Ixrnopveriox ‘The laws of the flow of fluids through porous media have several aspects of practical importance. ‘They are essential in the calculation of the move- ments of ground waters, of petroleum, and of natural gas through sand and rock, in deciding the extent of seepage through the subsoil of dams and of large Yuildings, and in determining the permeability of concrete and of other building materials. To the chemical engincer, such Inws form the basis of design of packed towers and of converters containing gran- ular catalysts, aa in the eontact process for sulphuric acid, or they’ allow the interpretation of data from small models in the design of full-scale plant Purther, the fundamental laws of filtration, both for ‘the cake and for the filter medium, rest on the study. of flow through porous media. "A brief review of earlier work on this latter aspect has been made by Underwood, and a more recent and comprehensive review is that of Siegel,’ who covers the whole field ‘of consolidated masses such as sandstones and porous earthenware, and of unconsolidated masses stich as sands, that is, the granular beds of the kind considered in this paper, The following review deals with the simpler case of unconsolidated grains and is mainly concerned ‘with the importance of the method of plotting by dimensionless groups introduced by Blake. A further object is to suggest the application of permeability measurements to the determination of the surface of powders. ‘Tux D'Axcy Law axp ms Dertvatives ‘The fundamental equation of permeability is that of D'Arey,* an empirical equation based on measure- ments of the flow of water through sands and san stones, and which may be represented as ax. ARt a where K is the coefleient of permeability, or the permeability, and is the rate of flow of water across 4 unit cube of the sand at unit pressure head. ‘The Taw is closely analogous to Poiscuille’s law for the flow of a viseous fluid through a circular capillary, namely, is a2 AP-g P mB ee @) and much work has rested on the assumption that a granular bed is analogous to a group of c "Paper received May, 1837 +A lise of symbols Ss givon ae tho ond of the papor. 1 Walker, Lowis and dcAdams, “Principles of Chemical Bngineering,” Second Edition, p. 116, MeGraw-Hill” Book, Con Ny 1027 '. J. ¥, Uniorwood, Pickard, page 87, 10D, eto, Leiprig, 19 “Blake, ‘rans, Amer, Inst. Chom. Engre, 1922, 14, 416. tH. P, G. DrAseyy “Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville {de Dijon,” Vietor Dalmont, Paris, 1850. (Corman, F.C | FLUID FLOW THROUGH GRANULAR BEDS* By P. G. CARMAN, Ph.D. (Graduate) (937) parallel to the direction of flow and of diameter, ‘The views on the nature and the sizeof these equivalent capillaries and whether they have any physical mean ing have differed considerably. "The first extension of the simple D'Arcy law wa made by Dupuit,* who realised that the apparent velocity, u, must be less than the actual velocity in ‘the pores. "If the pore-space in the bed be considered as evenly distributed, the porosity of a layer of infinitesimal thickness normal to the direction of flow will he equal to the porosity, ¢, of the bed asa shole. As, for such a layer, the fractional free volume) will be equal to the fractional free area, the true ‘his velocity of flow most bo, Dupuit therfore gore fiom 7 are of 6) oe ‘The full importance of porosity was later realised ment. by Slichter,? whose treatment represents the firt] Up t real attempt to derive expressions for the equivalents matical channels from the general geometry of a bed of equally. ess tired apheren, He aasumed the average cross-section ‘Arey of the equivalent channels’ to be triangular, and of ani deduced expressions for the cross sectional area and botrfa the length of these channels in terms of particle sa cose and of porosity. ‘Then, applying correcting facta parti to Poiseulle’s law to allow for flow through a chan by din of triangular crose section, he ealeulated. the per = In th Mosby of che edhe rang ation pines, a ork 6 ea eT “) blot i where Ky is a function of ¢, varying from 843 fof ot <=0-26 to 12:8 for <=0-46. ‘Smith* has summari Slichter's treatment and revised it in a few de to give better agreement with experiment. A modification of Slichter’s treatment was made b porosity and permeability in close agroement with thal of Slichter, and, by introducing an empirical constant he obtained a formula in moderately good agreement with experiment. ‘This formula is -(peey Sae (Fe) Vr ‘where Kis an empirical constant with values bet 603 and 105 for all sends. A somewhat simi nt was attempted by Boussinesq but hi has litle interest a it contains no gene expression for the effect of porosi ‘The main drawback to Slichter's treatment is thal he assumed a generalised mode of packing for sphera which Darapsky! has later shown to be impos * Eiydes Theoretiques ot Praga Foe. sur te Mouvement dos Eaus," 1863. a 2 Grat * Slchter, Nineteenth An. Rep. U.S, Geot. Sure, 189 108 2, 305. om "Smith, Physice, 1092, 8,139 6 Ene ‘Merunghi, Eng: Never Hc, 1925, 95, 882. * Stan 4 Bouminag, CR dea. Se, 114, 188, 300 and 510 Biysical BDarapaky, 2. Math, Phyrs, 1012, 66, 170. Schinion confirmed in a recent criticism of Slichter cee by Graton and Fraser? | Darapsky Peisiled study of flow through spheres in the Fo eto of packing, «026, and this was carried best iy Burmester but neither derived expres: “of general applicability. of aenat to te analogy of equivalent channe) coat Emerseben" should be mentioned. | 1 wer, it iz assumed that the grains i & ‘bed of Pree equivalent to a group of equally spaced, bd “oular cylinders, parallel to the direction of ‘Niue, any section of the equivalent bed al to the flow shows the whole of the free space re Rnected, which is a mach closer approxins: corr actual system of pores in a granular bed 0 IMeequent attempt 10 derive the D'Arcy iow aatinalental hydrodynamical equations, how Pre orslebon arrived at permeabilities whieh ver, «he wrong onler and for which the variation sey porosity is maueh less than that found in experi ment: Up to the present, therefore, the purely mathe- matbal treatinent of Emerslebent* bas not been matical lim providing a sound theoretical basis for Syhsey’s lave, nor has lichter's” geometrical treatneh™ Tears Salived bed of apheres established the analogy’ cee Poisouille’s law and D'Arey’s law: Greater betweetyas been obtained by semiempirical methods, Srticularly the introduction by Blaket of plotting Py dimensionless groups. apeerrelation of dow through smooth circular pipes, Stantont® and his co-workers, following the Pipe of Osborne Reynolds, have shown that a unidye plot is obtained if the dimensionless €rOUPS py and 2%, are plotted against one another, where R-frictional foree per unit area, and ei called the Reynolis’ number. For non-circular pis, te aries shown that, in the turbulent region, the correlation is still close if a is plotted against P= crocs-sectfonal area normal to flow The factor m= Srrimeter presented to Hid ‘and ja termed the ‘mean hydraulic