John Locke TWO TREATISES OF GOVERNMENT

Themes, Arguments, and Ideas

THE MORAL ROLE OF GOVERNMENT

According to Locke, political power is the natural power of each man collectively given up into
the hands of a designated body. The setting up of government is much less important, Locke
thinks, than this original socialpolitical compact. A community surrenders some degree of its
natural rights in favor of government, which is better able to protect those rights than any man
could alone. Because government exists solely for the well-being of the community, any
government that breaks the compact can and should be replaced. The community has a moral
obligation to revolt against or otherwise replace any government that forgets that it exists only
for the peoples benefit. Locke felt it was important to closely examine public institutions and be
clear about what functions were legitimate and what areas of life were inappropriate for those
institutions to participate in or exert influence over. He also believed that determining the proper
role of government would allow humans to flourish as individuals and as societies, both
materially and spiritually. Because God gave man the ability to reason, the freedom that a
properly executed government provides for humans amounts to the fulfillment of the divine
purpose for humanity. For Locke, the moral order of natural law is permanent and self-
perpetuating. Governments are only factors contributing to that moral order.

AN EMPIRICAL THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

For Locke, all knowledge comes exclusively through experience. He argues that at birth the mind
is a tabula rasa, or blank slate, that humans fill with ideas as they experience the world through
the five senses. Locke defines knowledge as the connection and agreement, or disagreement and
repugnancy, of the ideas humans form. From this definition it follows that our knowledge does
not extend beyond the scope of human ideas. In fact, it would mean that our knowledge is even
narrower than this description implies, because the connection between most simple human ideas
is unknown. Because ideas are limited by experience, and we cannot possibly experience
everything that exists in the world, our knowledge is further compromised. However, Locke
asserts that though our knowledge is necessarily limited in these ways, we can still be certain of
some things. For example, we have an intuitive and immediate knowledge of our own existence,
even if we are ignorant of the metaphysical essence of our souls. We also have a demonstrative
knowledge of Gods existence, though our understanding cannot fully comprehend who or what
he is. We know other things through sensation. We know that our ideas correspond to external
realities because the mind cannot invent such things without experience. A blind man, for
example, would not be able to form a concept of color. Therefore, those of us who have sight can
reason that since we do perceive colors, they must exist.

A NATURAL FOUNDATION OF REASON

Locke argues that God gave us our capacity for reason to aid us in the search for truth. As Gods
creations, we know that we must preserve ourselves. To help us, God created in us a natural
aversion to misery and a desire for happiness, so we avoid things that cause us pain and seek out
pleasure instead. We can reason that since we are all equally Gods children, God must want
everyone to be happy. If one person makes another unhappy by causing him pain, that person has
rejected Gods will. Therefore, each person has a duty to preserve other people as well as
himself. Recognizing the responsibility to preserve the rights of all humankind naturally leads to
tolerance, the notion that forms the basis for Lockes belief in the separation of church and state.
If we all must come to discover the truth through reason, then no one man is naturally better able
to discover truth than any other man. For this reason, political leaders do not have the right to
impose beliefs on the people. Because everything we understand comes through experience and
is translated by reason, no outside force can make us understand something in conflict with our
own ideas. Locke insists that if men were to follow the government blindly, they would be
surrendering their own reason and thus violating Gods law, or natural law.
THE RIGHT TO PRIVATE PROPERTY

The right to private property is the cornerstone of Lockes political theory, encapsulating how
each man relates to God and to other men. Locke explains that man originally exists in a state of
nature in which he need answer only to the laws of nature. In this state of nature, men are free to
do as they please, so long as they preserve peace and preserve mankind in general. Because they
have a right to self-preservation, it follows that they have the right to those things that will help
them to survive and be happy. God has provided us with all the materials we need to pursue
those ends, but these natural resources are useless until men apply their efforts to them. For
example, a field is useless until it produces food, and no field will produce food until someone
farms it.

Locke proposes that because all men own their bodies completely, any product of their physical
labor also belongs to them. Thus, when a man works on some good or material, he becomes the
owner of that good or material. The man who farms the land and has produced food owns the
land and the food that his labor created. The only restriction to private property is that, because
God wants all his children to be happy, no man can take possession of something if he harms
another in doing so. He cannot take possession of more than he can use, for example, because he
would then be wasting materials that might otherwise be used by another person. Unfortunately,
the world is afflicted by immoral men who violate these natural laws. By coming together in the
socialpolitical compact of a community that can create and enforce laws, men are guaranteed
better protection of their property and other freedoms.
Two Treatises of Government

Summary

The First Treatise is a criticism of Robert Filmers Patriarcha, which argues in support of
the divine right of kings. According to Locke, Filmer cannot be correct because his theory holds
that every man is born a slave to the natural born kings. Locke refuses to accept such a theory
because of his belief in reason and in the ability of every man to virtuously govern himself
according to Gods law. The Second Treatise is Lockes proposed solution to the political
upheaval in England and in other modern countries. This text laid the foundation for modern
forms of democracy and for the Constitution of the United States.

