Magnets

Magnets repel and attract other magnets, and attract magnetic substances. Magnetic
fields can be shown using field lines. Magnetism is induced in some materials when
placed in a magnetic field.

Properties of magnets
Bar magnets are permanent magnets. This means that their magnetism
is there all the time and cannot be turned on or off as it can
with electromagnets.
Bar magnets have two poles:
north pole normally shown as N
south pole normally shown as S
Opposite (unlike) poles attract, and like poles repel.

If permanent magnets are repeatedly knocked, the strength of

theirmagnetic field is reduced. Converting a magnet to a non-magnet is
called demagnetisation.
Magnets are made from magnetic metals iron, nickel and cobalt. These
are the only pure metals that can be turned into a permanent
magnet. Steel is an alloy of iron and so can also be made into a magnet.
If these metals have not been turned into a permanent magnet they will still
be attracted to a magnet if placed within a magnetic field. In this situation
they act as a magnet - but only whilst in the magnetic field. This is
called induced magnetism.
Substances that can be permanently magnetised are described
asmagnetically hard. These are often alloys of iron, nickel and cobalt.
Substances that can only be temporarily magnetised are described
as magnetically soft. Alloys with less iron, nickel or cobalt will be
magnetically soft and have a weaker magnetic field. Alloys of iron are called
ferrous and those without iron are called non-ferrous.

Testing magnets
You cant test what a magnet is attracted to, but you can test what it repels.
Objects that are made of unmagnetised iron, cobalt and nickel are attracted
to either pole of a magnet, but not repelled. You can only show that an
object is a magnet if it repels another magnet.

Magnetic field lines

Magnets create magnetic fields. These magnetic fields cannot be seen.
They fill the space around a magnet where the magnetic forces work, and
where they can attract or repel magnetic materials.

Finding magnetic fields

Field lines around a bar magnet

Although we cannot see magnetic fields, we can detect them usingiron
filings. The tiny pieces of iron line up in a magnetic field.

Drawing magnetic field diagrams

It would be difficult to draw the results from the sort of experiment seen in
the photograph, so we draw simple magnetic field lines instead.

A bar magnet, with several curved lines pointing from the north to south pole
In the diagram, note that:
 the field lines have arrows on them
the field lines come out of N (north pole) and go into S (south pole)
the field lines are more concentrated at the poles
The magnetic field is strongest at the poles, where the field lines are most
concentrated.

Two bar magnets

The magnetic field pattern when two magnets are used is shown in this
diagram.

Magnetic field lines for fields involving two magnets

Note the different patterns seen when two like poles are used and two
opposing poles are used.

Uniform magnetic field

When magnetic field lines are the same distance apart from each other, we
say that the magnetic field is uniform. This is shown in the diagram:

Magnetic field lines in a uniform field

Electromagnets and motors

An electric current in a conductor produces a magnetic field. Electric motors and
loudspeakers both use electromagnets. These are made by coiling wire carrying a
current around a magnetic core.

Electromagnets
When an electric current flows in a wire it creates a magnetic field around
the wire. By winding the wire into a coil we can strengthen the magnetic
field. Electromagnets are made from coils like this.
We can make an electromagnet stronger by:
wrapping the coil around an iron core
adding more turns to the coil
increasing the current flowing through the coil

A coil of wire wrapped around a nail connected to a battery and switch

The magnetic field around an electromagnet is just the same as the one
around a bar magnet. It can, however, be reversed by turning the battery
around. Unlike bar magnets, which are permanent magnets, the magnetism
of electromagnets can be turned on and off just by closing or opening the
switch.
Relays are electrically operated switches. They use an electromagnet, often
to control a high-power circuit using a low-power signal or where multiple
circuits need to be controlled by one circuit.