radius. For © DB igcular pipe, m= pipe is uniform, an alternative expression for an ig Yolume_of fluid in pipe, is Surface presented to fluid’ Since the cross-section of the If this expression is applied to a granular bed, m=, and, accepting Dupuit’s assumption that the interstitial velocity Too. et. 11 ta Prager, J. Geol, 1985, 43, 7855, also Fraser’ vid, 1085, 48, 910 A ao anges. Math. Mech, 1025, &, 33. Ne Bonrtebey Phyor Z» 1925, 28, 601. ig Emerslebem, ‘Pufmel Collected Ressarches,” National Physical Laboratory, Vol. 11, 1914 eelien 2 ange. Math Mech 1038, 8 2 CARMAN—FLUID FLOW THROUGH GRAN) LAR. BEDS. 151 « Re 4 eu uc equals, the dimensionless groups, 57a md sy Are ane R=AP. es on ce REAP 6 BPO"? ang BH obtained, or, since =P EF, Tag On obtained, ‘These are the groups recommended by sreiet for plotting in the Tegion of turbulent flow. ‘for viscous flow, the method of Blake gives rise to the following form of the D’Arey equation, 6) (6a) which is the equation later diseussed by Kozeny.” Jeet etived this equation by assuming that the Tiantlar bed it equivalent to a group of parte), sretjar channels, such that the total internal surface sini total internal volume are equal to the particle an tne and to the pore-volume, respectively, in, the Tad itself, that is, such that the value of m for these channels is § ‘owing to the tortuous character of the flow through yn te ped, tho length of the equivalent channels sand be Le, whore L, is greater than the depth, I, aeete bed. he general law of streamline low throngh a channel is mt AP -g ” —py Peon) where ky depends upon the shape of the cross-section of the chanel nei fas the following values for various shapes.i8 1% Ho furthermore pointed out that, ‘tame 1 Values of ko for Streamline Flow in Various CrosSecton’. 1. Girele 20 | Pobwuille law. ree atin an et rtm | it |x eEcopeeeais | Ee |S 4. Equilateral Triangle . | 187 | a fmt aan” «| PES Pons th Tu table shows Tet the moan hydraulic radius doar not affect correlation in the region of streamline dove mesathe other hand, for the shapes with most Toe. TSR, mer, Wien Akad 1927, 1860, 271 Tepunieg, Hngincoring, 1823, 328, 69 and 9: 2 Dae riator and Winney, PA Mog. 1953 (7) 18,047 Faery eee vane, Amer. Wat. Wks- Aven 1933, 25, 1551182 ‘TRANSACTIONS—INSTITUTION OF CHEMICAL ENG bearing on the present problem, fy ranges only between the limits 1-8 and 25. It is interesting to note that fy=20 does not necessarily denote a circular crosé section, nor even a shape resembling a circle. This probably explains munch of the success in applying Poiseuille's law for circular channels to granular beds. In substitution for ue and for Le in equation (7), Kozeny followed Dupuit’s assumption that the inter: stitial velocity, uy, is equal to *, but this should be modified still furth normal to the dirvetio area is «, then the averag If, in any section of the bed Of flow, the fractional free velocity parallel to the direction of flow must be ©. As, however, the actual path pursued by an element of the fluid is sinuous, this represents only the component of velocity parallel to the direction of flow. ‘Thus, the time taken for such an element of fluid to pass over a sinuous track oe repents to ht taken to pass over a distance, Z, at a velocity, “. In L, 2, of length, Z,, ata velocity, short, the true value for a, is¥-%, and equation (7), therefore, becomes em? AP og (L\* eiataea (2) wy and it in only necessary to nubatitute m—$ to obtain equation (Ga), hereafter oalled Kozeny’s equation. The only difference is that k is replaced by the expres by ([2)- Anoding he rpm td, therefore ofy (23) about 50. (z) Bartell and Osteshot™ derived equation (8) by regarding the equivalent capllais ax crea, thats, TD0, and withthe aid of Hitchoooks® aumption 2 3) =19, in good Aa\already noted, the though it does’ not On the other Len that 7 agreement with experiment, value, [y=20 is reasonabl necessarily denote a circular channel This gives hand, it is doubtful whether (ft 7 fe Le , and itis beloved by the writer that can be as large as much more probable value (see Appendix). Ttfollows that fynt 26 th ate for a tan, langue channel ; these values are adopted in subsequent discussion. ‘ExrennmnraL Venirtcatioy o” Kozusy’s Equation. In dealing with beds of spheres, 6-9 s: 9 Be ee @) Hartel and Osterhof, J. Phys, Chem, 1026, 3, © Hiteheoel, J. Gen. Physiol, 1026, 9, 75. 558 NERS, may be substituted in equation (6a), which thy takes the form AP w= Scare aio) 36(L For non-spherical particles, a similar type of tran formation may be made, in which ne aa In this, ¢ is a surface factor, which is unity for phere, and, since a sphere has minimum. spect surface, is leas than unity for all non-spherical shape ‘The most important expression in equation (10) der angular particles, was able to test this express over the range e~0-43 to «054 without chang any of the other variables, His experiments esta aoge Heal measured the permeability of a bed of glass spher to water, and found the value of k to be ‘Traxler and Baum" boar out Kozeny’s relationsh betwoen permeability and porosity. ‘They plot ¢ semi-log paper and obtain an empirical exponenti equation. If, however, one tests these results | caloulating permeability pr s (Pa) Donat, by taking a flint sand with flak lished that w is proportional to Kozeny’s theory, i portional to ‘one obtains suomtance, | rang o «| rennet | orm Blacksatopowdr| 0574-0000 | 1:00 | 173890 Silica powder ‘This is an even better confirmation than Donat resulta, and is earried out with particles of only abot a tenth of the size, i.e., about 0-003 em. diameter asx I Couleon's* Datay for Oi of 08-111 po a O08 ‘in 300 i ogee aS A comprehensive act of experiments on stream flow ‘through beds of, spherical. particles has. be provided by. Coulson" He = Demet, Wasa kapt«, Waomianh, 100, 04 x teat nad Becks Paacee SGN Ske Se ede Pi dati te Steam + Coulson, Flow of, Liquids’ through "Beds ‘composed of Spheri Particles,” 198a) lie A, Ohi aky, wi, stab. also heres nship st on ential 3 by pro: nats about ter annline s been with ® 238 raraine peril CARMAN —PL sty of 06 to 11 poises (variation due to changes reamperature), and caied out experiments with teary dea bulls ina tower of 2, diameter fisted porosities employed i his work are set Shes Me fy and in tho til can, the values inate fom equation, (0) are given, ‘These Bley a trend upwards as the size Fnerasey saaes “tSutson pointed out, this ie probably due bet ona the wall, «warm megected in the te tot of equation (0), ‘The wales of Kon, in desc aiumn have ian calculated by introducing the here S,=total surface area per unit of packed 4 volume= S+- D Iker in. the last column indicates that this type of Extection is valid and that Coulson’s experiments Gre approximately the same valve for k as do those of Donat. Schriovert® passed a hot, gas-free oil, viscosity —0-05 yoite, through a column packed with small glass Miheres, and varied e and d. Neglecting the empirical uation which he advanced for his data, and using {fe data to calculate k, the