Jainism

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Jainism

The Jain flag

Abbreviation Jain

Orientation Ahinsa (non-violence)

Scripture Jain Agamas

Temples Jain temple

Other name(s) Jina sana or Jain dharma

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Jainism portal

v
t
e
[1] [2] [3]
Jainism (/denzm/ or /danzm/ ), traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an
ancient Indian religion belonging to the raman a tradition. The central tenet is non-violence and
respect towards all living beings. The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa (non-
violence), anekantavada (non-absolutism) and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). Followers of
Jainism take five main vows: ahimsa (non-violence), satya (not lying), asteya (not
stealing), brahmacharya (chastity) and aparigraha (non-attachment). Jain monks and
nuns observe these vows absolutely whereas householders (rvakas) observe them within their
practical limitations. Self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism.
Notably, Mahatma Gandhi was greatly influenced by Jainism and adopted many Jain principles in
his life.
The word "Jain" derives from the Sanskrit word jina (conqueror). A human being who has
conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed, etc. is called Jina.
[3][4][5][6]
Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains.
[7]
Parasparopagraho Jivanam ("the function of souls is to help one another") is the motto of
Jainism.
Jains trace their history through a succession of twenty-four teachers and revivers of the Jain
path known as Tirthankaras. In the current era, this started with Rishabhdeva and concluded
with Mahavira. Jains believe that Jainism is eternal and while it may be forgotten, it will be
revived from time to time.
The majority of Jains reside in India. With 6-7 million followers, Jainism is smaller than many
other major world religions. Outside of India, some of the largest Jain communities are present
 in Canada, Europe, Kenya, the UK, and the United States. Contemporary Jainism is divided into
two major sects, Digambara and vtmbara.
Namokar Mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism. Major Jain festivals
include Paryushana and Daslakshana, Mahavir Jayanti, and Diwali.

Contents
[hide]

1Main teachings

o 1.1Non-violence (ahimsa)

o 1.2Non-absolutism

o 1.3Non-attachment

2Jain Ethics and Five Main Vows

3Practices

o 3.1Vegetarianism

o 3.2Fasting

o 3.3Prayers

o 3.4Meditation

o 3.5Festivals

o 3.6Rituals

o 3.7Pilgrimages

o 3.8Monasticism

4Philosophy

o 4.1Dravya (Substance)

4.1.1Jva (soul)
 4.1.2Ajva (Non-Soul)

o 4.2Tattva (Reality)

o 4.3Soul and Karma

o 4.4Vitalism

o 4.5Cosmology

o 4.6Epistemology

o 4.7Agamas

o 4.8Kashaya (Passions)

5Liberation and Godhood

o 5.1The Path to Liberation

o 5.2Stages on the Path

o 5.3God

6History

o 6.1Origins

o 6.2Royal patronage

o 6.3Decline

7Community

8Schools and branches

9Jain literature

10Art and architecture

 o 10.1Temples

o 10.2Statues and sculptures

o 10.3Symbols

11Reception

12See also

13Citations

14Sources

15External links
Main teachings[edit]
Non-violence (ahimsa)[edit]
Main article: Ahimsa in Jainism

