modern advanced technologies like
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by the National Medicinal Plant Board, which is Genomics are also being used to study the
working on Indian herbs and plants used in fundamental concepts of Prakriti; i.e. Body
various traditional systems. A task force was set constitution described in Ayurveda. AYUSH
drugs are being studied with advanced
up by the Health Ministry to reach out to
techniques for their activity on immune systems
inaccessible areas and places, where tribals live
in disease like HIV-AIDS, for Anti-cancer activity
in, to identify their system of medicine and
and Anti-diabetic activity. In order to make
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practitioners.
research findings in AYUSH systems and allied
Sowa Rigpa or commonly known as faculties accessible through the web, the
Amchi is an ancient system of Tibetan Department of AYUSH has developed an
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This ancient system of treatment Some of the new initiatives which are under
resembles Ayurveda but it also has some consideration during the 12th Plan include,
principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine. setting up of a National Commission for Human
Resource in; Referral hospitals in 8 National
It is believed that Lord Buddha taught Institutes to provide world class treatment
the fundamental text book rgyud-bzhi of facilities; a National Institute of Medicinal Plants;
Sowa-Rigpa. Research and Quality Control Laboratories in 8
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genetic defects in the body. They may also be
PROGRAMMES acquired as a consequence of malnutrition,
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The resistance of the body to the effects of metabolic abnormalities, and exposure to X-rays,
pathogenic organisms is called Immunity. It is toxic effects of drugs or pathogenic organisms.
an important defence mechanism of the body to
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A virus has been identified to be responsible
fight against several diseases. Immunity may be
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active or passive. (AIDS). The AIDS virus is believed to have
Active Immunity: It develops as a result of originated in the African green monkey and then
the contact of an individual with pathogenic spread to humans. It is known to get transmitted
organisms or their products. These stimulate the from the infected persons to other not through
body to produce antibodies (gamma globulin casual contact, but through either sexual contact
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proteins) in response to the antigens (foreign or blood transfusions or contaminated injection
substances). The immunity thus produced is needles. In the host, this virus attacks those White
specific for a particular disease, for example, the Blood Corpuscles (WBC), which are responsible
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immunity established against chicken pox or for developing the immunity. As it multiplies
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measles is not effective against cholera or within the WBC at an exceedingly fast rate, it
tuberculosis. Immunity may be acquired either devastates the immune system of the body. AIDS
through the infection of a pathogen or virus can also cause serious damage to brain that
administration of a vaccine (a suspension of may lead to loss of memory and impaired ability
attenuated or killed microorganisms). Active to speak and think. No suitable drug is known
immunity takes a few weeks to a few months to at present for treatment of the disease and no
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develop but persists for long periods. vaccine has so far been developed for use as
Passive Immunity: It is produced when preventive measure.
antibodies formed in one human being are Recognising the potential of immunization
transferred to another. It may be acquired
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levels were also very low. a number of other safe and efficacious vaccines
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When this programme was launched in have become available for major killers like
1985, infant mortality for the country as a whole pneumonia and diarrhoea, which are being used
was 97 for every 1000 live births. It was estimated in the immunization programmes of many
developing and developed countries.
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that vaccine preventable diseases were
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responsible for about one-fourth of the total According to United Nations Children's
infant deaths. Neo-natal tetanus itself was Fund (UNICEF) vaccine preventable diseases
responsible for 13 out of every 1000 infant deaths, (VPDs) cause an estimated 2 million deaths or
i.e., a total of 200,000 deaths every year. 150,000 more every year, of which approximately 1.5
children, in the absence of immunisation, are million deaths occur among children below five
year age. These 1.5 million deaths represent
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likely to develop paralytic poliomyelitis every
year. approximately 15 percent of under-five deaths.
Reducing child mortality by two thirds between
In 1986, the Universal Immunisation 1990 and 2015 is the fourth of eight Millennium
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Programme was named as one of the Technology Development Goals endorsed by world leaders
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Missions and the following objectives were spelt in the Millennium Declaration in 2000.
out:
(a) To cover all pregnant women against DESCRIPTION ABOUT DISEASES
tetanus and at least 85 per cent of all
infants against six vaccine preventable 1. Dengue
diseases by March 1990. Dengue is a viral infection transmitted by the
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(b) To increase production, upgrade testing bite of an infected female Aedes mosquito. There
facilities and develop the means, support are four distinct serotypes of the dengue virus
and distribution of vaccines at the (DEN 1, DEN 2, DEN 3 and DEN 4). Symptoms
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required low temperatures to maintain appear in 314 days (average 47 days) after the
their potency. infective bite. Dengue fever is a flu-like illness
(c) To achieve self-sufficiency in vaccine that affects infants, young children and adults.
production and manufacture of cold There is no specific treatment for dengue
chain equipment. fever. Severe dengue is a potentially lethal
The programme was given the status of a complication but early clinical diagnosis and
National Technology Mission in 1986 (GoI, 1988) careful clinical management by experienced
to provide a feeling of urgency and commitment physicians and nurses often save lives.
to achieve the goals within the specified period. More than 70 per cent of the disease burden
UIP became a part of the Child Survival and is in South-East Asia and the Western Pacific.
State Motherhood (CSSM) Programme in 1992 In Latin America and the Caribbean, the
and Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) incidence and severity of disease have increased
Programme in 1997. The Government of India rapidly in recent years. The African and Eastern
constituted a National Technical Committee on Mediterranean regions have also recorded more
Child Health on 11th June, 2000 and launched outbreaks of the disease in the last ten years.
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affected in tropical areas. About 40 per cent of (iii) Scheme for financial assistance to
the world population is at risk. The phenomenon
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Voluntary Organisations: Under the
of global warming will further allow the virus
Scheme, financial assistance upto Rs. 5
to increase its range. The development of an
lakh is provided to the registered
effective vaccine that protects against each of the
voluntary organisations recommended
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four main types of the dengue virus has proved
by the State Government for the
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difficult, as a successful vaccine might not remain
effective for long. The scientists have found that
two mutated strains of dengue-I caused 25 per
cent of 15,000 cases in Myanmar in 2001. These
purpose, for undertaking health
education and early detection activities
in cancer.
strains evolved locally within a year. Two 3. Malaria Eradication
different dengue-2 strains had recombined in a
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mosquito to create a third strain, which showed Malaria is one of the major public health
the direct evidence that new strains can emerge problems of the country. Around 1.5 million
anytime. In 2002 researchers found that two new laboratory confirmed cases of malaria are
strains of a dengue-3 virus in Thailand had annually reported in India. The organised Public
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evolved in less than a year replacing the Health Programme to control malaria was
dominant local strain and causing the biggest launched in India in the year 1953, the
dengue epidemic in Thailand. encouraging results of which prompted Govt. of
India to switch the strategy from control to
2. Cancer Control
eradication in 1958. The National Malaria
In India, it is estimated that there are about Eradication Programme made spectacular
two million cancer patients at any given point progress till 1965. But this success was short-lived.
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of time with 0.5 million new cases coming every In 1976, the number of confirmed malaria cases
year. The following new schemes have been reached 6.47 million which necessitated
initiated starting from the year 1990-91: renewed vigorous anti-malaria activities and the
programme was modified.
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(ii) Scheme for development of Oncology It is proposed to intensify the efforts for the
wings of Medical Colleges/hospitals: full containment of the disease to acceptable
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reasons attributed to rise in proportion of P. parasitological) of malaria cases.
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falciparum cases is resistance to chloroquine,
Prevention of progression of
which was used for a long time as the first line
of treatment of malaria cases. P. falciparum uncomplicated malaria into severe malaria
infections are known to lead to severe malaria, and thereby reduce malaria mortality.
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if timely treatment with effective drugs is not Prevention of relapses by administration
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administered. of radical treatment.
With a view to bring down the incidence of Interruption of transmission of malaria by
malaria in the country, it is now under use of gametocytocidal drugs.
consideration to revise the approaches adopted
Preventing development of drug
earlier. The new strategy consists of an attempt
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to : (i) categorise the infected areas into high, resistance by rational treatment of malaria
moderate and low for a more focused, need- cases.
based, cost-effective and rational implementation Urban Malaria Scheme
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(iii) control urban malaria which is indicating a from malaria as well as from other mosquito
very high trend in the levels of incidence. borne diseases in 131 towns in 19 States and
Union Territory.
National Drug Policy on Malaria (2010)
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For the control of Filariasis, the National
The strategy for Kala-azar control broadly Filaria Control Programme was launched in
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includes 3 major activities: 1955. Under the Programme, the following
(i) Interruption of transmission for activities have been undertaken:
reducing vector population by (i) Delimitation of the problem in hitherto
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undertaking indoor residual insecticidal unsurveyed areas;
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(ii) Early diagnosis and complete treatment
of Kala-azar cases, and
(ii) Control in urban areas through:
(a) Recurrent anti-larval measures.
(iii) Health education for community (b) Antiparasitic measures.
awareness in its involvement. The National Filaria Control Programme
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carries out anti-larval anti-mosquito measures,
Kala-azar Elimination Initiative
establishes filaria clinics and makes provision for
National Health Policy Goal: Kala-azar underground drainage. Training in Filariology
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Elimination by the year 2010 (which could is imparted at three regional Filaria Training and
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not be attained). Research Centres, situated at Calicut,
Elimination Programme is 100 per cent Rajamundary and Varanasi under the National
Centrally Supported (except regular staff Institute of Communicable Diseases of Delhi.
of State governments & infrastructure).
6. Leprosy Eradication
In addition to kala-azar medicines and
insecticides, cash assistance is being Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused
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the control strategy. endemic districts in 16 States/UTs.
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The national Institute of Immunology (NII), 7. Tuberculosis
New Delhi has developed an anti- leprosy drug.
It was introduced on January 30, 1998, the 50th In India today, two deaths occur every three
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death anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi.
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The central government appointed a can be prevented. With proper care and
working group headed by the eminent scientist treatment, TB patients can be cured and the
Dr M.S. Swaminathan to develop an action plan battle against TB can be won. Tuberculosis has
for eradicating leprosy. The working group's taken the form of an epidemic in India and
recommendations include: remains the leading infectious cause of death in
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Control programme should be renamed the country, killing close to 500,000 people each
as eradication programme with time year. The country also has about 2 million new
bound and specific goal of arresting the cases of TB each year, far more than any other
disease activity in all leprosy cases by the country, and accounts for nearly one-third of the
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turn of the century; global burden of TB.
Existing dapsone monotherapy
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease
supplemented with one or more
caused by a bacterium, Mycobacterium
bactericidal drugs (multi-drug treatment)
for treatment of the disease to achieve cure tuberculosis. It is spread through the air by a
of diseases; person suffering from TB. A single patient can
infect 10 or more people in a year.
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leprosy control should be recognised, Tuberculosis Institute in Bangalore provided key
supported and dovetailed into the national knowledge to improve treatment of TB patients
programmes; all around the world.
Leprosy Act of 1898, which discriminated What is more frightening, the incidence of
against leprosy patients should be multi-drug resistant TB has been rising rapidly,
repealed; underscoring an urgent need to take remedial
Setting up of National Leprosy measures. There are two reasons why TB has
Eradication Commission (NLEC) under assumed alarming proportion. First it has been
the Chairmanship of Union Minister of seen that treatment in most cases has been
Health and Family Welfare for irregular and inadequate due to variety of
programme policy guidance and National reasons, poverty being the single most important
Leprosy Board (NLEB) under the
one. People do not pursue the long-drawn
chairmanship of Union Health Secretary
treatment schedule and relapses are quite
for monitoring the activities of the
programme. common.
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(DOTS) patients, especially the poor.
Address TB-HIV, MDR-TB and other
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The DOTS strategy along with the other
components of the Stop TB strategy, challenges, by scaling up TB-HIV joint
implemented under the Revised National activities, DOTS Plus, and other relevant
Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP) in approaches.
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India, is a comprehensive package for TB control.
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The DOTS strategy is cost-effective and is today
the international standard for TB control
programmes. To date, more than 180 countries
Contribute to health system
strengthening, by collaborating with other
health programmes and general services.
are implementing the DOTS strategy. India has Involve all health care providers, public,
adapted and tested the DOTS strategy in various non-governmental and private, by scaling
parts of the country since 1993, with excellent
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up approaches based on a public-private
results, and by March 2006 nationwide DOTS
mix (PPM), to ensure adherence to the
coverage has been achieved.
International Standards of TB care.