values in Table IIT are ‘btained. Practically all the values are within 3% of the mean, k=5-06. ‘Tasue TL Sehriever's Data, for Small Glass Spheres that is ‘The agreement in the values of iarneter (2) Porosity P me ‘o 02s aie an at sat 0528 | oan | ‘Visconty of gustive ol (pujo) at 99° ©. ‘Rineatie viscosity’ 0-0508 (em sec "Average vale of k=0-06 Very different conditions were employed by Muskat and Botset who foroed air through « bed of glass treads at high pressure differences, so that, during its passage the ‘ir expanded to about thirty times Min. Metall. Brgro, Pot. Behrisver, Trans. Amer. Tne Diy. 1990, 66, 338. Mosket and Botsct, Physics, 1931, 2, ) FLOW THROUGH GRANULAR BEDS. 153, its initial volume. In this ease, equation (9) must bo used in the differential form, a) ie i 3— the mass velocity @ being preferred to the linear Velocity as it remains constant from cross-section to Yotcutotion of the bed. Since, for an ideal gos, P_P.n constant, equation (Os) is more usefully Employed in the integrated form, ee MP9 fe G SE “Another form of equation (11) which is sometimes ‘used is o. : 2 pm-AP-g oe gag crore pm ithe density of the gas at the arithmetic ean pressure (Fs), since fe pm and ed » since 32h, FP) AP )(Py +P) (PP) =WPo FP” AP. When equation (12) is applied to the data of Muskat and Botsct™ for glass spheres of 0-0632 cm. diam, and «0-338, where they lie in the region of Steanaline flow, it is found that k=465. When it is considered that, compared with Scl 386 experi Snonts, the ratio of viscosities is about 23:1, that has a considerably lower value, and that an oil is teing compared with a gas undergoing a high degree cof expansion, the agreement is remarkably good. ‘Tanne IV Green and Ampts Data for Small Glass Spheres 605 03025 bass bast ra 0.368 301 03895 Ose os705 oos19 368 03025 (3005 0.025 Too: ef Joe et.SITY 154 ‘TRANSACTIONS Some earlier experiments by Green and Ampt®* with small glass spheres cover approximately the same range of values of d and of € as those of Schriever.® but the fluids employed were air and water instead of oil (Table TV). Unlike the data pre discussed, however, these were not corrected for the abnormally high resistance en countered in the first few layers of packing, a correc tion which, as Blaket has pointed out, is important in this type of experiment (seo also Hatschek*), Consequently, while the values of E are fairly con- sistent for each size of grain, there are considerable variations in the values for grains of different sizes. ‘The average value, k=5-34, as would be expected, is somewhat above the value k=5-0 set by moro recent work, with proper corrections, but is sufficiently close to confirm Kozeny's equation. Koxeny's Theory Applied to Measurements of Capillary Rise Equation (8) assumes that a granular bed can be studied ae « group of equivalont channels to which Poiseuille's law or its equivalent can be applied. Kozeny’s theory consistsin the identification ‘of m, the mean hydraulic radius of an equivalent channel with ¢, the “mean hydraulic radius ” of the bed. Interesting confirmation of this theory is obtained from measurement of capillary rise in powders. In a circular capillary, the capillary rise for a liquid making zero contact angle with the material of the capillary is related to the diameter by aa ace a4) Schultze has investigated @ wide variety of non- circular capillaries, and his data are in agreement ‘with the general equation, m= sanpecttretnanasnees (18) within an error of 10%. According to Kozeny's Theory, this equation should. also be true for” a ranilar bed, and the value of the mean hydraalic radius, m, should be £, whence, cao (1) or, substituting from equation (a), eee, a7) (l=) pyhd” Hackett and Stettan,® wsing «bod of aph fins, and four ferent liquids, found, for y an average value of 96 for 2244 eK ) is 98. ical 38, whereas the calenlated value, Smith, Busang and Foote tested a wide variety of liquids in beds of sand containing nearly spherical = Green and Ampt, J. Agric. Sci, 1912-13, 6, No.1 BH Hatchel, JSF, 1008, 82, 838 % Schultze, Kolowicshr., 1028, 38, 85 ; 1025, 87, 10 M Hackett and Strettan, J. Agri, Sel, 1028, 18, 671 Smith, Busang and Foote, Physic, 1031, 2, 18 INSTITUTION OF CHEMICAL ENGINE particles, and though their data are somewhat scattered, they nearly all lie within the limits given by equation (17) between $=0-75 and $0.99, which are the probable limits of the surface factor, ¢° for the particular aands. The rango of e was ap mately e=034 to e=0-44 The only experiments in which both permeability and capillary rise have heen measured for the same powder are those of Bartell and Osterhof#! These Showed that the value of m calculated from equation (8), aenaming #=(7)" 6=(§ ‘was practically the same as. that calculated from equation (15), as would be expected from the foregoing results, A® no measurement of the surface of the powder was made, it is impossible to check that m was equal to Alternative Theories.—In opposition to Kozeny's treatment, many workers, ¢.g., Darapsky.!" Furnas * Chilton and Colburn,?* do not accept the Dupuit assumption that the interstitial velocity is constant from cross-section to cross-section of the bed, and equal to It is evident, for instance, that for spheres packed in the most Toose arrange ment (cubie packing), the porosity is «=0-476, while the fractional free area in a plane of centres for any layer is only 0-215. In the plane parallel to this and distant by half a diameter, the fractional free area ia tunity. ‘This would mean a great contraction and expansion in every distance, d, for a fluid flowing through the bed. On the other hand, Graton and Fraser! have pointed out that such packings should offer different permeabilities according to the direction of flow, whereas the characteristic of natural, granular beds is that they present random packings, and that the permeability is the same in all directions. In a random packing, it may be assumed that the voids are so evenly distributed throughout the bed that the fractional free area at any cross-section is constant and equal to the porosity, ¢ ‘Thus, instead of considering that the rate of flow in a pore channel is alternately increasing and decreasing, it seems nearer the true state of random packing to assume that it is constant, Within the bed there cannot be any isolated pore channel, since the whole system of voids is inter-connected so that where the section of one void is decreasing in the direction of flow the velocity does not increase, but the excess of the fluid escapes to a neighbouring void, the section of which ia enlarging in the direction of flow. While this emphasises the constancy of the rate of flow at each point of the bed, it also makes the sinuous character of the flow clear, ‘It is obvious that every flow-line of the fluid, in the continual division land rejunction with other flow-lines, must follow 3 Toe, et 2 oe. eit Bee et Furnas, Bull. U.S. Bur. Min., 1929, No. 307 N Chilton and Colburn, J Ind. Eng. Chem. 1051, 93. 