Painting with the message: "Ahims Paramo Dharma" (non-

violence is the highest virtue or religion)
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes Ahimsa in Jainism.
The word in the middle is "ahimsa". The wheel represents
the dharmachakra, which stands for the resolve to halt
the samsra (transmigration) through relentless pursuit of truth and
nonviolence.
The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is the most fundamental and well-known
[8]
aspect of Jainism. The everyday implementation of the principle of non-violence is more
[9][10]
comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity. Jains believe in
avoiding harm to others through thoughts (mana), speech (vchana), and actions (kya).
[11]
According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, "killing any living being out of passions
[12]
is hims (injury) and abstaining from such act is ahimsa (non-injury)".
Jains extend the practice of nonviolence and kindness not only towards other humans but
towards all living beings. For this reason, vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain identity, with the
majority of Jains practicing lacto vegetarianism. If there is violence against animals during the
[13]
production of dairy products, veganism is encouraged.
Jainism has a very elaborate framework on types of life and includes life-forms that may be
invisible. Therefore, after humans and animals, insects are the next living being offered
protection in Jain practice, with avoidance of intentional harm to insects emphasized. For
example, insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed. Jainism teaches that
[14]
intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent.
After nonviolence towards humans, animals and insects, Jains make efforts not to injure plants
any more than necessary. Although they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of
food, they accept such violence only as much as it is necessary for human survival. Strict Jains,
including monastics, do not eat root vegetables such as potatoes, onions and garlic because tiny
organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout
[15]
is seen as characteristic of a living being.
Jains believe that the intent and emotions behind an act of violence are more important than the
action itself. For example, if a person kills another living being out of carelessness and then later
regrets the act, the bondage (bandha) of karma is less compared to when a person kills the
same kind of living being with anger, revenge, etc. A soldier acting in self-defense is a different
type of violence from someone killing another person out of hatred or revenge. Violence or war in
self-defense may be justified, but this must only be used as a last resort after peaceful measures
[16]
have been thoroughly exhausted.
According to the Jain text, Sarvrthasiddhi, "He who has passions causes injury to himself by
[17]
himself. Whether injury is then caused to other living beings or not, it is immaterial."
Non-absolutism[edit]
Main article: Anekantavada
The second main principle of Jainism is anekntavda (non-absolutism). For Jains, non-
absolutism means maintaining open-mindedness. This includes the recognition of all
perspectives and a humble respect for differences in beliefs. Jainism encourages its adherents to
consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties, including other religions. The
principle of anekntavda influenced Mahatma Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance
[18]
and non-violence.
Anekntavda is more formally stated by observing that objects are infinite in their qualities and
modes of existence, so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by
finite human perception. Only Kevalins (omniscient beings) can comprehend objects in all
[19]
aspects and manifestations; others are only capable of partial knowledge. Accordingly, no
[20]
single, specific human view can claim to represent absolute truth. Jains illustrate this theory
through the parable of the blind men and an elephant. In this story, each blind man feels a
different part of an elephant: its trunk, leg, ear, and so on. All of them claim to understand and
explain the true appearance of the elephant, but due to their limited perspectives, can only partly
[21]
succeed. The concept of anekntavda (non-absolutism) is further explained by Sydvda
and Nayavda.
Sydvda and Nayavda
Sydvda and Nayavda expand on the concept of anekntavda (non-absolutism). Sydvda
recommends the expression of aneknta by prefixing the epithet syd to every phrase or
[22]
expression. Syd here means "in some ways" or "from some perspective". As reality is
complex, no single proposition can express its full nature. The term syt- should therefore be
prefixed to each proposition, giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing dogmatism
[23]
from the statement. There are seven conditioned propositions (saptibhag)
[24]
in sydvda. Nayavda is the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints. Nayavda is a
compound of two Sanskrit words: naya ("partial viewpoint") and vda ("school of thought or
debate"). It is used to arrive at a certain inference from a point of view. Every object has infinite
aspects, but when we describe one in practice, we speak only of relevant aspects and ignore the
[24]
irrelevant. Nayavda holds that philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints,
and the standpoints we adopt are "the outcome of purposes that we may pursue" although we
may not realize it. Naya, being a partial expression of truth, enables us to comprehend reality
[25]
part by part.
Non-attachment[edit]
Main article: Aparigraha
The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly
[26]
possessions. Therefore, non-attachment also includes non-possessiveness and non-
materialism. Jainism emphasizes taking no more of something than is necessary. While
ownership of objects is allowed, non-attachment to possessions is taught. Followers should
minimize the tendency to hoard unnecessary material possessions and limit attachment to
current possessions. Further, wealth and possessions should be shared and donated whenever
possible. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to oneself and
[27]
others.
Further, Jain texts mention that "attachment to possessions (parigraha) is of two kinds:
attachment to internal possessions (bhyantara parigraha), and attachment to external
[28]
possessions (bhya parigraha). Both internal and external possessions are proved to
[29]
be hims (injury). According to the Jain text Sarvrthasiddhi, "He who has passions causes
injury to himself by himself. Whether injury is then caused to other living beings or not, it is
[17]
immaterial."
[29]
For internal possessions, Jainism identifies four key passions of the mind (kashaya):