Multi-drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (MDRTB)
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methods; extension of ophthalmic services in the
disorders. Out of which, it is estimated that
rural areas through mobile units and eye camps
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about 4.5 crore people are suffering from some
and establishment of permanent infrastructure
of the manifestation of these disorders. National
for eye health care as an integral part of general
Goitre Control Programme (1962) is being
health services. Since 1981-82, cataract implemented on a priority basis. The
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operations have been accorded high priority in
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the programme and targets for different States/ entire edible salt in the country in a phased
UTs have been set. manner with a view of ensuring proper
The concept of District Blindness Control monitoring and effective implementation of the
Societies (DBCS) has been successfully National Goitre Control Programme. State/
Union Territories have been advised to establish
implemented under the programme. The
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a goitre cell.
programme is receiving assistance from Danish
International Development Agency (DANIDA). In recent years, it has become increasingly
A project has been approved under the World clear that iodine deficiency leads not only to
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Bank to boost up the activities of the programme goitre, but also to other Iodine Deficiency
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in seven major States- Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Disorders (IDD) like still births, cretinism, neo-
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, natal hypothyroidism, juvenile hypothyroidism,
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. impaired hearing and brain development and
function. Recognising the widespread IDD in
The objectives of the NPCB are: - India, the Government has redesignated NGCP
To reduce the backlog of blindness as National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control
Programme (NIDDCP). Iodine deficiency has
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spreading the infection in the chest. Infected
Initial survey to identify magnitude of
fluids slowly build up in the lungs causing
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problem in the country;
difficult breathing and high fever. Death occurs
Production and supply of iodized salt to due to toxin- induced shock. Control measures
the endemic regions; for breaking the cycle of anthrax infection
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include:
Health Education & Publicity;
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To undertake monitoring of the quality of
Disinfection, decontamination and
iodized salt assessing urinary iodine
disposal of all contaminated materials.
excretion pattern and monitoring of
Iodine Deficiency disorder; and Vaccination of exposed susceptible
animals and humans involved in at risk
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Re-survey in goitre endemic regions after occupations.
five years continuous supply of iodized
salt to assess the impact of the control Anthrax bacterium genome sequenced:
TIGR (The Institute for Genomic Research)
programme. The result of re-survey in
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disease of animals, particularly herbivores such play key roles in anthrax infections. Such genes
as cattle, sheep, horses, mules and goats where might prove to be good leads for developing new
this disease was known to cause uncontrolled treatments. The effort is crucial for anthrax,
mortality at one time. These animals usually get which can be lethal, as it is a potential weapon
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Second Five year plan.
are needed to tackle it. German scientists have
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shown that a molecule code named BILN 2061 S.T.D. was introduced as a National Control
can block the activity, both in the test tube and Programme during the Second Five year Plan
in experimental animals, of an HCV protein by the Government of India. The Programme
was then primarily a Centrally- aided scheme
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called NS 3 protease, without which the virus
cannot go about its business. More significantly, concerned mainly with: (i) establishing S.T.D.
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the drug also seems to work in people. Although clinics throughout the country; (ii) supply of
drugs to the earlier existing and newly
this is a significant success, we have to go a long
way to achieve the final therapy. established clinics; and (iii) conducting training
courses for the in-service medical and para-
12. West Nile medical personnel.
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West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne The scheme was, however, converted into a
zoonotic arbovirus belonging to the genus Centrally- sponsored scheme during the Fourth
Flavivirus. This flavivirus is found in temperate Five year Plan and the Central government
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and tropical regions of the world. It was first assistance was limited to (i) giving grants-in-aid
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identified in the West Nile subregion in the East to States for establishing new STD clinics, and
African nation of Uganda in 1937. Prior to the (ii) supplying drugs (Benzathine, Penicillin) to
mid-1990s, WNV disease occurred only the STD clinics for the in-service medical and
sporadically and was considered a minor risk paramedical personnel.
for humans, until an outbreak in Algeria in 1994, Recognising STD as one of the major factors
with cases of WNV-caused encephalitis, and the for transmission of HIV infection, the programme
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first large outbreak in Romania in 1996, with a has been merged with the AIDS Control
high number of cases with neuroinvasive disease. Programme. The existing components of the
WNV has now spread globally. programme, viz. teaching, training, and research
however, has been retained outside the World
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These cells are called helper T cells which are a
(i) Strengthening Programme Manage- fundamental part of our immune system. The
ment Capabilities: National AIDS
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AIDS virus almost fully specialises on these white
Control Organisation would primarily
blood cells since these helper T cells have CD 4
be involved in planning, consulting,
molecules on the surface to which the AIDS
implementing and monitoring the
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virus binds.
various activities under the project
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State/UT level.
(ii) Strengthening of IEC : The project
To put it simply, the AIDS virus consists of
genetic information on the inside and a
protective outer shell of proteins and
would seek to carry out an intensive glycoproteins. Since viruses use the host cell's
public awareness and community resources for reproduction, they do not need to
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support campaign through mass media contribute much of itself. That is why they are
and sustained dissemination of much smaller than the host cells, e.g. helper T
information and health education about cells. In the host cell's nucleus, there is more than
HIV and AIDS to all levels and 100,000 times as much genetic information
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categories of personnel. stored than under the protein shell of the AIDS
virus. However, there is no way to stop the virus
(iii) Prevention of Transmission through
once the cell has been infected.
Blood and Blood Products: The project
seeks to upgrade the blood banking AIDS now kills about three lakh Indian adults
capabilities in the public sector and each year. This is roughly 15 times the number
expansion of HIV screening of all blood of people killed in the Gujarat earthquake. It was
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used for transfusion and blood-products first noticed in 1986 when six sex workers of
in the country. Chennai were found infected with HIV. Since
(iv) Strengthening Clinical Management then some 20 lakh to 25 lakh Indians have died
capabilities: The project seeks to of AIDS.
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strengthen the institutional capabilities The 2006 estimates suggest national adult
at the State/UT level for monitoring the HIV prevalence in India is approximately 0.36
development of HIV and AIDS epidemic per cent, amounting to between 2 and 3.1 million
and planning and programming people. If an average figure is taken, this comes
interventions to control such epidemics. to 2.5 million people living with HIV and AIDS;
(v) Controlling S.T.D.: One of the almost 50 percent of the previous estimate of 5.2
predominant mode of transmission of million.
HIV infection is through sexual contact.
More men are HIV positive than women.
The project seeks to take up activities to
Nationally, the prevalence rate for adult females
strengthen the clinical services and case
is 0.29 per cent, while for males it is 0.43 per
management activities in STD centres.
cent. This means that for every 100 people living
The Disease: It is the late stage of infection with HIV and AIDS (PLHAs), 61 are men and
with the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus 39 women. Prevalence is also high in the 15-49
(HIV). The Virus is of course much older and it age group (88.7 percent of all infections),
is believed that it originated in Africa. This was
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per cent transmission are through multipartner services barely exits.
sex- both among high risk group and general
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National AIDS Control Organisation
population.
(NACO) be run in a committed,
If the rapid rate continues, AIDS- caused transparent and participatory fashion,
deaths will outstrip TB very soon. At a minimum, serving the needs of all Indians, not as
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between 40 lakh to 50 lakh Indians are currently the high-handed, secretive, stonewalling
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infected, not including the 20 lakhs to 25 lakhs bureaucracy.
who have already died. Another five lakh Indian
Our efforts should be dedicated to
adults are getting infected every year- one new
ensuring that no more Indians get infected,
adult every minute!
and that no more die because they cannot
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Three states- Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh afford treatment with anti- retroviral and
and Karnataka- are in the midst of full-blown other medicines. All Indians should
epidemic, with well over two per cent of all mandatorily be given comprehensive sex
adults infected. Another three states follow just education that will dispel the confusion
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behind- Tamil Nadu, Manipur and Nagaland. about HIV/AIDS and enable them to
In about eight to ten urban areas of these six protect themselves. In addition, young
states, three to five per cent of adults are infected. people everywhere must have regular face
These include such major cities as Pune, to face counselling on safe sex.
Kolhapur and Hyderabad. These are among the
Laws and policies should also be changed
most severely affected areas outside Africa, on
to empower and protect people already
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infection level against adults, and even remote against infected people must be made
Orissa is nearly there. illegal.
It is not just the poor who are contracting
HIV. For proof, look at the members of the MENTAL HEALTH
Positive People's Group that are mushrooming The government of India decided to launch
in every major urban area, from Delhi to the National Mental Health Programme (NMHP)
Bangalore to Vajayawada- they are middle and during the 7th Five year Plan period in 1982 to
upper income, not blue- collar, not poor. ensure availability and accessibility of minimum
How to check the pandemic mental health care for all in the foreseeable
future, particularly to the most vulnerable and
India will not be able to avert an epidemic
under-privileged sections of the population, to
unless our politicians, bureaucrats and
encourage application of mental health
journalists immediately end their knee-jerk
knowledge in general health care and social
response to AIDS. An essential first step
development, and to promote community
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in total national development to Cantab-paired Associate Learning (Cantab-
pal) test: This test was invented by Dr. Barbara
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improve quality of life.
Sahakian and Professor Trevor Robbins which
Objectives of NMHP detects Alzheimers disease with 98 per cent
1. To ensure availability and accessibility accuracy. It distinguishes Alzheimers sufferers
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of minimum mental health care for all from patients with depression and people
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the most vulnerable and underprivileged
sections of population.
without any neuropsychiatric disorder.
Cantab-pal works by flashing patterns and
images on the computer screen. Patients have to
2. To encourage application of mental identify where the image first appeared.
health knowledge in general health care
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and in social development. According to Dr. Sahakian, Cantab will be,
3. To promote community participation in useful not only for early detection of Alzheimer's
the mental health services development disease but could also be used to measure the
and to stimulate efforts towards self- beneficial effects of current pharmacy ecological
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help in the community. treatments such as cholinesterase inhibitors, as
well as future drugs, including neuroprotective
Alzheimer's disease agents.
Alzheimers disease is a progressive, The test's sensitivity to Alzheimer's disease
degenerative disease that attacks the brain and is related to the fact that the areas in the brain
results in impaired memory, thinking and first affected are those utilized when performing
behaviour. It is the most common form of the test.
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1,00,000 die of Alzheimers disease annually, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
which makes it the fourth leading cause of death was recognized at the end of February 2003.
in adults, after heart disease, cancer and stroke. Emerging and re-emerging epidemic diseases
pose an on-going threat to global health security.
Common Symptoms: Memory loss,
According to Klaus Stohr, a virologist for the
Difficulty performing familiar tasks, problems
WHO, there is nearly conclusive evidence to
with language, Disorientation to time and place,
implicate a type called a coronavirus for SARS.
Poor or decreased judgment, Problems with
Coronavirus belongs to a family of viruses that
abstract thinking, Misplacing things, changes in
mood or behaviour, changes in personality, loss can cause among other things, the common cold
of initiative, etc. in humans.
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cases caused particular alarm because they do
not appear to follow a droplet pattern of facilitating its spread. H5N1 also has the unique
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capacity to jump the species barrier. The virus,
infection, so new routes of transmission, via air
which was first isolated from terns in South
and water, are being examined.
Africa in 1961, mutates rapidly and has the
Without knowing the precise transmission propensity to acquire genes from influenza
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routes, it is difficult to contain a disease. As a viruses, affecting other animal species.
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precautionary step, WHO recommended that all
but essential travel to Hong Kong and FOOD ADULTERATION
Guangdong should be postponed. Fortunately,
after WHO's alert, health authorities were The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act,
primed to isolate these cases, and they were able 1954, has been in force since June, 1985, with
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to prevent any subsequent spread. The alert, the objective of ensuring that food articles sold
though, came just too late to prevent an to consumers are pure and wholesome. It also
outbreak in Canada. aims at preventing fraud or deception and
encouraging fair trade practices. A minimum
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At the moment only time and labour- imprisonment of six months with a minimum
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intensive laboratory testing can determine if fine of Rs. 1,000 is envisaged under the Act for
someone is infected with the disease. cases of proven adulteration whereas for the
American Scientists at the Center for Disease cases of adulteration which may render the food
Control and Prevention (CDC), after identifying injurious to cause death or such harm which
the new coronavirus, proposed that the virus may amount to grievous hurt, the punishment
should be named after a doctor, Carlo Urbani, may go up to life imprisonment and a fine which
shall not be less then Rs. 5,000.
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2011 under FSSA Act 2006 to give guidelines to
also for scanning the body. Cabolt-60, Iridium-
food industry for hygiene and regulations/
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192, and Gold-199 have been used to cure
standards for safe and wholesome food for
cancer. Iodine-131 is being used to cure thyroid
human consumption.
disorders.