918: Maclaren White, Trans. Amer Ina. hem. Eni. 1885, 81, 39°sen path. Afar as th length he ah Pat catia of ‘nical Be coecng factor ste no ‘Later in this paper it will be necessary to @ié'another important effect, that is, the differ has CARMAN.—FLUID FLOW THROUGH GRANULAR BEDS, 185, Tans V. Valuco of 4 cilealated from Pernecbity, using Koceny's ‘Fran Materia, | Nawmot |g Workers. potween flow in a curved-channel and that in a Average for various types | 0-75 | Funchor and Lewin #¢ ight channel. Flint sand. dagged. 0-85 Efnteresting theory has been proposed by Burke Ottawa and| ‘Nesriy | 005 S Pliimmer,* in which, instead of assuming the sphere : filar bed to be equivalent to a group of parallel Wiloxsand | Jagged. 060 Chakners. Calne? Bly, they regarded the total resistance of the gona Sator, | 095 | stant ama Bota Te made op from the sum of the separa wow el ces of the’ individual particles in it, as Sand “Angee” |0-70-075| Green and Ampt from the rate of freo fall. For bed of Sid |<, | Houhded. |” 083 | Donal" ES Nowover, the rorulting equation forstreamline Fume sand |, Yagmed. | O67 | w eng APs — sine. ore = (18) ‘Taser VI ae TE Values of ¢ caloulated from Heywood s Micronic @ apg a edna Be Ary 88-2) Substance and Nature of Gai ‘ bi has the theoretical value £,=0'5. Since it é Tanppton powder O80 fo ahown that wi proportional to Sp and Sand ua ap oat Ta Sek pce dened ais) See 2, this equation must be abandoned. Gore's. oo Ralveried eoat on Natural coal dust (ip to Fin) oe Fos bee O38 Hie dat (fund, spberiel) oat Hs dust ne Cees) oss Mice (Hake) O28 . |-SEe Suql permeability method, Theve equations, fer, have boen teatod only for spherical particles, ich 8 is more easly ealealated from d, that is, BO—9) To servo. useful purpose, they must be fh to hold for irregular particles. Unfortunately, S appear to be no published data suitable for Hg equation (20). fequation (21), assuming £=54, independent =e) “a (22) vvaluos of 4 calculated from the data available hevliterature are “given in Table V. ~The iiéation, spherical, rounded, angular, jagged, has jade on the basis of miorophotographs presented ‘Watious papers. ‘The values of d appear to be nt and they are in agreement with values for typical powders, calculated from the micro- ie measurements of Heywood (Table Vi). ‘dad Plammer, J-Tnd. Bing. Ghem., 1028, 20, 1307. Heywood, Proc: Inst Mech. Eng, 1935, 125, 383. and substituting $= ‘Te would appear, therefore, that f—=5-0 is independent of shape, so that equation (21) can be used for calculating the surface of any type of powder. Tantx VI. Pirie! Revue with Prinma and Cubes eee ne Hexagonal prima, O48 wmf oar? | oo | 471 ‘madi by Sten. di whey arom dies [owe | axe | cor Cubes 0:56 cm. sido 0-344 529 402 care oor | Sat | 433 : tae | fat | $3 ‘Unfortunately, there is almost complete lack of expetimental data for particles of regular, geo- metrical shapo, and, therofore, of known specific surface. Experiments of Uchida and Fujita with small Lessing rings indicated that, even though theae do not correlate with spherical particles in the turbulent region, agreement is rapidly approached as » loose. Meee 34 Fanchor and Lewis, J. Ind. Eng: Chem., 1983, 25, 1159. & Chalmers, Talisferrs and Rawlins, Trane” Amer: Inst. Min. Ai Bg, Pt. Di, 1882, 9, * Uchida. and Fujita, J. Soe, Chem. Ind., Japan (suppl. Vining) 1084 97, 724b od TON. Pirie, private communication, 3,156 PRANSACTIONS INSTITUTION Tegion, more definite evidence is required. greater importance are a few figures recently obtained {fy Pirlo, working entirely in the streamline region. ‘These are summarised in Table VII, ‘Apparently, while E is roughly of the same order as for spheres, it is not constant for changes in porosity, showing that a new factor has entered. Pomeibly, flatsided shapes behave differently, since many of the points of contact are really planes of Contact, In spite of this, in the calculation of S from permeability, the square root of X is taken, #0 that the maximum error from sssuming k=50 ‘would be only 10%, It is suggested that, in the fubare, more attention be paid to these methods. ‘The surface of powders is a quantity required for many branches of work, and, at the present, it can be determined only from Sate of solution, rate of absorption methods, and by Inieroscopic methods, all of which are open to serious ‘error or are tedious. “Miztures of Sizes.—It is important to note that the previous sections have dealt wholly with grains of Ehifdrm sizes. When mixtures of sizes are studied, fas has been done by Coulsont, it is found that Kozeny’s equation had certain important limitations. "The value of S for spheres of mixed sizes is given by 2) S=6(1-<)-¥ G ‘where 1w,=traétional weight of, particles of size, dy WHI aubstituted in equation (Ob), should give 45, ‘The yalues obtained by Coulson are given OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERS, particles is the decrease in porosity. _ Normally Theres of one size, <—0'38, independent .0fg though for very small sizes, the great ratio of to volume allows bridging to take place more fo that e tends to increase. When, however, fives aro mixed, and especially when. the, sizer txceets four, the mizture usually shows 1g porosity than either” of the constituents, Poresties in. Table VILL emphasise the 65 Points. For the ratio 1-25 :1, no change in Ponds Prefiected on mixing; for the 2:1 ratio, al minimum is reached ; for the 5:1 ratio, @ fs low a <-0-286 is attained. Similar results teen obtained by. Furnas® and by Fraser, nixing of conerete, it has long been known f researches of Feret#, that, if alow porosity is wan ratio of at least 4:1 must be maintained One grade and the next. "Purnas® and Fraser each discussod this qua in some detail, so that fairly clear picture formed, Assume a bed of large spheres to smaller spheres are being added. Changes in por ‘during the addition of the first few spheres dep pon two opposing effects, (i) the small sper the voids between the large ones and. so dleereave , (i) they tend to wedge apart the Spheres and so to increase <. As long as 6 Tao is less than four, these two effects practi Dalance, but when it is greater then four, the particles can slip between the larger withot Turbing them, so that (i) rapidly becomes the dg inating effect. ‘The Timit to this is when the’ ll Voids aze almost filled, at, which stage (i) grads dominates and ¢ passes through a minimum ‘all ‘Ke more of the small particles are added, antl = ‘Tanne VIL Couton'#? Rene fr Mistures of Spherieal Particle. ins end fin, Ratio 12521 | in, and yin, Ratio 221 | eins and dein Ratio 6 sosmalbr |. « ew nate | > « | Yew, | % Smal | tos | ons ALT ‘0350 | as | ogo iso rey Bo, | 0998 a1 ohe sos’ | oan Bo 340 os Zt fre |> oa ti E 3 azo = ed oat sl oe ions, the'values of Ai)"Table VIL. With tio" exo for the bize-ratios, Keer, are reasonabily dldse' to 5-0 TSE s1 aia: 1. ‘When, however; the ratio of sizes is: Pee an widely Between the extromes $4 and Skee eta derstanding of, the rouonfor the Haat covenys equation for such mista Ses an tngury bo thy ck of ed ae ieee ‘The most noticeable effect! from mixing two sizes of ee wie at fas bed of small:particles, in whieh the lange. (@) occupy space previously taken ‘by 9 rot small-apheres together with the voids between soithat-the net porosity, is degreased, and. (ii) 6 at loo-eits © Resets rma doa Masérghc le Conatructions et de. Draco ‘Macoh, Apeil anid May Pointe et Chaussées, 1802, 7, Be Paice,f packing of the small particles in their vicinity. make it more open. ‘The relative importance of former “volume” effect to the latter “surface” jnereases as the size-ratio increases, so. that, th the size-ratio exceeds 4:1, the addition of large Jes to a bed of small particles means a con. grable decreaso in «. 