The Second Treatiseconsists of a short preface and nineteen chapters. In chapter i, Locke
defines political power as the right to make laws for the protection and regulation of property. In
his view, these laws only work because the people accept them and because they are for the
public good. In chapter ii, Locke claims that all men are originally in a state of nature. A man in
this original state is bound by the laws of nature, but he is otherwise able to live, act, and dispose
of his possessions as he sees fit. More important, human beings, free from the arbitrary laws of
other men, have an obligation to protect the interests of each other, since they are all equally
children of God. They also have an obligation to punish those who go against Gods will and
attempt to harm another by compromising his life, liberty, or possessions.

In chapters iii and iv, Locke outlines the differences between the state of nature and the
state of war. The state of nature involves people living together, governed by reason, without
need of a common superior. The state of war occurs when people exert unwelcome force on other
people, interfering with their own natural rights and freedom, without common authority. The
difference between war in society and war in nature depends on when they end. In society, war
ends when the act of force, such as fighting, is over. When the last blow has been thrown, both
parties can appeal to common authorities for the final resolution of past wrongs. But in nature,
war does not end until the aggressive party offers peace and offers to repair the damage done.
Locke claims that one of the major reasons people enter into society is to avoid the state of war.
 Chapter v deals with the definition and function of property. Whether by natural reason or
the word of the Bible, the earth can be considered the property of all the people in the world to
use for their collective survival and benefit. But Locke also believes in individual property. For
individual property to exist, there must be a way for individuals to take possession of the things
around them. Locke explains that the best theory of right to ownership is rooted in the fact that
each person owns his or her own body and all the labor that he or she performs with that body.
So, when an individual adds his own physical labor, which is his own property, to a foreign
object or material, that object and any resulting products become his property as well. Locke
defines labor as the determining factor of value, the tool by which humans make their world a
more efficient and rewarding place for all. Locke explains that money fulfills the need for a
constant measure of worth in a trading system but is still rooted in the property of labor.

The rest of the Treatise is devoted to a more specific critique of government, stressing the
rule of the majority as the most practical choice for government. He identifies three elements
necessary for a civil society: a common established law, a known and impartial body to give
judgment, and the power to support such judgments. He calls for a government with different
branches, including a strong legislature, and an active executive who does not outstrip the
lawmakers in power. Toward the end of the Treatise, Locke finally arrives at the question of
forming a new government. When the state ceases to function for the people, it dissolve or is
overthrown and may be replaced. When the government is dissolved, the people are free to
reform the legislative to create a new civil state that works in their best interest. Locke insists
that this system protects against random unrest and rebellion because it allows the people to
change their legislative and laws without resorting to force.

Analysis

The ideas expressed in the Treatises arose in the middle of Englands political drama
involving Charles II. Locke hoped to provide a convincing critique of Englands current form of
government and lay the groundwork for a better option. At the time, Lockes good friend and ally
Lord Ashley, the Earl of Shaftesbury, was working from within the aristocracy to overthrow
Charles II. Shaftesbury and many others wanted to prevent him from allowing James II, his
Catholic brother, to ascend to the throne. Locke worked on both treatises over several years,
finally publishing them when William of Orange invaded and seized the throne in what was
called the Glorious Revolution. Locke hoped that his new model of government would support
Williams revolution as the necessary solution to a monarchy that had abused its privileges.

Robert Filmers Patriarcha had argued for the divine right of kings, and the refutation of
this position, which had the weight of centuries of tradition behind it, was one of Lockes major
tasks. Locke describes government as a human invention organized chiefly to further and protect
the right of personal property. Human beings have an obligation in accordance with natural,
divine, and moral law to care for each other and support the whole human race. Lockes
explanation for the responsibility of community essentially boils down to the Golden Rule: Do
unto others as you would have done unto you. Despite various forms and complicated
expansions, no philosopher or political thinker has provided a simpler, more obvious standard
than Locke.

The first few chapters of the Second Treatise reveal some of Lockes most basic beliefs
about human nature. Certain problems necessarily arise in a state of nature, such as the fact that
some people will always make war or come into conflict with each other, steal from each other,
act aggressively toward each other, and so on. But Locke firmly believes that all people have the
ability to use reason to find the correct moral path. He insists that we are rational enough to
know what is, and is not, in our best interest. Belief in this universal ability is essential to his
remedy for warcivil government. Locke believes that people voluntarily create societies and
governments all over the world because government provides certain things that the state of
nature cannot, like protection and stability. For Locke, maintaining personal liberty is the key to
a proper government, which should work toward the individuals and the commonwealths best
interest at all times.

The Second Treatise expresses even more emphatically that the key to all of Lockes
political theories is property and the right to individual ownership of goods. Locke doesnt
directly discuss the importance of property until chapter ix, but once he does, property quickly
becomes the center of his model for government. After all, Locke says, the primary reason that
people join together to form societies is that they have property to protect. Those same people
become willing to give up some of their natural rights to the governing of a central authority,
since those with property need a higher central authority to protect it. We may note, however,
that this explanation leaves those without property out in the cold. Although Lockes ideas were
revolutionary for his time, they have sometimes been criticized as lacking equal treatment for
landowners and nonlandowners (i.e., the rich and the poor) alike.

Locke supports the right of the people to overthrow rulers who betray them. The
executive and the legislature coexist independently to keep each other in check. Further, Locke
asserts that if a leader violates the communitys trust, the people can and should replace him
immediately. Similarly, if the legislative body does not fulfill the needs of the people, it should
be dissolved and replaced with whatever form of government the people think best.