A nationwide project, Food and Drug
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2. Chronotherapy
Capacity Building Project was designed to
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improve the quality and safety of food and drugs
by strengthening the regulatory framework and
incorporating components of consumer
Chronotherapy is relatively a new field in
bio-medical science in which delivering the right
therapy at the right time to optimize medical
education with the assistance of World Bank. The treatment and to reduce the side effects of the
project remained in operation from 2003 to 2008 medicine. With this aim, chronologists are
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to improve the capacity of laboratories at central working to understand the mysteries of the
and state levels along with other regulatory human biological clock (circadian rhythm) and
programme. For this purpose the government of are producing substantial evidence of how
India took nearly Rs.320 crore soft loans from synchronizing treatment of chronotherapy
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Under joint FAO/WHO Food Standards limit the success of gene therapy for human red
Programme, Codex Alimentarius Commission blood cell diseases such as beta-thalassemia and
has been established to formulate worldwide sickle cell disease have been overcome by
standards for food. India is also a member of this researchers at the St. Jude Children's Research
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the red blood cell to dump together and distort
FORENSIC TOOLS
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the cell into the shape of a sickle. Instead of
flowing freely, sickle-shaped red cells sludge and
1. Narco Analysis
block blood vessels. This cut off of blood flow
can cause pain, stroke, leg ulcers, bone damage
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This is the tool of modern forensics to catch
and other medical problems. the culprits and trace the criminals and decipher
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The researchers chose beta-thalassemia and their modus operandi by administering
hypnotics or similar drugs into the suspects. In
sickle cells diseases as targets for their gene
the Narco Analysis Test, the subject's imagination
therapy study because both diseases could
is neutralised by making him semi-conscious. In
potentially be treated by modifying HSCs with
this state, it becomes difficult for him to lie and
normal genes for gamma-globins, which is
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his answers would be restricted to facts he is
usually produced only during foetal life. already aware of. Experts inject a hypnotic like
4. New Technique for Regenerating Organs Sodium Pentothal or Sodium Amytal and the
subject which is put in a state of Hypnotism is
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science as it could do away with organ and talkative, but they do not guarantee the veracity
tissue transplants and thus avoid the problems of the subject's statement. People who are under
associated with them. The major advantage of the influence of truth serums enter a hypnotic
this new technique is that no donor would be
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at one site to deliver health care, diagnose
psycho-physiological detection of deception
patients, give intra-operative assistance, provide
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(PDD) examination.
therapy, or consult with another physician or
Limitation: Today, polygraph examiners use paramedical personnel at a remote site.
two types of instrumentation, analog and Telemedicine system consists of customized
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computerized. While some people believe that medical software integrated with computer
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polygraph tests are reliable, there is little scientific
evidence to buttress this claim. For example,
while some claim the test to be accurate in 70%
- 90% of the cases, critics charge that rather than
hardware, along with medical diagnostic
instruments connected to the commercial VSAT
(Very Small Aperture Terminal) at each location
or fibre optics.
a test, the method amounts to an inherently
unstandardizable interrogation technique whose Although, telemedicine could potentially
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accuracy cannot be established. affect all medical specialties, the greatest current
3. Brain Fingerprinting applications are found in radiology, pathology,
cardiology and medical education. Perhaps the
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knowledge of the event or activity. This test uses the advantages accrued thereof.
the Memory and Encoding Related Multifaceted
Electroencephalographic Response to detect Specialist consultations between two or
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tremendous psychological boost for the patient bandwidth, the specialty hospitals provide
infrastructure, manpower and maintain the
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and could speed up his recovery.
system. There are currently estimated 350-400
Medical Tourism: It is the Buzz word in hospitals connected by telemedicine. On the
corporate hospitals today. Patients from far off ISRO network alone, there are 170, of which
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countries can avail of superb, immediate
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treatment at less then half to one sixth the cost remote centres.
that they would have paid in their own country. ISRO's Telemedicine network further
Chronic patients monitored from home: expanded with the signing of MOU on May 16,
Chronic patients can be monitored from home 2006 with four specialty hospitals - Manipal
regularly by remote consultations, cutting down Hospital, Bangalore; Sir Ganga Ram Hospital,
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on trips to distant hospitals. This methodology New Delhi; Madras Diabetic Research
applies well to certain cardiovascular, Foundation, Chennai and Dr Venkatrao Dawle
respiratory, diabetic, renal, psychiatric and Medical Foundation, Ambajogai (Maharashtra).
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ophthalmology and community health. Uttar Pradesh.
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Providing technology and connectivity Goals of NRHM:
for Disaster Management Support and a) Reduction in Infant Mortality Rate
Relief. (IMR) and Maternal Mortality Ratio
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As telemedicine technologies and processes (MMR).
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gradually mature, the extent of medical
specialties where telemedicine technologies could
prove clinically useful should expand. Indeed,
b) Universal access to public health services
such as Womens health, child health,
water, sanitation &hygiene, immu-
reports of telemedicine implementation are nization, and Nutrition
appearing in orthopaedics, dermatology, c) Prevention and control of communicable
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psychiatry, oncology, neurology, pediatrics, and non-communicable diseases,
internal medicine, ophthalmology and surgery. including locally endemic diseases.
d) Access to integrated comprehensive
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focus States, through mainstreaming AYUSH ailments at village, SC, PHC/CHC level will also
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manpower. be included.
d) Strengthening CHCs
NATIONAL URBAN HEALTH MISSION
Infrastructure strengthening of CHCs by
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implementation of IPHS standards which The Union Cabinet gave its approval to
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includes Promotion of Stakeholder Committees
(Rogi Kalyan Samitis) for hospital management
launch a National Urban Health Mission
(NUHM) as a new sub-mission under the over-
and developing standards of services and costs arching National Health Mission (NHM). Under
in hospital care. the Scheme the following proposals have been
e) Decentralized Planning approved:
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a) One Urban Primary Health Centre (U-
This includes the District Health Mission at
PHC) for every fifty to sixty thousand
the District level and the State Health Mission at
the state level. District Health Plan would be a population.
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reflection of synergy between Village Health b) One Urban Community Health Centre
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Plans, State and National priorities for Health, (U-CHC) for five to six U-PHCs in big
Water Supply, Sanitation and Nutrition. It also cities.
includes involvement of PRIs in planning process
c) One Auxiliary Nursing Midwives
to improve access of facilities.
(ANM) for 10,000 population.
Positive outcomes of NRHM:
National Rural Health Proposed Goal Achievements:
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72.9%-CES (2009)
Complete Immunization:
61%-CES (2009)
3-SRS-(RGI) (2003)
2.6-SRS-(RGI)(2008)
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approach would be to increase access to the
The scheme will focus on primary healthcare
decentralized public health system by
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needs of the urban poor. This Mission will be
establishing new infrastructure in deficient
implemented in 779 cities and towns with more
areas, and by upgrading the infrastructure in the
than 50,000 population and cover about 7.75
existing institutions. The contribution of the
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crore people. private sector in providing health services would
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The interventions under the sub-mission will
result in
I. Reduction in Infant Mortality Rate
be much enhanced, particularly for the
population group which can afford to pay for
services. Primacy will be given to preventive and
first-line curative initiatives at the primary health
(IMR).
level through increased sectoral share of
II. Reduction in Maternal Mortality Ratio allocation. Emphasis will be laid on rational use
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(MMR). of drugs within the allopathic system.
III. Universal access to reproductive health
The policy plannned to increase health sector
care.
expenditure to 6 per cent of GDP, with 2 per
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IV. Convergence of all health related cent of GDP being contributed as public health
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interventions. investment, by the year 2010. The State
The existing institutional mechanism and Governments would also need to increase the
management systems created and functioning commitment to the health sector. In the first
under NRHM will be strengthened to meet the phase, by 2005, they would be expected to
needs of NUHM. City-wise implementation increase the commitment of their resources to 7
plans will be prepared based on baseline survey per cent of the Budget; and, in the second phase,
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and felt needs. Urban local bodies will be fully by 2010, to increase it to 8 per cent of the Budget.
involved in implementation of the scheme. With the stepping up of the public health
investment, the Central Government's
NUHM aims to improve the health status of contribution would rise to 25 per cent from the
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the urban population in general, particularly the existing 15 per cent by 2010.
poor and other disadvantaged sections by
The NHP-2002 sets out an increased
facilitating equitable access to quality health
allocation of 55 per cent of the total public health
care, through a revamped primary public health
investment for the primary health sector; the
care system, targeted outreach services and
secondary and tertiary health sectors being
involvement of the community and urban local
targeted for 35 per cent and 10 per cent
bodies.
respectively.
NATIONAL HEALTH POLICY 2002 Delivery of National Public Health
Programmes: The NHP-2002 envisages the
The National Health Policy-2002 (NHP-2002) gradual convergence of all health programmes
was cleared by the Union Cabinet in May 2002. under a single field administration. Vertical
This is the second such policy adopted by the programmes for control of major diseases like
Government after a gap of 19 years. The National TB, Malaria, HIV/AIDS, as also the RCH and
Health Policy-2002 gave prime importance to Universal Immunization Programmes, would
ensure a more equitable access to health services need to be continued till moderate success is
across the social and geographical expanse of achieved.
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information and on folk and other traditional
practitioners of Indian Systems of Medicine and
media to bring about behavioural change.
Homoeopathy. Simple services/procedures can
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be provided by such practitioners even outside Health Research: This Policy envisages an
their disciplines, as part of the basic primary increase in Government-funded health research
health services in under-served areas. to a level of 1 per cent of the total health spending
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Role of Local Self-government: NHP-2002 by 2005; and thereafter, up to 2 per cent by 2010.
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lays great emphasis upon the implementation of
public health programmes through local self-
Domestic medical research would be focused on
new therapeutic drugs and vaccines for tropical
government institutions. The structure of the diseases, such as TB and Malaria, as also on the
national disease control programmes will have sub-types of HIV/AIDS prevalent in the country.
specific components for implementation through
National Disease Surveillance Network:
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such entities.
This Policy envisages the full operationalization
Use of Generic Drugs and Vaccines: The of an integrated disease control network from
2002 policy emphasizes the need for basing the lowest rung of public health administration
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heatment procedure in both the public and to the Central Government, by 2005. The
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private domain, on a limited number of essential programme for setting up this network will
drugs of a generic nature. This is a pre-requisite include components relating to the installation
for cost-effective public healthcare. In the public
of data-base handling hardware; IT inter-
health system, this would be enforced by
connectivity between different tiers of the
prohibiting the use of proprietary drugs, except
network; and in-house training for data
in special circumstances.
collection and interpretation for undertaking
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areas, the policy envisages the adoption of of the common diseases - TB, Malaria, and
appropriate population norms for the urban Blindness - by 2005. The policy also recognizes
public health infrastructure. The structure the need to establish, in a longer time-frame,
conceived under NHP-2002 is a two-tiered one: baseline estimates for non-communicable
the primary centre is seen as the first-tier, diseases, like CVD, Cancer, Diabetes; and
covering a population of one lakh, with a accidental injuries, and communicable diseases,
dispensary providing an OPD facility and like Hepatitis and JE.
essential drugs, to enable access to all the national
health programmes; and a second-tier of the Womens Health: The Policy notes that
urban health organisation at the level of the women, along with other under-privileged
Government general hospital, where reference groups, are significantly handicapped due to a
is made from the primary centre. disproportionately low access to health care. The
various Policy recommendations of NHP-2002,
Mental Health: NHP - 2002 envisages a in regard to the expansion of primary health
network of decentralised mental health services sector infrastructure, will facilitate the increased
for ameliorating the more common categories of access of women to basic health care.
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interfaced with the policies and the programmes
affordable access to the latest medical and other
of the health sector, in order to reduce the health
therapeutic discoveries. The policy also sets out
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risk to the citizens and the consequential disease
that the Government will bring to bear its full
burden.
influence in all international fora - UN, WHO,
Providing medical facilities to users from WTO, etc. - to secure commitments on the part
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overseas: To capitalize on the comparative cost of the Nations of the Globe, to lighten the
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advantage enjoyed by domestic health facilities
in the secondary and tertiary sectors, NHP-2002
strongly encourages the providing of such health
restrictive features of TRIPS in its application to
the healthcare sector.