1e derivation of Kozeny’s equation rests on the fieption of a mean hydraulio depth for the whole G, which is, in effect, the average mean hydraulic Pih of all the pores of the bed. For it to hold true "pores must be reasonably even in size. This is, ‘in beds of spheres of uniform size, and the only in which it would not be likely to hold for mixed fH occurs when the size ratio exceeds 4:1, and in then, only when large spheres predominate, and Tange voids are incompletely filled by the smaller ‘On first addition of small spheres to a bed ti rue ones, there are two widely different sizes of an J A. namely, those between the larger ephores and “I Be between groups of smaller spheres nested in call Targe voids, ‘The large voids initially form an reonnesting system, but as more mall spheres Telled, they gradually become filed, and Analy, the void ize characteristic of the smaller spheres Boins. This isin agreement with the general trend {Coulson’s values, since it it only for the lower centages of the sinaller spheres that F differs very Ply from 50 ‘at Fshould have low values when the porespace divided between two diflerent sizes of Void 1 in Goniance with expectation, since it can be shown f, for a group of parallel circular channels of given ie and given sutface, the flow is greater when fy are divided into two sizes than when they are Ol the same size, (ace Appondix TI). Deviations from D'Arcy's Law.—Koreny’s equation fa derivative of D'Arcy’s law, and is, therefore, ject to the same limitations. ‘The most important, 65 exceeds about 240, the Pssure loss across the bod rises more quickly than ‘rate of flow. This is discussed in the next section. pu eS fen the rate of flow increases faster than the dro} pitation is that, when EAn important effect occurs at low values of 2, 36. pressure, King® first pointed this out, an 48 fgeP has summarised the moro recent knowledge on is subject. It has, however, been subjected to Je study and is not yet properly understood. ing® postulated that/an increase in the rate of flow eases the effective porosity of the bed, the Fective porceity, e', being less than the true porosity, ‘Some confirmation of this was made by Sven on, who measured the actual velocity, u,, in ‘of sand by injecting a salt solution into water Bwing through the bed and taking the time for the Foe. et ing, inetenth Ann. Rep, US, Geol. Sure, 1807-8, ivSven Erikscin, J. Gasbeleweht, 1920, 63, 615. CARMAN.—FLUID FLOW THROUGH GRANULAR BEDS, salt to appear at the outlet. Assuming that here w is the apparent velocity, he found that, at Yery low rates of flow, «” increased steadily from 0:14 and finally reached a steady value of about 0-47 at 006, the porosity, 0-47, being the true porosity of the sand. He further found that, when the bed was drained and air was passed through, the fractional volume of water retained by the wet sand ‘was 0-33, that is, 0-47 minus 0-14. "Thehypotheses advanced toexplain the phenomenon are (j) that a stationary film of liquid is retained on the surface of the particles, which decreases in thickness as the rate of flow rises, and (ii) Darapsky's!* suggestion that a small, stationary ring of liquid is retained at each point of contact of the particles, the size of the ring being controlled by the velocity of flow. The explanation most, probably depends on the surface forces between the liquid and the particles of solid. Bozza and Socchi** showed ‘that surface forces do center into the problem; they found thats bed of very fine quartz-sand gave permeabilities for water and aqueous solutions about 1°3 times greater than for certain organic liquids. The surface tensions of the two groups wore, respectively, about 78-80 dynes, em. and 24-3)’ dynes.fom. — Further. more, when a bed of finely ground galena was used, the ratio of permeabilities for the two groups changed to about 18. The range of values of £& covered by this work was mainly 1x 10-* to 1x 10-% Sometimes an increase in permeability with rise of pressure an be explained on purely mechanical grounds. For instance, Hatschek* noticed that this increase was characteristic of filter cloths, and Underwood explained this by assuming that increase of the pressure difference across a cloth, supported by a series of ridges, strotches the fibres of the cloth, and thereby enlarges the pores ‘One further exception to D’Arcy's law, important in filtration, should be mentioned. ‘This ocours when the particles forming the bed are casily deformed. ‘Various workers" have dealt with this ease, and have shown that the permeability decreases steadily as the pressure drop across the cake is increased. “The flow is certainly not turbulent, however, since, for ‘a constant pressure difference, the permeability of ‘the bod is not only inversely proportional to viseosity, but also to thickness of the bed, both of which are characteristic of streamline flow. What happens is that an increase in the pressure difference further deforms the particles and thus, by decreasing the porosity, reduces the permeability, Woe * le. fozea and Saechi, @. Chim. Ind., 1929, 11, 443 and 4 f Alm and Lewis, J- Ind. Eng. Chom, 1919, 4, 52 Wi Gndlerwood, F.S.C.1 1928, 47, 325%. BG, Carman, JS.0.L,, 1935, 68, 2807 ; 1094, 58, 1697 and 3517.158 ‘TRANSACTIONS. INSTITUT General Correlation for flow through Granular Beds. — The deri of the pemesbiity an & exons 20. Gham appears, at fist sight, to be analogous to the onset of respectively. Chalmers, ‘Teliaferro and Ranh flabulence ina straight pipe. The change from found this type of equation accurately to fit streamline flow, however, takes place very gradually. | | A | | Fie, 1. Correlation for Beds of Spherical Particles (for key, oe Table 1X). (at (2) Theat, bad om tosh for ae ie. Forehheimer‘* has suggested that this is due to shown later that a similar type of equation is, Variations of pore-size within the bed, turbulence suited to fit the curve in Fig. 1. Instead of adop! occurring first'on the larger pores, atd he suggeste, Forchheimer's hypothesis, however, these wor therefore, the following type of equation, noted that the decrease in ‘permeability corresp Teas to the onset of turbulence than to the incre n resistance exhibited by curved capillaries, compared with straight capillaries Leipaig and Berlin. an oeARM. jx not proposed to deal with the various empirical @ations proposed for “ turbulent ” flow, since none Sany wide generality, and the mothod of correla- plotting dimensionless variables introducod by ethas proved sufficiently successful over a wide It has already been shown that the Workers. Nature of bed, FLUID FLOW THROUGH GRANULAR BEDS. Porosity «. 