Anger

Pride (ego)

Deceitfulness

Greed
Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride by humility, deceitfulness by
straight-forwardness and greed by contentment.
[29]
In addition to the four passions of the mind, the remaining ten internal possessions are:

wrong belief;

the three sex-passions (male sex-passion, female sex-passion, neuter sex-passion); and

the six defects (laughter, like, dislike, sorrow, fear, disgust);

In Jainism, the non-manifestation of a passion such as attachment is termed ahims (non-
violence), and the manifestation of such a passion is considered himsa (injury). This is said to be
[30]
the essence of the Jaina scripture. Additionally, according to the Tattvartha Sutra (a sacred
[31]
Jain text), "Infatuation is attachment to possessions."

Jain Ethics and Five Main Vows[edit]

Main article: Ethics of Jainism
See also: Yamas Five Yamas
Jain emblem and the "Five Vows"
Jainism encourages spiritual development through cultivation of personal wisdom and self-
[32]
control through five main vows:

1. Ahimsa: Ahimsa means nonviolence or non-injury. The first major vow taken by Jains is
to love and cause no harm to other living beings. It involves minimizing intentional and
unintentional harm to other living creatures by actions, speech or thoughts. The vow of
[33]
ahim s is considered the foremost among the 'five vows of Jainism'.

2. Satya: Satya means truth. This vow is to always speak the truth. Given that nonviolence
has priority, other principles yield to it whenever they conflict: in a situation where
[32]
speaking truth could lead to violence, silence may be observed.

3. Asteya or Achaurya: Asteya means not stealing. Jains should not take anything that is
[32]
not willingly offered. The five transgression of this vow as mentioned in
the Tattvrthstra are: "Prompting another to steal, receiving stolen goods, underbuying
in a disordered state, using false weights and measures, and deceiving others with
[34]
artificial or imitation goods".

4. Brahmacharya: Brahmacharya means chastity for laymen and celibacy for Jain monks
and nuns. This requires the exercise of control over the senses to control indulgence in
[35]
sexual activity.
 5. Aparigraha: Aparigraha means non-possessiveness. This includes non-materialism and
[32]
non-attachment to objects, places and people. Jain monks and nuns completely
[26]
renounce property and social relations.
Monks and nuns are obligated to practice the five cardinal principles of nonviolence, truthfulness,
not stealing, celibacy, and non-possessiveness very strictly, while laymen are encouraged to
[32]
observe them within their current practical limitations.
Supplementary vows and sallekhana
Jainism also prescribes seven supplementary vows and a last sallekhana vow, which is practiced
mostly by monks and nuns. The supplementary vows include three gua vratas (merit vows) and
[36][37]
four ik vratas. The sallekhana (or Santhara) vow is observed at the end of life most
commonly by Jain monks and nuns. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food
[38] [39]
and liquid intake under some conditions. These condition are:

Severe famine

Incurable disease

Great disability

Old age or when a person is nearing his end.

Sallekhana is seen as spiritual detachment requiring a great deal of spiritual accomplishment and
maturity and a declaration that a person is finished with this world and has chosen to leave.
[40]
Jains believe this allows one to achieve death with dignity and dispassion along with a great
[41]
reduction of negative karma.