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develop the Electronics System Design & competition. In 1997 the ITA agreement was
Manufacturing (ESDM) sector to meet our signed at the WTO where India committed itself
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domestic demand as well as to use the capabilities to total elimination of all customs duties on IT
so created to successfully export ESDM products hardware in the near future.
from the country. In recent years the electronic industry is
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Production of electronic equipment and growing rapidly. It is currently worth $75 Billion
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components has come a long way since the days
of radio receivers in 1940s. Electronics industry
but according to estimates, has the potential to
reach $ 400 billion by 2020. The largest segment
in India has grown with domestic demand as a is the consumer electronics segment and the
result of import substitution efforts. India largest export segment is of components.
embarked on its Electronics journey around Electronics plays a catalytic role in increasing
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1965 with an orientation towards space and production and productivity in key sectors like
defence technologies. This was rigidly controlled power, coal, oil, railways, communication and
and initiated by the Government. This was process industries.
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India and reviewing constantly the growth ranging systems, National Microelectronics
achieved in the industrial front and in the R & Council (NMC) for design and production
D capabilities. technology of LSI/VLSI, ASICs, etc. Electronic
Materials Development Council (EMDC) for
In 1982, which was a significant year in the
materials, including special ceramics, high purity
history of television in India, the government
metals, gas, etc., and the National Photonics
allowed thousands of colour TV sets to be
Council (NPC) for photonic related areas
imported into the country to coincide with the
covering also electronics devices, optical data
broadcast of Asian Games in New Delhi. 1985
storage switching, imaging, vision informatics,
saw the advent of Computers and Telephone
etc. These councils also provide inter-ministerial
exchanges, which were succeeded by Digital
forum for overall development, including
Exchanges in 1988. The period between 1984
generation of production capabilities in their
and 1990 was the golden period for electronics
respective areas. Some of the completed projects
during which the industry witnessed continuous
under these programmes have made a definite
and rapid growth.
impact on the R & D capabilities of the country.
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know English, to gain computer skills in their
own language, thanks to its user-friendly, The manufacture of integrated circuits (ICs)
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comprehensive, cost-efficient format. The started in the country in 1971 when Bharat
software costing between Rs 2500 and Rs 3000 Electronics Limited (BEL) fabricated the TIL 7420
rupees currently supports Hindi, Bengali, IC with the knowhow developed by Tata
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Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Gujarati, Kannada, Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR). The
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Malayalam, Urdu and Punjabi, and soon it
would include all the officially recognized Indian
languages.
IC produced by BEL so far has SSI/MSI levels of
complexity. Besides, it has fabricated a prototype
watch chip. In the next few years it proposes to
manufacture microprocessors and memory
Time bound projects in specific areas are chips, using, RCAs technology.
being implemented through separate scientific
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societies like Centre for Development of With the trial production of the pulse dialer
Advanced computing (C-DAC) which has chips by the public sector Semiconductor
developed 256 nodes PARAM parallel super Complex Limited (SCL) in March 1984, the
computer of computing power IG flops/7500 country entered the era of large scale integrated
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was placed in different villages and programmes point of view of the raw materials we find that
were shown regularly which were aimed at the import dependence in other sectors of
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removal of illiteracy, advice to women about industry may be 10% whereas it is 50 to 80% so
public hygiene, etc. Apart from the socially far as electronics is concerned.
relevant aspects, a significant impact of
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The major imports in this sector broadly fall into
electronics is its employment potential especially
the following categories:
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for women.
(i) Direct import of finished equipment by
Electronics is also important in the concept user Ministries/ Departments such as
of planned and balanced regional development. Defence, Communications, Railways, Civil
This is because it is a relatively footloose industry aviation, etc.
and can be located in different parts of the
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country. (ii) Imports of equipment by small actual
users like hospitals, R & D organisations,
It is therefore obvious that electronics is a educational institutions, etc.
sector of industry which is important in the
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a nation to develop competitive advantage. Prof. through increasing the local production base.
Michael Porter had identified a diamond of This needs considerable imported items under
four factors, namely: the following requirements.
(i) Factoral advantages which will include (a) Import of capital goods, test equipments,
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factors like low cost labour, raw materials tools, etc. for production of electronic
etc. equipment and components.
(ii) Intense competition between the (b) Import of electronic components,
indigenous players in the same sector. mechanical hardware items, etc. by
(iii) Availability of related industries to equipment manufacturers.
provide the necessary infrastructural (c) Import of raw materials and parts by
support, and family, electronic component manufacturers.
(iv) The demand of the consumers. (d) Import of components, sub assemblies
parts, etc. by export oriented production
Therefore we should approach self reliance
units.
in the electronics sector so far as India is
concerned making the best of the advantages that Emphasis on Exports: Due to rapid changes
it has and emerge as a global player. in technology and new products being
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as a means of accelerating growth by tapping
new markets. Microprocessor based drip irrigation and
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control system is under field trial stage and will
Indigenization: While the above analysis be evaluated over 2-3 crop-cycles. Short term
may give us a macro picture about the overall trials of soil salinity mapping system using
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balance in foreign exchange and the degree of inductive electro-magnetic principle have been
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indigenization the first area we are concentrating
is the indigenous R & D. It has been found that
there is a tremendous time lag between the
development of the technology in the laboratory
done and efforts are underway to fabricate a
prototype for extended field trials.
The programme on application of Electronics
and its application. An attempt is being made to in the Industry is being implemented at
reduce this time to the market by bringing up AMTRON, Guwahati and MAEP Centre,
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this issue in a forum comprising the industries, Kolkata. AMTRON has developed the
financial institutions, institutions like IITs as well VERMIAC range of instrumentation based on
s the Department of Electronics. distributed computer architecture and monitors
four vital processing stages viz. withering, rolling,
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ELECTRONICS IN HEALTHCARE AND fermentation and drying. The system is installed
at Hunwal Tea Estate near Jorhat. MAEP
REHABILITATION
Kolkata centre has developed an application of
The integrated Linear Accelerator (LINAC) electronic control and instrumentation system
development programme, which was initiated for Jute industry has been initiated. The objective
in 1991, is now in full operation and is designed of the project is to develop electronic systems and
to put our country to the forefront of technology facilities for modernising jute industry to make
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for cancer radiation therapy and treatment it competitive in national and international
planning. These LINACs have been fabricated markets.
with full participation of five major public sector
Various elements of the project are as follows:
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mediums can strengthen and help in taking country. It will enable India to tap the great
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knowledge, education and developmental economic potential that this knowledge sector
messages to rural people, particularly women. offers. The increased development and manufac-
This medium is used as an aid for turing in the sector will lead to greater economic
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communication in programmes of rural growth through more manufacturing and
development, family welfare and womens consequently greater employment in the sector.
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development. The Department of Electronics as
The policy sets out to achieve a turnover of
a scientific department has funded a few early
about USD 400 Billion by 2020 involving
pilot projects only for establishing cost-
investment of about USD 100 Billion. It also aims
effectiveness of TV-UVP medium. The objectives
at ensuring employment to around 28 million in
of the Project Vivek Darpan are:
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the sector by 2020.
(1) Effective dissemination of developmental
motivation and knowledge/skills for rural Major objectives of the policy are:
folk, especially women using audio-visual a) To create an eco-system for a globally
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central and state government agencies/ Integration (VLSI), chip design and other
NGOs on the cost-effectiveness of this frontier technical areas and to achieve a
media. turnover of USD 55 billion by 2020.
The NGOs now implementing Project Vivek c) To build a strong supply chain of raw
Darpan in 105 Villages are holding one hour materials, parts and electronic compo-
sessions for 5 different set of groups eg. children, nents to raise the indigenous availability
youth, women, general audiences and farmers of these inputs from the present 20-25 per
every day. cent to over 60 per cent by 2020.
d) To increase the export in ESDM sector
NATIONAL POLICY ON from USD 5.5 billion to USD 80 billion by
ELECTRONICS 2012 2020.
e) To significantly enhance availability of
The National Policy of Electronics envisions
skilled manpower in the ESDM sector.
creating a globally competitive Electronics
Special focus for augmenting postgraduate
Systems and Design Manufacturing (ESDM)
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ESDM and strategic and core infra-
The proposed EMCs scheme would support
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structure sectors-Defence, Atomic Energy,
Space, Railways, Power, Telecommu- setting up of both Greenfield and Brownfield
nications, etc. EMCs.
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i) To become a global leader in creating The main features of the proposed EMC
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Intellectual Property (IP) in the ESDM Scheme are as follows:
sector by increasing fund flow for R&D, The assistance would be provided to a
seed capital and venture capital for start- Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) which
ups in the ESDM and nanoelectronics should be a legal entity duly registered
sectors. for this purpose. The SPV may be
promoted by private companies, industry
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j) To develop core competencies in strategic associations, financial institutions, R&D
and core infrastructure sectors like institutions, State or Local governments
telecommunications, automotive, avionics, or their agencies and units within the
industrial, medical, solar, Information and
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price points.
be restricted to 50% of the project cost
l) To expedite adoption of best practices in subject to a ceiling of Rs. 50 crore for every
e-waste management. 100 acres of land.
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Further to boost the electronics industry For Brownfield EMCs the assistance will
government has launched Electronics be restricted to 75% of the project cost
Manufacturing Clusters Scheme subject to a ceiling of Rs. 50 crore.
The scheme will be open for applications
As part of the vision to make India a leading
for five years from the date of notification.
destination for the Electronics Systems Design
and Manufacturing (ESDM) sector, the draft The financial assistance under the policy
National Policy on Electronics (NPE) proposes would be subject to approval by the
to achieve a domestic production of about USD Competent Authority following due
400 Billion by 2020 in the ESDM sector by process.
creating an industry friendly policy framework
and ecosystem which provides a level playing A well developed cluster can give a unit
field for the domestic industry. The NPE also located in it a cost advantage of 5 to 8% because
proposes to set up two semiconductor wafer of various reasons such as increased supply chain
manufacturing facilities and to create and sustain responsiveness, consolidation of suppliers,
a vibrant research and development and decreased time-to-market, superior access to
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microcomputers.
reach USD 400 billion. The policy covers all States
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and districts and provides them an opportunity Programming Language: Computerware
to attract investments in electronics manu- can be divided into hardware and software. The
facturing. five functional units of a computer built with
electronic circuits and electromechanical devices
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COMPUTER REVOLUTION constitute the hardware. The range of standard
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The 21st century is witnessing a computer
programs or routines supplied by the
manufacturer along with the computer
revolution in which information processing and hardware are referred to as software.
retrieval are being done reliably at incredible
speeds. Microprocessors which made their Computer programming is the name given
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impact felt about fifteen years ago are the basis to the art of writing a programme in a
for a new breed of computers whose ultimate programming language, which is a higher level
goal is to stimulate the intelligence of man. language. Every machine depending upon its
Microcomputers are becoming faster and internal hardware architecture has a unique low
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belonged. They were thus based on the vacuum Of these FORTRAN (Formula translation), and
tube technology, the transistor and printed BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic
circuit technology, the integrated circuit Instruction Code) were the most widely accepted
technology, the transistor and printed circuit general purpose programming languages while
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technology, the integrated circuit technology and COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
the Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) was the most successful programming language
technology respectively. The marvel of the fourth for business purposes.
generation VLSI technology is that a
microprocessor weighing a few grams, can store BASIC was an on-line conversational
512 K or 512 X 1024 bits of 0s and 1s. language. It had been quickly adopted by
commercial time sharing services. With the
Computers are analogue or digital machines.
advent of microprocessors in the mid-70s, BASIC
Those converting numbers into physical
was made available as a Read Only Memory
quantities, which can very continuously within
(ROM) Chip. BASIC had many dialects and
a range are called analogue computers while
several of these included features not in the ANSI
those using numbers (which are discrete values)
(American National Standard Institute), which
are called digital computers. There is a third class
standardized a subset of BASIC to promote
of computers called hybrid computers, which
uniformity. cBASIC and BASICA are two of the
have digital storage and switching, but in them
calculations are done in an analogue fashion. versions of BASIC.
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computers were introduced in the 1960s and
two or three additional groups of keys. One of were designed primarily by Seymour Cray at
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these is a set of numeric keys (0 to 9) arranged Control Data Corporation (CDC), which led the
as in a calculator for ease of data entry. market into the 1970s until Cray left to form his
The VDU (Visual Display Unit) is the video own company, Cray Research.