19 fluids include air, water and Schriover’s nujol, viscosity =005 poise. The air used by Muskat and Botset* underwent a high degree of expansion in its passage through tho bod, and a still groater expansion was attained in tho experiments with natural gas. ‘The whole range of the curve in Fig. 1 ‘Tame IX. Data Used in Plotting Fig. 1 Nature of dui, Range of 2 a8 Behriavert® Given and Ampttt Muskat and ‘Boteet" sphere 0025-0004 ena. glass ‘phe (0.0082 em, glass spheres (0-0262-0-1025 em. glass | 0-858-0-396 0361-0991 oar | ai ‘Hoot, gus-ooe oil | Approximataly 015-07 ‘'centipoizs) ‘Air j water. Range not given. Probably between 01-10, (t high dogree of Te 30 ‘expansien. Coulson® — | 0:150-0.704em. stool | 0:392-0-417 | Light oily average vin: 001-10 ‘spore cosity about 09 poise, Burke and | 0148-0684 em. loud | 0-908-0-491 ‘Humid ai 02-2500 Plammer** shot Chalmers", | 0127-0805 em. toad | 0883 | Natural gas, viscosity 100-4,000 ‘Taliaferro and hot. about 0-000 centipoises. Tawline (At very high degrees ‘of expansion} 0.305 em. ead shot | 0347 3 500-000 0406 em: lend shot | O18 A {600-13,000 25cm, wirospirais | 080 aie 100-350 0-501 Leasing rings | 0-844 re 05-250, 0184-0441 lad shot | O84 io 06-250 (0-188-0-005 em. Teed | 0-88-0414 iB Range not given thot 10-50 em, poreslain | 0-694-0-785, 3 40-1,100 ‘sdiilee pensionloss groups suggested by Blake, in tho framline region, give rise to the Kozeny equation. AP-9- Ta 8 been plotted on logarithmic scales, the range sta exhibited on this plot being given in Table IX. ‘The fluids vary from ilson’s oil*, with a viscosity of about one poise to p natural gas used by Chalmers, Taliaferro and swlins®™, the viscosity of which, according to pins, was about 0-005 centipoise; intermediate hhas boon extended back by Coulson® (curve 4) to OL in tho streamline region, and forward to 10,000 by Chalmers, Taliaferro and Rawlins in 7S the turbulent region (curves 6, 7 and 8). The only serious deviations aro the results with’ the largest sizes of Jead shot used by Chalmers, Taliaferro and Rawlins (curve 8), and with the smallest sizes used by Furnas; the results with the small size do not agree with tho data of Burke and Plummer’ (curve 5) with the same size of shot, and under the same conditions, ‘The deviation with the large lead shot is more serious, and further experiments are required to decide whether the Blake plot breaks down for large values of F. Of even greater interest ix the extension of the correlation to Arnould’s wire spirals (curve 9), +90, and to Berl saddles, ¢=0-69-0-78, which ‘aro not only non-spherical (g=02 and $05, Blow ai oe: lor elt Sloe. eit. Sloe, eit160 reopectivly), but prosont diferent onders of size and Of porosity,” On ‘the. other “hand, while the plot tffots corelation for diferent sizes of Lessing rings, the curve for thove sings lie well sbove the main furve, though it appears to menge with the Tatter inside the region of strane flow ‘The equation best fitting the data in Fig. 1 is one of the Frehneimer® type in th | conly region in which it fails ia botweon oe 8 | All the data in Fig. 1, with the exception of those i of Green and Amp}, have been corrected for “end cflect” in tho original papers. Another type of correction is for the “wall effect.” "The simplo type ‘of correction used for this is indicated in the following section. Owing to a considerable difference of opinion as to the nature of the wall effect, it is discussed at some length. Correction for Wall Efea.—Photographs of eros- sections of giatlar bas pecked inao's. tab have Teen given by Furnas and by Graton and Frasee™ ‘These'show that the porosity of the bed is greater in the layers next tote wal so that inthis rogon, Would appear that the permeebilty should be higher thd “What” correction for this auld. bo. made in faleulating the permesbilty. of the whole. bod. Famne® Spproacked the. problem by imagining, « Gontainer being’ prewed dato an iainite bed of furticee, with’ sbyaltancous, removal of patdcles intercepted by the downward movement of the walls of the oontalser,” Tho lengthy motuematical argu tient which develops from ful conooption, howevee, too imcertain, end, be Graton and Frans have Poinled uty pettieles are, in praotio, fod info Tontaine, a thut the fit of the container wal tol give's diferent type of posking from the normal | festiom pecking, ‘Tiis may extoed through several } Inyers of tho mass, andthe ofc of the wall depends largely upon ite curvature and the sharpness of ite angles. “While the proportion of ‘voids st the wall is greater than in the centre of the mas, these voids | are generally no wider, s0 that the mean hydraulic radius in this region isnot necewaily greater. Experiments upon. the effect have not given concordant results, “Furnas found that a. mall container increased the permeability of tho bed tout Uchida and Fajita found, in one eas, that i vwas:decreased, anc, in two other eases, thatthe wall fad no effect it ‘TRANSACTIONS.—INSTITUTION OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERS, If, as coms probable, the only effet of the is 10 increase tho average porosity of the bedi nly necessary to take care that the poroiy reasured in every run and. that the correct val Substituted in the. dimensionless groupe of Fi One factor, however, for which correction mig rade is th friction of the walls ofthe container Fv already heen pointed out that in the correla 3 Coulson's™ restite allowance for waltiction 10 be made by introducing the factor * 8 This is equivalent to_ writ BP yar Tees * Te may be Pvefatoser tha To-et correction for wall effect is necessary, provided < represents the average porosity of the whole including the region at the wall, and that Sy i u the caleulation of y. ‘The following ‘example illustrates, these poi Chilton and Colburn** published data for 1" and 0 om spheres in a 3° container, in the region © According to Fig. 1, the value of # should be a fis region. Values of « were not given, in Fig. 2, drawn from experimenta made eo 88 0, d Fue. 2 Relation betoeen Porosity of Bad and Size of Containers! x Bxperiesta (© caluntod. the writer in which lead shot was shaken dow the closest possible packing in glass tubes, the value of ¢ are about 0-485 and 0-47, respectively, thoug the normal porosity for spheres packed in a wi tube is «=0:38. caleulations of 6(l-) "The geometrical reasoning f ids is shown in Appendix I , $=1-215 em.#/om. and 1-296 cs, respectively, the group, Since S =! for the tw Woe, ei Bee, eitCARMAN.