Electromagnetic induction
A magnet and a coil of wire can be used to produce an electric current.
A voltage is produced when a magnet moves into a coil of wire. This process
is called electromagnetic induction. The direction of the induced voltage
is reversed when the magnet is moved out of the coil again. It can also be
reversed if the other pole of the magnet is moved into the coil.
If the coil is part of a complete circuit then a current will be induced in the
circuit.
Notice that no voltage is induced when the magnet is still, even if it is inside
the coil.
To increase the induced voltage:
move the magnet faster
add more turns to the coil
increase the strength of the magnet

1. A bar magnet rests outside a wire coil connected to an ammeter showing

no current

2. The magnet moves into the coil of wire and the ammeter registers positive current
flow
3. The magnet is stationary within the coil of wire, there is no current flow

Field line patterns

Magnets have a north pole and a south pole. Field line patterns show the
direction and shape of a magnetic field. These diagrams are made using
a plotting compass. In diagrams of a magnetic field the arrows on the
lines show the direction from the north to the south poles.
A magnetic field is also created when an electric current moves through a
coil of wire.
Plotting compasses can be used to show the shape and direction of the
magnetic field created by a coil of wire.
These are field line patterns created by electromagnets:

Magnetic field lines associated with wires carrying electric current

Straight wire
Magnetic field lines associated with wires carrying electric current

Flat circular coil

Magnetic field lines around a circular coil

Solenoid
A solenoid is a long thin spiral of wire used to produce a magnetic field.

Magnetic field lines around a solenoid

The motor effect
A current-carrying wire or coil can exert a force on a permanent magnet. This
is called the motor effect. The wire could also exert a force on another
nearby current-carrying wire or coil.
If the current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field (whose lines of force
are at right angles to the wire) then it will experience a force at right angles
to both the current direction and the magnetic field lines.

The force increases if the strength of the magnetic field and/or current
increases.

Dynamos and transformers

Spinning a magnet in a coil of wire generates electricity. Rotation of the magnet

reverses the magnetic field, producing alternating current. Transformers change the size
of alternating voltages.
Generators
When a wire is moved in the magnetic field of a generator, the movement,
magnetic field and current are all at right angles to each other. If the wire is
moved in the opposite direction, the inducedcurrent also moves in the
opposite direction.

Fleming's right hand rule

In a generator, one side of a coil moves up during one half turn and then
down during the next half turn.
This means that as a coil is rotated in a magnetic field, the induced current
reverses direction every half turn. This is called alternating current (AC).
It is different from the direct current (DC) produced by a battery - which is
always in the same direction.
Coil motion in an AC generator
Normally in a generator, the coil is fixed and mounted outside the magnet,
and it is the magnet which moves.
The size of the induced voltage can be increased by:
rotating the coil or magnet faster
using a magnet with a stronger magnetic field
having more turns of wire in the coil
having an iron core inside the coil
Mains electricity is an AC supply. The voltage it supplies to our homes is
about 230 V (volts).

Transformers in the National Grid

A transformer is an electrical device that changes the voltage of
analternating current (AC) supply, such as themains electrical supply.
A transformer changes a high-voltage supply into a low-voltage one, or vice
versa:
a transformer that increases the voltage is called a step-up transformer
a transformer that decreases the voltage is called a step-down transformer

The National Grid

Electricity is transferred from power stations to consumers through the wires
and cables of the National Grid.
When a current flows through a wire some energy is lost as heat. The higher
the current, the more heat is lost. To reduce these losses, the National Grid
transmits electricity at a low current. This needs a high voltage.
Power stations produce electricity at 25,000 V. Electricity is sent through the
National Grid cables at 400,000 V, 275,000 V and 132,000 V.
Step-up transformers are used at power stations to produce the very high
voltages needed to transmit electricity through the National Grid power lines.
These high voltages are too dangerous to use in the home, so step-down
transformers are used locally to reduce the voltage to safe levels. The
voltage of household electricity is about 230 V.

Calculating voltage

The ratio between the voltages in the coils of a transformer is the same as
the ratio of the number of turns in the coils.

This relationship can be shown by the following equation:

This can also be written as:

Step-up transformers have more turns on the secondary coil than they
do on the primary coil.

Step-down transformers have fewer turns on the secondary coil than

they do on the primary coil.

Worked example

A transformer has 20 turns on the primary coil and 400 on the secondary
coil. What is the output voltage if the input voltage is 500V?

Therefore
Input and output power
Electrical power is calculated by multiplying voltage (in volts) bycurrent (in
amps).
If a transformer is 100% efficient, then the input power will equal the
output power. This can be shown in the following equations:
input power = output power
input (primary) voltage input (primary) current = output (secondary)
voltage output (secondary) current
VPIP = VSIS
where:
VP is input (primary) voltage
Ip is input (primary) current
Vs is output (secondary) voltage
Is is output (secondary) current