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display terminal for the micro computer system. The computers characterized by their very
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This can be either a monochromatic (black and
white) or colour monitor. The normal printer
interface is for the monochromatic display unit.
long size and very high processing speed are
known as supercomputer. They are used in
specialized area such as defence, aircraft, design,
A Colour/Graphics monitor Adopter board weather research and other scientific works. The
(or oriented circuit) is essential as an interface to first super computer was the ILLIAC IV made
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enable the use of a colour monitor. A colour TV by Burroughs and University of Illinois in 1965.
set can also be used with a radio frequency The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid,
modulator. and todays supercomputer tends to become
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(RAM) board can be used to enhance the memory price to enter the market. The early and mid-
of the micro computer. The ROM stores 1980s saw machines with a modest number of
permanently, programmes essential for the vector processors working in parallel to become
operation of the micro-computers. the standard. Typical numbers of processors were
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(computing the structures and properties of advanced programming environment PARAM.
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chemical compounds, biological The entire design and development of PARAM,
macromolecules, polymers, and crystals), both hardware and software, have been done
physical simulations (such as simulation of indigenously. Only microprocessor, memories
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airplanes in wind tunnels, simulation of the glue-logic chips and winchester disks were
detonation of nuclear weapons, and research into imported.
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nuclear fusion).
The Advanced Numerical Research and
The parallel processor based computer Analysis Group (ANURAG) of the DRDO has
systems are being planned to be used in the also designed and developed a high-speed user-
following areas: friendly super computer known as PACE
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Remote Sensing (Processor for Aerodynamics Computation and
Evaluations). This system finds application in
Image Processing several number crunching applications
Signal Processing including geology, remote sensing, aircraft design
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and weather studies.
Launch Vehicle Dynamics
E-Learning framework by C-DAC: Pune
Computational Fluid Dynamics
based Centre for Development of Advance
Finite Element Modelling Computing (C-DAC) is developing a web-based
Computational Physics project envisages providing an e-learning
framework based learning management system.
Computational Chemistry
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Material Science
Bioinformatics: The last few decades have
Computational Mathematics been huge advances in the biological sciences.
Especially in the last years, the availability of
Graphics and Visualisation
sophisticated technology has resulted in the
Aerodynamic application increasingly rapid sequencing of the genetic
material of several species. This deluge of
C-DAC information has necessitated the creation of a
The Centre for Development of Advanced means to manage the data in terms of organizing,
Computing (C-DAC), a scientific society under indexing and storing it. This has led to the
the administrative control of the Department of evolution of the science of bioinformatics.
Electronics, Government of India, has designed Dasher: Dasher is a data entry interface
a general purpose Super computer PARAM. developed to replace the standard QWERTY
The centre has transferred the know-how for the keyboard layout. It is nearly twice as efficient,
PARAM Supercomputer to many organisations more accurate and easier on the eyes and above
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attached to people, pets or property. The devices benchmark using 786,432 cores. The latest
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or tags will be able to generate alerts, notifying number cruncher is capable of operating at so
the owner by phone or e-mail message when a called Petaflop speeds - the equivalent of 1,000
child arrives at school, a dog leaves the yard, or trillion calculations per second.The ultra
a car leaves the parking lot. powerful machines will be used for complex
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C IC simulations to study everything from particle
Supercomputerss of the World physics to nanotechnology.
The list of supercomputers was announced Blue Gene Project: Blue Gene is an IBM
on June 17, 2013 during the opening session of Research project dedicated to exploring the
the 2013 International Supercomputing frontiers in supercomputing: in computer
Conference in Leipzig, Germany. Tianhe-2, a
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architecture, in the software required to
supercomputer developed by Chinas National program and control massively parallel
University of Defense Technology, is the worlds systems, and in the use of computation to
new No. 1 system with a performance of 33.86 advance our understanding of important
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petaflop/s on the Linpack benchmark, according biological processes such as protein folding. IBM
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to the 41st edition of the twice-yearly TOP500 and its collaborators are currently exploring a
list of the worlds most powerful super- growing list of applications, including
computers. hydrodynamics, quantum chemistry, molecular
Tianhe-2, or Milky Way-2, will be deployed dynamics, climate modeling and financial
modeling.
at the National Supercomputer Center in
Guangzho, China, by the end of 2013. Tianhe-2 Param Yuva II
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computing cores.
Param Yuva II is the first supercomputer that
Titan, a Cray XK7 system installed at the U.S. has crossed 500 teraflops in computing power
Department of Energys (DOE) Oak Ridge in the country. Param Yuva II is the fastest
National Laboratory and previously the No. 1 supercomputer in India and 62nd fastest in the
system, is now ranked No. 2. Titan achieved world. The supercomputer also promises to be
17.59 petaflop/s on the Linpack benchmark energy efficient with 35 per cent reduction in
using 261,632 of its NVIDIA K20x accelerator energy consumption as compared to the earlier
cores. Titan is one of the most energy efficient facility.
systems on the list, consuming a total of 8.21 MW
The supercomputer is expected to be of great
and delivering 2,143 Mflops/W.
help to the scientific community. Industries like
Sequoia, an IBM BlueGene/Q system pharmaceuticals, bio informatics, aeronautical
installed at DOEs Lawrence Livermore National engineering will also benefit. Seismic data
Laboratory, also dropped one position and is processing can be done much more efficiently
now the No. 3 system. Sequoia was first delivered with this new computer. The main users of the
in 2011 and has achieved 17.17 petaflop/s on supercomputer would be the scientific institutes,
the Linpack benchmark using 1,572,864 cores. research laboratories and universities.
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4. K computer escaped both electronics and optics. According
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5. Mira to the researchers these will allow the
6. Stampede development of fast and extraordinarily devices,
with efficient performance from sensors used in
7. JUQUEEN
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anti-terrorism controls to next generation
8. Vulcan
9.
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SuperMUC
computers and data transfer via the Internet.
Manual mask-making facilities exist in many
10. Tianhe-1A
organisations of the country. The current
EKA Supercomputer capability in the country in mask fabrication is
based on pattern generator and photoreceptor
EKA is a supercomputer built by the
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which have been in regular use at Bharat
Computational Research Laboratories with
technical assistance and hardware provided by Electronics Limited (BEL), Bangalore for several
Hewlett-Packard. When it was installed in years now and lately at CEERI, Pilani. Both the
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November 2007, it was the 4th fastest in the organisations have CAD facilities as well, which
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world, and fastest in Asia. generate the mask drawings on magtapes. These
serve as the input to the pattern generator which
EKA has 1,794 computing nodes and has a generates the pattern on a high resolution glass
theoretical peak performance of 172.2 Teraflops
plate for making working masks.
(tflops or trillion floating point operations per
second) and a sustained performance of 132.8 About a dozen organisations in the country
teraflops based on the LINPACK benchmarks have facilities for fabricating Hybrid Micro
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which are used by the worldwide community Circuits (HMCs) primarily for in-house use. BEL
to rank supercomputers based on performance. and ITI have been regularly producing HMCs
Presently, it is ranked at 291. for the last few years. While BEL has produced
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almost five times higher than the performance
of the IBM ASCI White system that had stood at Research Centre in San Jose, it took just a single
step to solve a mathematical problem that would
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the top of the previous three lists. Earth Simulator
take a conventional computer up to four distinct
was the fastest supercomputer in the world from
steps to handle. This experiment was described
2002 to 2004. Its capacity was surpassed by IBM's
as the first experiment to confirm theoretical
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Blue Gene/L prototype on September 29, 2004.
predictions made earlier that building a working
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For now, the Earth Simulator is being used
to track global sea temperatures, rainfall and
crustal movement to predict natural disasters.
machine based on quantum computing
principles was possible.
In future, this research will help surpass
The computer can already predict the path of a
contemporary silicon-based computer and chip
typhoon or a volcanic corruption with architecture, taking advantage of some of the
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remarkable precision. It was able to run holistic findings of 20th century physics, particularly, the
simulations of global climate in both the notion that the same sub-atomic particle can exist
atmosphere and the oceans down to a resolution in two seemingly opposite quantum states. As a
of 10 km.
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of quantum mechanics to process information. elaborate security codes and solving certain types
A traditional computer uses long strings of bits, of mathematical problems that tend to baffle
which encode either a zero or a one. A quantum conventional computers. A quantum computer
computer, on the other hand, uses quantum bits, could help computer engineers simulate the
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or qubits. Well a qubit is a quantum system that behaviour of conventional computers based on
encodes the zero and the one into two such tiny transistors. Unlike todays
distinguishable quantum states. But, because conventional computers, which are assembled
qubits behave quantumly, we can capitalize on from arrays of millions of digital switches that
the phenomena of superposition and can be rapidly switched on and off, quantum
entanglement. computers are assembled from moleculerized
units known as qubits.
Researchers have for the first time succeeded
in building the first working computers based Although there are still major hurdles to be
on the principles of quantum mechanics. The overcome before quantum computers can be
discovery has touched off a wave of excitement applied to general problems, yet undoubtedly,
among physicists and computer scientists and is its emergence could have a profound impact on
leading dozens of research centres worldwide modern cryptography. Despite its promise and
to embark on similar experiments heralding the recent progress, the scientists acknowledged that
advent of an era of so-called quantum there is much work left to do to create
computers-specialised machines that may one commercially or scientifically useful quantum
day prove thousands or even millions of times computers.
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years, there has been a rapid development in
operations per second, more than 100,000 times
quantum technology the realization of a full-
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the speed of the fastest PC.
sized quantum computer is still very challenging.
While it is still an exciting open question which The living cell contains incredible molecular
architecture and quantum objects will finally machines that manipulate information -
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lead to the outperformance of conventional encoding molecules available in the form of
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supercomputers, current experiments show that
some quantum objects are better suited than
Codon (specific arrangement of DNA). In this
way these devices are fundamentally very similar
others for particular computational tasks. to computation.
Computational power of photons: The huge 1. DNA can be used to compute a class of
advantage of photons -- a particular type of problems that are difficult or impossible
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bosons -- lies in their high mobility. The research to solve using traditional computing
team from the University of Vienna in methods.
collaboration with scientist from the University 2. It is an example of computation at a
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of Jena (Germany) has recently realized a so- molecular level, potentially a size limit that
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called boson sampling computer that utilizes may never be reached by the
precisely this feature of photons. They inserted semiconductor industry.
photons into a complex optical network where
they could propagate along many different 3. Data density of DNA is impressive.
paths. According to the laws of quantum Physics, 4. DNA has enormous power of parallel
the photons seem to take all possible paths at processing. In one fiftieth of a teaspoon
the same time. This is known as superposition.
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by using DNA computation. Nano-technology memory in smartphones, cameras and laptops.
is another such area. The technology relies on special substances
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Interestingly, a molecular machine which called phase-change materials (PCMs). These are
can measure its environmental factors and materials, such as salt hydrates, that are capable
process information technology can be designed, of storing and releasing large amounts of energy
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then such a computing device implanted within when they move from a solid to a liquid state
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a living body will be able to integrate signals from
several sources and compute a response in terms
of an organic delivery device for a drug or a
and back again. Traditionally they have been
used in cooling systems and, more recently, in
solar-thermal power stations, where they store
signal- a dream application of natures own heat during the day that can be released to
molecule in medical science. generate power at night. PCM memory chips rely
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on glass-like materials called chalcogenides,
DNA-based logic circuits typically made of a mixture of germanium,
(i) DNA computation is an emerging field antimony and tellurium.
that enables the assembly of complex
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through this manner, it limits temporal Some prototype PCM memory devices can
and spatial control of DNA-based logic store and retrieve data 100 times faster
operations. than flash memory.
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anyone can create a home page, which millions
This approach appears to offer best short-
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of users can watch on their computers and
term prospects for commercial optical respond.
computing, since optical components could be
integrated into traditional computers to produce In fact, the web is a hyper-media information
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an optical or electronic hybrid. However,
C IC storage system linking resources around the
optoelectronic devices lose 30 per cent of their world. Browsers allow highlighted words or
energy converting electrons into photons and icons, called hyper-links, to display text, video,
back. This also slows down transmission of graphics and sound on a local computer screen,
messages. All-optical computers eliminate the no matter where resource is actually located.
need for optical-electrical-optical (OEO) Application: Nowadays, the importance of
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conversions. Internet is so profound that it penetrates every
walk of human life. Marketing in global village
SIMPUTER is now a reality due to Internet. Few years back,
it was just a medium for exchange of academic
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The word 'Simputer' is an acronym for information and was used mostly by
'simple, inexpensive and multilingual people's academicians and commerce. Today, all sorts of
computer'. Simputer is a low cost hand held transactions and business deals are being
computing device which can offer inexpensive conducted on Net.
and efficient information and networking
environment for people who are on the wrong On-line banks are being set up to service
side of the digital divide. The simple computer clients through the Net. A wide range of services
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or simputer runs on three AAA batteries or are now being offered through the Net deposits,
direct power supply. With memory capabilities loans, transfer of funds etc. Net sites act as single
window for virtual shop and offer gateways to
of 32 MB RAM and a GNU/Linux operating
the web-sites of scores of other shops.