—FLULD FLOW THROUGH GRANULAR BEDS. 161 [ 50 100-200 500 1000 2000 Fo. 3 ecules for Binge Key o Fi. | Cure, | Wort ‘Tower packing i Blaket [0383 lam ving 2 0-269 in, a ; Sa i Sie” ; Pe ash ig : 13in: Atwatan es, ; 132, Aue rae ; foun: poet 2s ; geen 8 smn n Bm: i ta 8 " meee He | nen and ito | fone ing y 1 faire i e ee " i i i i 1h, i 3 it162 caquals 0-27 in each case, which i to high, bu if ti multiplied by () sit is roduood to0-19 for 1” spheres and to 0-195 for 0-9" spheres. ‘This is an extreme case, in which the container is so small that it opens up the packing of the spheres and its walls contribute. large proportion of the total friction. Normally, when the ratio of the diameter of the container, D, to.that of the particle, d, is greater than 10 : 1, the ‘wall effect can be neglected, as itis less than experi mental error. Extension of the Blake Method to Non-Spherical Particles—It has been shown that in the streamline region, permeability measurements give the same value for the surface factor, ¢, as do Heywood's** rajrescopo measuroments, and Fig. 1 shows that even Lessing ive concofdant results in this egion, Uchida and Fujita’ experiments on these rings, however, provide the-sole example in which a non-spherical shape, for which ¢ is known, is traced from the streamline region to the turbulent region. ‘They provide an interesting case in that, whereas Berl paddles and Amould’s spirals can be correlated satisfactorily with spheres in the turbulent region, Lessing rings show a steady deviation from the curve for spheres between &—0-5 and £420, and there- ow ws after remain at about double the calculated values of Probably the difference is that every element of the saddles and spirals is presented equally to flow, while the interior of a ring is © source of eddies and of dead: spaces at higher rates of flow. In this respect, the flow in granular beds would be analogous to flow in pipes and to the motion of particles through fluido, ‘Roughness of the pipe wall only gives nine to increase of resistance inthe turbulent region. Wadell®, too, has shown that, in the correlation of particle motion through fluids By means of dimension- Kcss groups, non-spherical particles present much greater resistance to motion in the turbulent region than do spheres, though, in the streamline region, shape plays little part. Blake found that his method of plotting did not give correlation with small glass rings and 1” Raschig ings; the later data in Fig. 3 show lack of correlation for rings, The later curves allie between the limits originally found by Blaket, while the broken line, representing the data of Uchida and. Fujita’ (curve 10 from Fig. 1) is approximately midway between these li Tt seems probable that there are further unknown factors with solid particles of more irregular shape. For instance, Meldau and Stach** have shown that anthracite powders, which abound in acicular and lenticular stapes, tend, on the one hand, to form very small voids by juxtaposition of flat faces or of convex with concave faces, and, on the other hand, groups oo, eit Noe. eit. Joo, ei, 5 Wedell Meda Franklin Inat, 1034, 917, 450. Stach (Crank), J. Znat. Puel, 1984, 7, 389, ‘TRANSACTIONS.—INSTITUTION OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERS. of particles lock together readily to form over largo cavities. It has already been point in the section on ‘mixed sizes, that the conceph “mean hydraulic radius for a granular bed” which the Blake plot rests cannot haye a real mei unless the pores are of reasonably uniform size, ‘Experimental data. on these points, however, lacking, since, though a large amount of pub work deals with beds of broken solids have cover & wide range of valu of £4.93 7 critical survey of the usefulness of the curves in Figg data are urgently required for particles of surface area, including rings and particles withif and with rounded surfaces, and extending from! General Discussion of the Blake Method. ‘equations for flow through a straight pipe of Lz, and mean hydraulic radius, m, are R a =) (for streamline flow). .( <2) Gor turbulent flow) (28 - a) (for turbulent flow)... substituting m=$, and « 2. (2) these equa become applicable to a granular bed. For a 1s follows: ‘Energy supplied per unit tim in overcoming friction per unit time =R-S-u, that is, APB (26) take the forms (2) mH y2t [qB\0 woas (2) (28)"™ In an earlier section, the most likely values of fy La ‘i Ks a ot (2) were ike 25 and VE, sept mt + (30) and 8)" By ste ‘These equations are plotted in Fig. 1, curves A and i It follows that the ourve for granular bods bears close resemblance to curves for flow in curved pi ‘such as those investigated by White®, both in (i) * lee et Noe et. SWiiltey Poo. Hoy. Soon 1920, A. 128, 645,CARMAN.—ELUID FLOW THROUGH GRANULAR BEDS. 183 Wilson, McAdams and Seltzer" for standard elbows. The valu of forthe avin the gon of 18 In view of the faét that this curve is an average drawn through widely scattered results (due to variations in the geometrical proportions of different sizes of elbows), ib follows the tend of C for granular bods very closely. A farther important point is that all three curves bogin their upward trend at about the ‘ame values of the abscinsaa, "Though White's experiments did not proceed far je single curve.. Full confirmation has been given into the turbulent region, they appeared to show that, recently by Adler**, ‘The resulting curve is down to %. iuced in Fig. 4 as curve 1; in the same figure, a Fidual transition from the streamline to the turbulent Erion, and (i) the low Reynold's number at which Gparture from tho law of streamline motion in ght pipes takes place, ‘White expressed his fits in' terms of the ratio of the resistance of the ed-pipe to the resistance of the same length of dnt pipe for the same Reynold’s number. ‘This 2: where dis the Fameter of the pipe and d, isthe diameter of curva: ‘and thereby he sas able to reduce all his results io, he plotted against 2 7 5, the resistance for a curved pipe in a 50 100 Fre 4 Comparison of © for Cured Pips ond for Granular Bes 9 mies ome cee RENE oe = © tur {0 tas i © omen ON a 200 500 1000 values of C for granular heds, as obtained from this region is only about 10% greater than that for tions (24), (30) and (31), are plotted as curve 5. (2) s = (83) (rat term in equation (24) noligibe. E opparent that, though © is taken as unity, the Feurves are nob in agreement. The lowest values atl by Whit, veer, wae 15 ant Bite anon Se ai 3 aposhn Cs. Conrmation for this is afforded by the dotted @) in Fig. 4, which is taken from that of PAaler, Z. ange. Math. Mech, 1084, 14, 257. fa straight pipe. Richter* carried out expeti¥nents with smooth, curved, copper tubes over the range 15 his results veri. 7 fied those of Whito in the turbulent region ; they may be represented fairly closely by the equation exonn( 22) 540, C inereased rapidly until, at =1-7, the lowest 4, a Mion, Medians nd Slt, J- Ted. Hag. Chem, YER ‘Richter, Forschungearbeiten, V.D.I., 1930, No. 338.16 ‘TRANSACTIONS. ~“INSTITUTION OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERS value ‘employed in his work, the equation for C beeame c-90 (#82) 7 Lorena! has provided a theoretical equation for turbulent flow it carved pipes, which may be trans. formal to the forms given in equation (30) arly" eon Cand % as given by this sees (85) - (36) ‘Tho relationship equation is in general agreement. with Richter’s renin tat the term invaving avery small & exci 15, and vines rapidly Sov unity an eer blow 6.0, In Fig. ouations (4), (8 sod(88—th at for 1-7 ae plot as curves 3, 3b anes an the avorage rent of Win, Sickie Sal ene a a san Towel the nceraatin siag "RO eae Someone Path evel pipes quant tol Pte geben ces Sint pol ru Te appear hero tht oth i cme and in tut hea trough ra e's aan ifaw tsa heal 9S) peach ae the alter ore hake Been Sum the'dineler of ae tip dee nk ova an ans pes of bak ty net of dhl trong spree eke OF bat athe exelent entices Stig’ hones iow npg thatthe Cetus ast of pas ienclos eat tft een te ean ae IS TENan coment ld gs wo Stes Foal hough the bd chan n'a ee Krom ponte pie bo oats eh mane tip elvan Eth nea oe ce a radina,$, boar relationship to one snother which i practically constant at all points in the bed and for all beds. Design of Packed Towers—Equation (24) may be applied directly to the calculation of presture trop for. packed towers where the packing, consists, of solid spheres or saddles, For ‘praetical purpost, Since flow is usually’ weil in the turbuleat region, the equations may be Tis Tt Possible to. design with 1 high degree of accuracy, but safe values are given by using 25 times the’ values in equation (24a), that, (fy * 100. et 1H. Loren, Phye."Zy 1929, 90, 228, Suamany. In the foregoing paper, it has been shown' thal dimensionless groups originally used by Blaket flow of fluid through granular beds pro excellent correlation for beds of spherical graf that this extends: over the very wide rai experimental data available, (5 7 2 In the streamline region, where D'Arcy’s law hold ‘Kozeny" has provided a theoretical basis for ‘method of correlation, and the form of D'At law which results has been termed Kozeny’s ej Certain deviations from D'Arcy's law at ve values of have been dace bri. been pointed out that Kozeny’s equation dot nd to mixtures of two sizes of spherical when the size-ratio exceeds 4:1, and the pro of smaller spheres in the mixture is less than 40 Satisfactory data for non-sphorical partil scanty, but it appears that, in the streamline re Kozeny’s equation is valid within an error of 10%, for all shapes of particle. In the turbulont the Blake plot correlates spheres and curved such as saddle tower-packings, but is not satisfad for rings. ‘The theoretical implications of the Blake plot f been discussed in detail, and it has been show flow in granular beds bears a close analogy to in curved pipes with the same “mean hyd ting dre taf an ie tah ns STR srs a fins teller as aril OSmy Ghee aor eran iathacs atone sariea 2 l “ita Re nae eg vile es bl lS cae opine deriv ru Jn an attempt to determine the path followed an clement of fluid in its way through a grati bod, the waiter hus introduced eolour-bands in flowing. vertically downwards through a bed. 2" glass spheres in a 1" glass tube. Streamline 40} as aintainod. By carefal adjustment, it found possible to observe the colour-band three or four layers of particles and sometimes further. ‘The most notable characteristic was hh the path made an almost constant angle of 45° wit the axis of the tube, that is, with the direction! flow. Deviations were observed, even to the extrem of 0° (vertical flow) and of 90° (horizontal flow),CARMAN. se were remarkably few, and seemed to be evenly. buted about the angle of 45°, which could thus taken as the mean value, In one or two cases 45° track was almost a perfect. helix for two oF layers of the bed. On tho basis of these observations, the writer has Himed that the track followed by’an clement of fd corresponds to an avorago inclination of 45°, f1is therefore 1/2 times thedepth of the bed, that is, fect of Non-uniformity of Pore-Size on Rate of Flow. Tp the following, a proof is given for the statement t flow is greater through parallel channels unequal than through channels of even size, with the pe internal volume and internal surface, that is, h the same average “ mean hydraulic radius.” ) Consider one large circular pipe, diameter, d, Hn bmaller pipes, diameter, rd, with r (L-+nr}* (L+-nrt) Br3ne > purge fart n(9°—1—2rt) > F934) thie in impossible, since m is positive and <1, 90 that the right-hand side of the inequality fblways: positive and the leftchand side always Bttive. It may be concluded, therefore, that’ Qis yi less than Q. Aprexprx IL. caleulate porosities when 2 ties between a is merely necessary, as shown in Fig. 5, to find volume of the eylinder BC DE, since "LUID FLOW THROUGH GRANULAR BEDS, vol, of solid enclosed by eylinder vol. of 1 sphere’ =je Dh Free space == Porosity, « D wih gives caatmconct (2) o ‘This calculation only applies as long as BC does not intersect the lower sphere, the limiting caae Fie. 6 cing shown by Tig. @, which corresponds. to 4J=1-800, Above this, the porosity can be caleulated, Sut the eleiation is too complex to bo worthowhile particularly as the porosity at 2-»20 is fairy easily Sean Are =P late cn Sp a on wr the tube and the geometrical difficulties become insurmountable,166 ‘TRANSACTIONS- se P20, ‘The spec ie ini, th ne of centres for each pair lying perpendicular to the ua. & line of centres for adjacent pairs. Consider two adjacent pairs. The centres will form the comers of regular tetrahedron, with length of each side=d. For such a tetrahedron as in Figs. 7 and 8, the a vi Now take the volume enclosed hetween the planes : Di, _ Did Vol. of cylinder == 272 ui a ava Vol. occupied by spheres: distance, h, between oppositesides, is given by h 1 hemi-spheres Free vol. wi» a3" | “a aya uv . (i INSTITUTION OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERS, Lae oF Brio (an cnaent eg oi AP =premure dference in gern! AGN=DRLP A) in (gmfety whore Py and ee) olen er abe qnasetaton eto gravity. 88 om ime ‘Ltdatnat forge pee nit arn ot paste a ‘dynes)(cm). stoi af apa Hi, in em, ho cen of ted fe Tenant nga, of path when by Gold ‘nO pte Erte, nen moment bra el, Gueoan gael dameter fw artic, in en decd of vat an nn fora curved chan iameter of container, in en t seo ade en peu vl a Fart ey alte con Senn maf a eB ell ‘hati 8,= (8-4) sepparet ely, acme, that volo Ti'om cals Sosa sensotal vat itn pore sania ba nanaty aft, ing). v4, that is apparent maas velocity in gin Jae ‘of eraenscetion of empty’ container y-visonity of fd, in poios Ikinematio viscosity, in (om.)/00. ume of pore apace por unit volume of the inthe porosity ‘arate of flow of water at 10°C. through unit lar bl nun ference of pes By D'Arcy’ law. ‘ya,8,ncet, various constant appleaheto social Zycoonstet in gonarel law of streamline tion Sknnnols ol uniform, bt non-irsla, eon Shae a ae ee abe Teo ~ jue °° Fay” Ty For cifeular wétlons, Ky=2. constant in general lew of streamline gh gruel bes (pony scant that i, ‘of streamline motion through granular’ beds, 1) AP sg vac fcr ich tt Ay, apo fer ell tide suapon neem aif aP-gee ToS, Coratio of resistance in curvilinear fow {0 re in reclined fow fora given Heynold's nom