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two types of services for Internet users: billion bits per second. The FPX uses the Field
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(i) Shell account in which one can have only Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) Circuits to
text access and cannot download scan computer viruses and worms quickly.
graphics; and In much the same way that a human virus
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(ii) TCP/IP account in which one can have spreads between people that come in contact,
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access to graphics as well. It is more
efficient and, therefore, more expensive.
computer viruses and Internet worms spread
when computers come in contact over the
Internet. Viruses spread when a computer user
The Indian Internet scene is headed for a downloads unsafe software, opens a malicious
radical change in the years ahead, with the attachment, or exchanges infected computer
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National Association of Software and Services programmes over a network. Existing techno-
Companies (NASSCOM) predicting a massive logies do little to stop the virus or worm spread.
increase in the number of Internet users.
Internet for the Blind
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In 2013, India ranked third in the number of designed software and hardware to allow the
active users next only to China and US, the blind to use Internet. The Delhi cyber cafe is
overall Internet penetration in the country is 11 equipped with state-of-the-art technology,
per cent. India on last count had 120 million including a JAWS software that allows the
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active Internet users, up from 81 million users in visually impaired to surf the net by voice enabling
2010. According to 2013 global Internet World both input and output commands. The various
Stats report, around 2.7 billion people are using tools developed by the C-DAC and Kolkata-
the Internet world wide which corresponds to based Webel Mediatronics are:
39 per cent of the worlds population. Vachanter: This Text-to-speech software
Real Time Service Management: Real Time developed by C-DAC enables the user to browse
Service Management is software developed by through websites through listening.
California based company SupportSoft in Text to Braille: It can convert text in any
December 2003. It enables computer makers to format to Braille and store it on the computer.
provide automated support and remote
correction of faults to millions of users of Personal Tactile Device: It is an alternative to paper
Computers (PCs), laptops and pocket computers. prints of Braille material.
The core of the RTSM is a solution, called Braille to Text: It is a software that enables
Resolution Suite, which when embedded in blind people to enter data in braille using a 6
user devices, will help them to proactively heal key keyboard.
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the new Internet protocol being adopted globally
fastest growing segment, growing by 19 per cent
by 2013. The Department of Telecom stated that
in FY2012, to account for exports of USD 40
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27 websites have already been brought on IPv6
billion. IT services is the fastest growing segment
platform in India. Globally, several companies,
in the Indian domestic market, growing by 18
including Google and Facebook have switched
per cent to reach Rs 589 billion, driven by
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to the new IP version. Indian telecom companies
increasing focus by service providers.
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will also move to the new system over the next
few months. According to NASSCOM, the ITBPO sector
has increased its contribution to India's GDP from
The new version of internet protocol is 1.2 per cent in FY1998 to 7.5 per cent in
necessary to prevent the Internet running out of FY2012. The ITBPO sector in India aggregated
available addresses for new devices. India at revenues of US$100 billion in FY2012, where
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present has 35 million IPv4 addresses against a export and domestic revenue stood at US$69.1
user base of about 360 million data users and billion and US$31.7 billion respectively, growing
Government has a target of 160 million and 600 by over 9 per cent. Aggregate IT software and
million broadband customers by 2017 and 2020,
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technology is being realised day by day in India. social transformation. The policy sets forth 14
There has been visible introduction of ICT across
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diverse objectives that range from enhancing the
the country of one billion plus population. One protection of Indias critical infrastructure, to
of the hallmarks of the fledging ministry was get assisting the investigation and prosecution of
Parliament to enact the Information Technology cyber crime, to developing 500,000 skilled
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Act (IT Act) 2000. This Act gave the legal cybersecurity professionals over the next five
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sanctity to electronic commerce in the country
and also provided for some basic laws and
regulations to address the usage of the internet
years.
To accomplish these objectives, the policy
medium. details numerous action items for the Indian
government, including:
National e-Governance Plan (NEGP):
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(i) Designating a national agency to
Today the number of internet users in country is
growing rapidly and it would grow much further coordinate all cybersecurity matters;
as connectivity charges reduce and multilingual (ii) Encouraging all private and public
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(iii) The potential of internet to reach the (vi) Enhancing global cooperation in
masses as a medium for information combatting cybersecurity threats;
dissemination in far-flung areas is long (vii) Fostering education and training
very strong. programs in cybersecurity; and
(iv) Internet reduces a lot of the transaction (viii) Establishing public and private partnerships
time and costs, as is witness in the real to determine best practices in cyber-
world and that way it adds to national security.
productivity and wealth.
National Information Board
(v) More and more critical systems are
depending on Internet and this helps in The National Information Board is the
realising many basic requirements of life. highest policy making body for cyber security
and is was set up in the year 2002 and is chaired
(vi) There is a major social dimension to the
by the National Security Adviser. The NIB acts
spread of the Internet. There is more social
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both the public and private sectors. According to the provisions of the
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Information Technology Amendment Act 2008,
Directly below the NIB are the Information
CERT-In is responsible for overseeing
Infrastructure Protection Centre, followed by
administration of the Act. Basically CERT is a
state cyber police stations and the Computer normative term and it is based everywhere. For
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Followed by state sectoral-level CERTS. Many
C IC India it is called as CERT-In. CERT organizations
of the states are actively considering setting up throughout the world are independent entities,
cyber police stations and cyber labs. although there may be coordinated activites
The NIB has entrusted the National Security among groups. The first CERT group was formed
Council Secretariat (NSCS) with the role of in the United States at Carnegie Mellon
working on cyberspace security. Again the University.
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(NISCC) within its organisation is there to Computer Immunology
provide necessary inputs to NIB for its
functioning. On a microscopic scale, biology resembles
computing: bases and genes correspond to bits
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The role of the DIT under NOCIT is also and bytes, based on certain rules. Conversely,
significant. It acts as the public interface of the on a macroscopic scale, computing resembles
government with the general public and the biology: the internet is like a vast ecosystem
international community as far as IT Policies in where all kinds of digital organisms thrive.
India is concerned. The DITs role in the internet
governance efforts of the UN is also laudatory, The application of computing in biology, in
as it has also stressed the need for securing the the genome era, is well known. There is, however,
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cyberspace. Some of the relevant initiatives and traffic in the other direction as well. A US digital
strategies of DIT over the years have been: security company, Sana Security of San Mateo,
California, has devised a way to use
Promotion of the internet and provision immunological principles to spot computer
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Promotion of standardization testing and Once installed, the Sana system monitors the
quality in IT. behaviour of specific programs running on a
computer, such as remote - login, web, mail and
Establishment of an Information Security
database servers. Most attacks take advantage
Technology Development Council
of the flaw in these programs to gain unautho-
(ISTDC).
rized access to a computer over the course of a
Creation of a National Information day a so, the Sanas Primary Response builds up
Security Assurance Framework. a profile of normal activity by looking at the
patterns of system cells, just as an immune system
Establishment of an Inter Ministerial
builds up a profile of self.
working group.
Any significant deviation from this profile is
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that event, it is indeed difficult to distinguish a (BEL), which produced the integrated circuits
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genuine attack from a false alarm. In contrast, in 1971, has manufactured over 50 types of
Primary Response tends to generate only a bipolar ICS so far. These include 20 types of TTL
handful of false alarms a month. The other version and the remaining the linear type for
advantage is that Primary Response is not application in TV, AM/FM radio, multiplexing
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knowledge based. That is, it does not rely on
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assumptions about the nature of an attack. It has fabricated a prototype watch chip with LSI
works by distinguishing normal self from capability while BEL has a vertical integrated
abnormal non-self behaviour. facility covering design mask making wafer
fabrication assembly and testing up to the level
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONICS & of MSI. SCL is building up a comprehensive
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COMPUTER NETWORK IN INDIA production level and R & D base up to the level
LSIs/VLSIs.
Electronics System: The manufacture of
Besides there are several other organisations
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developed by the National Information Centre It is quite clear that even the most user
(NIC) of the Department of Electronics on an friendly computer is at present so difficult to use
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indigenous Computer. NIC provides computer for most people. Our normal mode of interacting
based management information system services with people involves a lot of hand waving. We
and related support facilities to various ministries, leave many things unsaid, taking advantage of
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departments and other offices of the
C IC shared context and shared presuppositions. Life
government. It has developed a star-type would become impossible if instructing another
computer network (NICNET) which links up 16 person requires specifying everything to the
micro-computers and 20 interactive terminals minute detail, explicitly taking into account all
located in different offices in Delhi. The CDC possible contingencies but this is precisely what
Cyber 170/730 system procured with assistance computers demand and what computer
programming is all about.
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from UNDP serves as the central node of this
network. The NIC Computer system is now
Indian Scene
operational round the clock.
How has computer technology transformed
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patent documents according to the International a visible and high impact. By far the most
Patent classification code, date and year of important of these in undoubtedly the
publication and title of the document. These computerization of railway reservation for the
bibliographic information can be obtained more effluent, computerized air reservation and
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are designed to examine, e.g., bronchoscope
device was conceived under the Human (bronchial tubes), cystoscope (bladder),
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Resources and Development Ministry's National gastroscope (stomach), and sigmoidoscope
Mission on Education through Information and (lower large intestine). In all of these, a bundle
Communication Technology (NME-ICT) to of fibres transmit light from an outside lamp to
provide students a device that could be used as
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illuminate the part of the body being examined.
an E-book reader, to access online streaming
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course material and web based research. Under an objective lens at one end and an eyepiece lens
NME-ICT, the government intends to deliver 10 at the other. The objective lens forms an image
million tablets to post-secondary students across of the body part. This image is transmitted, point
India. This is a bold step in popularising by point, through the fibres to the eyepiece lens,
computer interfaced science experiments in which magnifies the image.
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India.
For telephone cables, glass fibres are used in
place of copper wires. A pair of hair-thin glass
TELECOMMUNICATION SECTOR fibres can carry several thousand conversations
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properties. These new fibres, known collectively has been functioning without any fault since
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as microstructured fibres, can be made entirely 1979. The Hindustan Cables Ltd. has started
from one type of glass as they do not rely on manufacture of optic fibre cables at its Naini,
dopants for guidance. Instead, the cladding factory in Allahabad.
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region is peppered with many small air holes,
that run the entire fibre length. These fibres are
National Optical Fibre Network
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typically separated into two classes, defined by The Department of Telecommunications
the way in which they guide light: (DoT) on July 22, 2011 cleared creation of a
n Holey fibres, in which the core is solid National Optical Fibre Network' (NOFN) with
and light is guided by a modified form of an investment of Rs.20,000 crore that would
total internal reflection as the air holes provide broadband connectivity to all village
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lower the effective refractive index of the panchayats in three years. The Telecom
cladding relative to that of the solid core. Commission has approved the project that will
be funded through the Universal Service
n Photonic band-gap fibres, in which
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for providing other services in the remote places India.
on a viable business model which is hitherto non-
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Besides, voice telephony, high speed Internet
existent.
access and IPTV, the C-DOT GPON has
Global Market provision to carry cable TV signal too, all on a
single optical fibre. Another important
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The global optical cable market posted 10 per advantage of GPON is that it can carry
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cent growth in 2012 with a stronger growth
forecasted in 2013. China now accounts for half
of global cabled-fibre deployments. The massive
information from a central office to subscribers
up to 60 km away without needing any
intermediate repeaters thus doing away with the
cable deployments in China's FTTx projects and requirement of power, shelter and upkeep
wireless infrastructure were key drivers in the services at the intermediate locations.
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global cable market's double-digit growth last
year. Other markets, Europe and North
WI-MAX TECHNOLOGY
America, saw a decline in growth due to
ongoing economic uncertainty and the spending A new wireless technology, Wimax, can cost
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cycles for publicly financed broadband network effectively bring high speed internet services to
projects. Nevertheless, world optical cable rural areas. With backers like Intel Corporation
demand increased to 235 million fibre-km in and Fujitsu, the technology is promising. But
2012. China's growth in 2012 was approximately Indian companies seem to be intent on
20 per cent, and the forecast is for comparable introducing the technology in only urban
growth this year. Australia, India, Mexico, markets.
Russia, and South Africa are other key markets
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cables industry worldwide. Wimax and its processor wi-fi use radio waves
to broadcast internet signals, thus removing the
GPON Technology need to use cables. Whereas wi-fi could only
broadcast signals upto a hundred metres away
In a move that would give the much-needed
from the transmission towers, Wimax technology
push to broadband penetration in the country,
can transmit signals upto three kilometers away
the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-
and it supports speeds five times faster than what
DoT) recently transferred indigenously-
its counterpart (wi-fi) does.
developed Gigabit Passive Optical Network
(GPON) technology to seven telecom equipment Wimax Forum: Reliance Infocomm Limited,
manufacturers, including private players. The Sify Limited and Tata Teleservices Limited - the
GPON technology is a pivotal component leading telecom players of India are part of the
required for broadband connectivity over optical Wimax Forum, a global consortium of
fibre. companies involved in promoting the
technology. These companies are planning to
The cost-effective GPON will prove to be a
start pilot trials of Wimax in India very soon.
game-changer technology for India. It can be
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the telecommunication industrys agenda by
sometimes provide free Wi-Fi access.
2005, when Wimax will be launched in the
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market. Wi-Fi also allows connectivity in peer-to-peer
(wireless ad-hoc network) mode, which enables
WIFI devices to connect directly with each other. This
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connectivity mode can prove useful in consumer
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WiFi stands for the wireless fidelity, is a
wireless networking technology used across the
electronics and gaming applications.
globe. WiFi became very popular because once Comparison with Wi-Fi
base station is there, any number of desktops or WiMAX provides services analogous to a
laptop computers can be connected to broadband cellphone, Wi-Fi is more analogous to a cordless
service without the need of any cables or
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phone. Wi-Fi is a shorter range system, typically
installing extra phone lines. It mainly refers to hundreds of metres, generally used by an end
using radio frequencies and/ or infrared waves. user to access their own network. Wi-Fi is low
The main purpose of Wi-Fi is to hide cost and is generally used to provide Internet
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complexity by enabling wireless access to access within a single room or building. For
applications and data, media and streams. example, many coffee shops, hotels, railway
stations and bus stations contain Wi-Fi access
The main advantages of the Wi-Fi are : points providing access to the Internet for
Make access to information easier. customers.
Ensure compatibility and co-existence of Wireless Routers which incorporate a DSL-
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while more advanced cable internet can reach
factories in which huge masses of microbes
speeds of 75 Mbps and more. Cable Internet
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collaborate to make more complicated fuels,
speeds can be affected by users within the same
pharmaceuticals and other useful chemicals,
vicinity using the same cable connection.
including the regeneration of tissue or organs in
future.
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Satellite: Satellite broadband uses orbiting
C IC satellites to transmit and receive broadband data.
The virus 'M13' is a package of genetic
Satellite broadband is primarily used in areas
messages. It reproduces within its host, taking
where terrestrial broadband technologies like
strands of DNA - strands that engineers can
DSL, fibre and cable are otherwise unavailable.
control - wrapping them up one by one and
Speeds for satellite broadband are comparable
sending them out encapsulated within proteins
to traditional DSL, ranging from 768 kbps to 5
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produced by M13 that can infect other cells. The
Mbps--but data speeds can be affected by
M13-based system is essentially a communication
changes in the weather and satellite position.
channel. It acts like a wireless Internet connection
that enables cells to send or receive messages, Mobile Broadband: Mobile networks are a
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in context, an average telephone line through A wireless LAN is a flexible data commu-
which we dial into the internet theoretically gives nication system implemented as an extension to,
a speed of 33.3 kbps, though actual speeds may or as an alternative for, a wired LAN within a
be far lesser. An affordable broadband access to building or campus. Using electromagnetic
the Net would allow a PC to be used as a TV/ waves, WLANs transmit and receive data over
music system. One can watch a downloaded the air, minimising the need for wired
movie or listen to an older-goldie track or merely connections. Thus, WLANs combine data
get the latest quotes for ones stock portfolio. connectivity with user mobility, and through
The major types of broadband include DSL, simplified configuration enable movable LANs.
cable, satellite, fibre-optic and mobile broadband. Wireless LANs frequently augment rather
DSL: Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is than replace wired LAN networks - often
broadband internet delivered over copper phone providing the final few metres of connectivity
wires. The lines are split into two frequencies: between a backbone network and the mobile
one for data and one for voice. Traditional DSL user. The power and flexibility of wireless LANs
speeds range from 768 Kbps to as fast as 7 Mbps- finds applications both in the office as well as in
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huge grant to modernise the frequency allocation
Reduced cost of ownership
systems. Progress is taking place but at a slow
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Scalability pace.
Wireless LAN - Technology
4G TECHNOLOGY
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Spread Spectrum
4G is the fourth-generation cellular
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Narrowband Technology
Frequency - Hopping Spread Spectrum
communication system that operates on Internet
technology using various wired and wireless
Technology networks. It combines applications and
Direct - Sequence Spread Spectrum technologies like Wi-Fi and WiMax, so that
highest throughput and lowest cost wireless
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Technology
network is possible, providing high quality, high
Infrared Technology security and any kind of services, anytime,
anywhere to the users. In simple language, it
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moving from speech and low rate data content and needless to say, voice and
transmission to medium and high speed data services, anytime and anywhere.
data for video (TV) transmission and
Internet searching. (ii) There will be high network capacity, high
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wireless network, the computer will send a
communication system between the Bluetooth
packet to the 4G-IP address of the cell phone.
enabled devices in a short ranged network.
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Then a directory server on the cell phones home
Bluetooth technology is a short range wireless
network will forward this packet to the cell
technology that was developed by the
phones care-of address through a mobile IP. The
collaboration of mobile phones and IT companies
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directory server will also inform the computer
such as Nokia, Intel, Toshiba, Ericsson and IBM.
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of the cell phones care-of address (the real
location), so that the next packet can be sent to
the cell phone directly.
Bluetooth develops short range wireless
connections between the laptops, handheld PCs,
wireless communication devices and mobile
Benefits of 4G phones. Bluetooth is only available to the
personal area networks in an office or a home
The advanced applications of 4G systems will
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network. It reduces the usage of power as
primarily be location-based services. 4G location compared to the Wi-Fi. Bluetooth is an
applications would utilize visualized, virtual international standardized technology that is
navigation schemes that would support a remote used for the wireless communication between
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place and understanding the problems of the enabled device such as mobile phones, laptops,
concerned area. digital cameras; video games consoles have built-
Virtual Navigation: The database can be in microchip.
accessed by a subscriber in a moving vehicle Bluetooth uses radio-waves that operate at
equipped with the appropriate wireless device, 2.4 GHz bands. The personal computers must
to know about the roads and locations in have built-in dongle in them to use the Bluetooth
advance. technology. Bluetooth is also used to transfer the
Tele-medicine: A paramedic assisting a files from the mobile phones or PDA devices to
victim of a traffic accident in a remote location the computers. Also, in a meeting if you want to
would be able to access medical records (eg. x- share the digital business cards among the
ray sheet) and establish a video conference so participants of the meeting you use Bluetooth to
that a remotely-based surgeon could provide transfer the files. Microsoft Windows XP with
on-scene assistance. the service pack 2 has the built-in support for
the Bluetooth technology. Bluetooth defines the
Crisis-management Applications: In case of wireless standards to maintain the secure data
natural disasters, where the entire communication.
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it does not require to install the additional drivers traditionally used.
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to use the Bluetooth technology and it can
connect all the office peripheral such as n For low bandwidth applications where
computer with printer, computer with scanner higher [USB] bandwidth is not required
and computer with laptop. Among the other and cable-free connection desired.
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advantages of the Bluetooth technology is the n Sending small advertisements from
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automatic synchronization of the desktops,
mobile phones and other Bluetooth held devices.
Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings
to other, discoverable, Bluetooth devices.
Another popular use of the Bluetooth is in the
cars and automotives. The most commonly n Two seventh-generation game consoles,
Bluetooth held devices are mobile phones, Nintendos Wii and Sonys PlayStation 3,
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personal computers, laptops, headsets, access use Bluetooth for their respective wireless
points, car kits, speaker phone, streaming video, controllers.
MP3 players, SIM cards, Push-2-talk, PDA and n Dial-up internet access on personal
digital camera. computers or PDAs using a data-capable
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By this technology, mobile data can be used mobile phone as a modem.
in the different applications. It provides the speed
of 1-2 Mbps. Bluetooths small microchip can be CDMA
built in the devices and it can also be used as the
external adapters and used for the different Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a
network commu-nication devices. Bluetooth channel access method utilized by various radio
communication technologies. It should not be
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128 encryption. If the two wireless devices follow CDMA as an underlying channel access method.
the Bluetooth standards they can communicate
One of the basic concepts in data
with each other without any external devices or
communication is the idea of allowing several
wires. More enhancements are in progress in this
transmitters to send information simultaneously
technology to provide the most robust, state-of-
over a single communication channel. This
the-art, high speed and secure connections to the
allows several users to share a bandwidth of
mobile users.
different frequencies. This concept is called
Applications of Bluetooth: multiplexing. CDMA employs spread-spectrum
n Wireless control and communication technology and a special coding scheme (where
between a mobile phone and a hands- each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow
multiple users to be multiplexed over the same
free headset.
physical channel. By contrast, time division
n Wireless networking between PCs in a multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time,
confined space and where little bandwidth while frequency-division multiple access
is required. (FDMA) divides it by frequency. CDMA is a form
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The National Centre for Software
understand each other, but not other people.
Development and Computing Techniques
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Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users
(NCSDCT) in Mumbai has provided the R &D
is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the
and human resources base for Indian software
same channel, but only users associated with a
development and exports.
particular code can understand each other.
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TELECOM SERVICES IN INDIA Maritime Satellite founded in 1979. INMARSAT
organisation has more than 80 countries as its
In the field of communications, from members with London as its headquarters that
essentially a telegraph network in late forties, the provides worldwide satellite communications for
Indian telecommunication network facility has maritime, aeronautical and mobile land users.
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grown significantly over the years with the INMARSAT operates a satellite each in the
acquisition, adaptation and indigenous Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean region. The
development of newer technologies. Vikram Land Earth Station, which was
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The country has now developed the commissioned on May 31, 1992 at Arvi, about
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necessary capability to manufacture her own 85 km from Pune and became operational on
sophisticated materials and equipment, for July 11, 1992, is the 37th such station in the
example, telephone instruments, digital INMARSAT family. Besides the satellites and the
telephones, key telephones and microwave and land earth stations (LES), the INMARSAT system
line systems. The major areas in the plan of also has mobile earth stations with the satellite
Indian Telephone Industries (ITI) relate to digital communications terminals located on ships,
trucks, etc. The Vikram LES is providing shore-
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To promote faster growth of telecom demand.
services, a decision has been taken to allow State Provide high-speed and high-quality
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Governments for setting up Telecom Networks broadband access to all village panchayats
in the industrial estates with access to DoT lines. through a combination of technologies by
Accordingly, State Governments are making the year 2014 and progressively to all
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proposals to develop telecom infrastructure in
villages and habitations by 2020.
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the States.
A number of new thrust areas and gap areas
Recognize telecom as an infrastructure
sector to realize the true potential of
were identified for development in telecom and
information communication technology
broadcasting sector. Electronics Development
(ICT) for development.
and Research Centre (ERDC), Pune of the DoE
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undertook the indigenous development of low- Address right-of-way (RoW) issues in
cost Amateur Radio, Citizen Band Radio and setting up of telecom infrastructure.
Data Radio suitable for rural applications. There
Mandate an ecosystem for ensuring
are about 200 companies in the country
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metro cities have already had salutary effect.
Service Providers (ISPs), VPN providers, etc.
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To protect the intellectual property rights Section 52(1)(c) allows for transient or incidental
(IPR) of software companies, apart from cracking storage of a work or performance for the
down on piracy, the government has also made purpose of providing electronic links, access or
several policies to actively discourage piracy. integration, where such links, access or
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Authorized sellers of imported software are
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allowed to reproduce software in India and sell by the right holder, unless the person responsible
it without import duty. Local software is aware or has reasonable grounds for believing
manufacturers are exempt from excise taxes. that such storage is of an infringing copy. This
seems to make it applicable primarily to search
Other incentives include:
engines, with other kinds of online services being
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Depreciation on IT products allowed at covered or not covered depending on ones
60% pa, taking into cognizance the high interpretation of the word 'incidental'.
rate of obsolescence of such products.
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various applications. produce hard copy of computer output
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that is readable by humans.
Hybrid Computer: The features of analog
and digital machines are combined to Ink Jet Printer: A printing device that
create a hybrid computing system. uses a nozzle and sprays ink into paper to
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form the appropriate characters. The typing
Mainframe Computers: Computers with
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high capability but less powerful and
cheaper than supercomputers. These are
speed range from 50 cps above 300 cps.
Laser Printer: A very high speed printer
suited for big organizations to manage that uses a combination of laser beam and
high volume of applications e.g. MEDHA, electro-photographic techniques to create
Sperry DEC, IBM, HP, ICL etc. printed outputs at a speed in excess of
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13,000 lines per unit. Speed can range
Mini Computers: Relatively fast and small
from 10 pages a minute to about 200
and inexpensive computer with somewhat
pages per minute.
limited input/output capabilities. The first
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popular minicomputer was the PDP-8, Floppy Disk: Popular magnetic device for
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launched in 1965. small computer introduced by IBM in
1972. It is flexible and has a plastic jacket
Micro Computers: Full-fledged computer
coated with iron oxide material. Data and
system that uses micro processor as their
information stores in the disks as a
CPU. These are also called personal
magnetic and non-magnetic spots. It is a
computer system.
non erasable disc used for storing
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longer than that of analogue phones, with
flows through it. Without a current, all
the stored information is wiped out. a talk time of three to four hours, and up
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to two-and-a-half weeks of standby time.
Speed: Computer speeds are measured in Digital Signature: Digital Signature is extra
terms of million instructions per second data appended to a message which identifies
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(MIPS), which reflects the number of and authenticates the sender and the data
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instructions the processor at the heart of
computer can perform.
Mass Storage: Information can be stored
using public key encryption. The signature
is issued by the control of certifying
authorities. Not many companies are willing
permanently on magnetic tape on a floppy to apply for CA (certifying authority). The
disc, a thin flexible disc coated with government had stipulated that a CA
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magnetic particles, or on a hard disc. These should have a minimum paid up capital of
media store bits (zeros and ones) as Rs. 5 crore and a net worth of Rs. 50 crore.
magnetic strips running in either one PAGING: It provides a one-way wireless
direction (signifying O) or the other communication to the wandering users. In
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corporate enterprises.
handwritten notes.
Global System for Mobile (GSM): The
Voice Mail: If someone wants to enjoy the
Global System for Mobile (GSM) is a
benefits of a telephone, without actually
worldwide dominant system that originally
owning one, he should subscribe to voice
evolved as a pan-European digital standard,
mail.
and built a base in the US and Canada at
a rapid pace. GSM uses Time Division Electronic Data Interchange (EDI): It
Multiple Access (TDMA). TDMA is not a enables usually a customer and supplier to
spread spectrum technology. It uses a exchange routine documents, such as,
narrow band that is 30 KHZ wide and 6.7 purchase orders and invoices using standard
milliseconds long. This is split times-wise electronic forms and their own computers,
into slots. Each conversation gets the radio linked through a service provider.
for part of the time. Video Conferencing: Video conferencing or
Code-Division Multiple Accesses Electronic conferencing allows persons
(CDMA): The Code-Division Multiple sitting in different parts of the city, country
Access (CDMA) technology, also known as or world to meet face-to-face without
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and the computer sends it to the user. used in a wide range of applications,
including computer monitors, televisions,
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Virtual Reality: It enables a person to enter
the world to three-dimensional (3-D) instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays,
computer-aided image. It is not like any and signage. They are common in consumer
computer graphic. In fact, it accords devices such as video players, gaming
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multiple sensory information, sight, sound devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and
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and touch in an effort to make the situation
realistic.
telephones.
Multi-media: Multi-media means
DTH Transmission: The Direct to Home integration of two or more media elements.
(DTH) services are all set to make an entry It is one of the most recent information
in the Indian homes in the near future. In technologies that is becoming popular
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DTH, the move from C-Band to Ku-Band world-wide due to its multi-dimensional
approach and uses.
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word for forced labour, or serf. It was introduced recognition and/or synthesis, and other
by playwright Karel Capek, whose fictional advanced features.
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robotic inventions were much like Dr. Fourth-generation robots are in the research-
Frankensteins monster creatures created by and-development phase, and include features
chemical and biological, rather than mechanical, such as artificial intelligence, self-replication, self
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methods. But the current mechanical robots of assembly, and nanoscale size (physical
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popular culture are not much different from
these fictional biological creations.
Robotics technology is developing at a rapid
dimensions on the order of nanometers, or units
of 10 -9 meter).
A few advanced robots are called androids
pace, opening up new possibilities for because of their superficial resemblance to
automating tasks and enriching the lives of human beings. Androids are mobile, usually
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humans. From the automobile assembly line to moving around on wheels or a track drive
automatic home, vacuum cleaners, robotics has because most robots legs are unstable and
become part of our world. difficult to engineer. The android is not
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Robotics is the branch of engineering science necessarily the end point of robot evolution.
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and technology that deals with the design, Asimov
manufacture, operation, and application of
robots. Robotics is related to electronics, Asimov is generally credited with the
mechanics, and software. popularization of the term Robotics which
was first mentioned in his story Runaround
According to the Robot Institute of
in 1942. But probably Isaac Asimovs most
America, 1979, A robot is defined as a
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mmed motions for the performance of a variety or, through inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm.
of tasks. A robot is described as a machine
designed to execute one or more tasks repeatedly, 2. A robot must obey the orders given to it
with speed and precision. There are as many by human beings except where such
different types of robots as there are tasks for orders would conflict with the First Law.
them to perform. 3. A robot must protect its own existence as
long as such protection does not conflict
PAST & FUTURE OF ROBOTS with the First or Second Law.
First-generation robots date from the 1970s Asimov later adds a Zeroth law to the list:
and consists of stationary, nonprogrammable,
Zeroth law: A robot may not injure
electromechanical devices without sensors.
humanity, or, through inaction, allow humanity
Second-generation robots were developed in the
to come to harm, unless this would violate a
1980s and could contain sensors and
higher order law.
programmable controllers. Third-generation
robots were developed between approximately In 1959, John Minsky started the Artificial
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stationary base structure rather than to a End Effector is like human palm and fingers.
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movable body. This type of robot has six degrees We can outfit robotic arms with all sorts of end
of freedom, meaning it can pivot in six different effectors, which are suited to a particular
ways. A human arm, by comparison, has seven application. One common end effector is a
simplified version of the hand, which can grasp
EM
degrees of freedom. Your arms job is to move
your hand from place to place. Similarly, the and carry different objects. Robotic hands often
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robotic arms job is to move an end effector from have built-in pressure sensors that tell the
computer how hard the robot is gripping a
place to place. You can outfit robotic arms with
all sorts of end effectors, which are suited to a particular object. This keeps the robot from
particular application. dropping or breaking whatever its carrying.
Other end effectors include blowtorches, drills
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Controller and spray painters.
Digital computer is major controller of a
TYPES OF ROBOTS
robot. The robots computer controls everything
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and it activates the hydraulic system by after day with precision. They dont get tired and
manipulating electrical valves. The valves they dont make errors associated with fatigue
determine the pressurized fluids path through and so are ideally suited for performing repetitive
the machine. To move a hydraulic leg, for tasks. The major categories of industrial robots
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example, the robots controller would open the by mechanical structure are:
valve leading from the fluid pump to a piston 1. Cartesian Robot/Gantry Robot: Used for
cylinder attached to that leg. The pressurized pick and place work, application of
fluid would extend the piston, swiveling the leg sealant, assembly operations, handling
forward. Typically, in order to move their machine tools and arc welding. It is a
robot whose arm has three prismatic
segments in two directions, robots use pistons
joints, whose axes are coincident with a
that can push both ways. Cartesian coordinator.
Sensors 2. Cylindrical Robot: Used for assembly
operations, handling of machine tools, spot
Sensors are the instruments that measure welding, and handling of die casting
position, force, temperature, etc. Not all robots machines. Its a robot whose axis form a
have sensory systems, and few have the ability cylindrical coordinate system.
to see, hear, smell or taste. The most common 3. Spherical/Polar Robot: Used for handling
robotic sense is the sense of movement the of machine tools, spot welding, die
casting, fettling machines, gas welding
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6. Parallel Robot: One use is a mobile (C) Medical Field
platform handling cockpit flight
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simulators. Its a robot whose arms have Robots are critical to the medical field where
concurrent prismatic or rotary joints. extreme precision and delicacy is necessary, and
the margin for error is slim.
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APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTS In the Field of Surgery: Because robots
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Robots are used for the following reasons:
Repetitive tasks that robots can do 24/7.
are able to perform major operations while
only making small incisions, patients get
many benefits: lessened trauma, fewer
Robots never get sick or need time off. infections, decreased healing time, and a
faster discharge from the hospital. Robots
Robots can do tasks considered too
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are used to perform heart surgery without
dangerous for humans.
opening patients chests.
Robots can operate equipment to much
In Medical Education: Robots are
higher precision than humans.
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environmental changes, softness on the module spatial sense, pattern recognition and language
level might be beneficial. comprehension were beyond their programming
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Nanorobots skills.
They understood that to create an AI, they
Nanorobotics is the emerging technology
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must delve deeper into natural intelligence first.
field of creating machines or robots whose
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components are at or close to the microscopic
scale of a nanometer (10 -9 meters). Also known
They tried to understand how cognition,
comprehension, decision-making happen in the
human mind. They had to understand what
as "nanobots" or "nanites", they would be
understanding really means. Some went into the
constructed from molecular machines.
study of the brain and tried to understand how
Nanobots have been popular staples in the network of neurons creates the mind. Thus,
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science fiction for some time, and have researchers branched into different approaches,
experienced periods of relative popularity but they had the same goal of creating intelligent
among futurist communities. Although they machines.
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molecular motors. Possible applications include modelled on the working and form of the human
micro surgery (on the level of individual cells), brain. Our brain is a network of billions of
utility fog, manufacturing, weaponry and neurons, each connected with the other.
cleaning.
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starting at the base level of neurons, by taking Banks use intelligent software applications
advantage of the phenomenal computational to screen and analyze financial data. Softwares
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power of the modern computers, followers of the that can predict trends in the stock market have
expert systems approach are designing been created which have been known to beat
intelligent machines that solve problems by humans in predictive power.
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deductive logic. It is like the dialectic approach Computer Science
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in philosophy.
This is an intensive approach as opposed to
the extensive approach in neural networks. As
Researchers in quest of artificial intelligence
have created spin offs like dynamic
programming, object oriented programming,
the name expert systems suggest, these are symbolic programming, intelligent storage
machines devoted to solving problems in very management systems and many more such
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specific niche areas. They have total expertise in tools. The primary goal of creating an artificial
a specific domain of human thought. Their tools intelligence still remains a distant dream but
are like those of a detective or sleuth. They are people are getting an idea of the ultimate path
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programmed to use statistical analysis and data which could lead to it.
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mining to solve problems. They arrive at a Aviation
decision through a logical flow developed by
answering yes-no questions. Airlines use expert systems in planes to
monitor atmospheric conditions and system
Chess computers like Fritz and its successors status. The plane can be put on auto pilot once a
that beat chess grandmaster Kasparov are course is set for the destination.
examples of expert systems. Chess is known as
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more limited AI. Todays AI machines can babies interact, based only on tone of speech and
replicate some specific elements of intellectual visual cue. This low-level interaction could be
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ability. the foundation of a human-like learning system.
Computers can already solve problems in Kismet and other humanoid robots at the
limited realms. The basic idea of AI problem- M.I.T. AI Lab operate using an unconventional
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solving is very simple, though its execution is control structure. Instead of directing every
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complicated. First, the AI robot or computer
gathers facts about a situation through sensors
action using a central computer, the robots
control lower-level actions with lower-level
or human input. The computer compares this computers. The programs director, Rodney
information to stored data and decides what the Brooks, believes this is a more accurate model of
information signifies. The computer runs human intelligence. We do most things
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through various possible actions and predicts
automatically; we dont decide to do them at the
which action will be most successful based on
highest level of consciousness.
the collected information. Of course, the
computer can only solve problems, its The real challenge of AI is to understand how
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programmed to solve it doesnt have any natural intelligence works. Developing AI isnt
generalized analytical ability. Chess computers like building an artificial heart scientists dont
are one example of this sort of machine. have a simple, concrete model to work from. We
Some modern robots also have the ability to do know that the brain contains billions and
learn in a limited capacity. Learning robots billions of neurons, and that we think and learn
recognize if a certain action (moving its legs in a by establishing electrical connections between
different neurons. But we dont know exactly
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