Practices[edit]
Vegetarianism[edit]
Main article: Jain vegetarianism
Vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jainism, in accordance with the principle of non-violence towards
all beings. Strict followers will also limit dairy products, avoid root vegetables and avoid eating
[42]
after sunset.
Fasting[edit]
Main article: Fasting in Jainism
[43]
Jains fast throughout the year, particularly during festivals. This takes on various forms and
[44][according to whom?]
may be practiced based on one's ability. Some examples include, but are not
limited to: eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only water all day, not eating after
[45]
sunset, not eating processed foods, and eating food without sugar, oil, or salt.
Prayers[edit]
In Jainism, the purpose of prayer is to break the barriers of worldly attachments and desires and
to assist in the liberation of the soul. Jains do not pray for any favors, material goods or rewards.
[46]

[47]
The Navkar Mantra is the fundamental prayer of Jainism and may be recited at any time. In
this mantra, Jains worship the qualities (gunas) of the spiritually supreme, including those who
[48]
have already attained salvation, in order to adopt similar behavior.
Meditation[edit]
Main article: Jain meditation

Jain nuns meditating

Jains have developed a type of meditation called smyika, a term derived from the
word samaya. The goal of smyika is to achieve a feeling of perfect calmness and to
understand the unchanging truth of the self. The preposition sam means one state of being. To
[49][50]
become one is samaya. Smyika is aimed at developing equanimity and to refrain from
injury. Smyika is particularly important during the Paryushana religious festival. It is believed
that meditation will assist in managing and balancing one's passions. Great emphasis is placed
on the internal control of thoughts, as they influence behavior, actions and goals.Through
Samayika, Jains try to achieve control over Mana (Mind), Vachana (Speech) and Kaya
[51]
(Actions).
Jains follow six duties known as avashyakas: samayika (practising serenity), chaturvimshati
(praising the tirthankara), vandan (respecting teachers and
[52]
monks), pratikramana (introspection), kayotsarga (stillness), and pratyakhyana (renunciation).
Jain texts prescribe meditation on twelve forms of contemplation (bhvan) for those who wish to
[53]
stop the influx of karmas that extend transmigration. These twelve reflections as mentioned in
[54]
ancient Jain texts, like Tattvrthstra, Sarvrthasiddhi, Pururthasiddhyupya are:

1. anitya bhvan the transitoriness of the world;

2. aaraa bhvan the helplessness of the soul;

3. samsra the pain and suffering implied in transmigration;

4. aikatva bhvan the inability of another to share one's suffering and sorrow;

5. anyatva bhvan the distinctiveness between the body and the soul;

6. auci bhvan the filthiness of the body;

7. srava bhvan influx of karmic matter;

8. samvara bhvan stoppage of karmic matter;

9. nirjar bhvan gradual shedding of karmic matter;

10.loka bhvan the form and divisions of the universe and the nature of the conditions
prevailing in the different regions heavens, hells, and the like;

11. bodhidurlabha bhvan the extreme difficulty in obtaining human birth and,
subsequently, in attaining true faith; and
 12.dharma bhvan the truth promulgated by Tirthankaras.
Festivals[edit]
Main article: Jain festivals

Celebrating Das Lakshana (Paryusana), Jain Center of America,

New York City
Paryushana or Daslakshana is the most important annual event for Jains, and is usually
[55]
celebrated in August or September. It lasts 810 days and is a time when lay people increase
their level of spiritual intensity often using fasting and prayer/meditation to help. The five main
[56]
vows are emphasized during this time. There are no set rules, and followers are encouraged to
practice according to their ability and desires. The last day involves a focused prayer/meditation
session known as Samvatsari Pratikramana. At the conclusion of the festival, followers request
forgiveness from others for any offenses committed during the last year. Forgiveness is asked by
saying Micchami Dukkadam or Khamat Khamna to others, which means, "If I have offended you
in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness."
[57]
The literal meaning of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together".
Mahavir Jayanti, the birth of Mahvra, the last tirthankara of this era, is usually celebrated in late
[55][58]
March or early April based on the lunar calendar. Diwali is a festival that marks the
[59]
anniversary of Mahvra's attainment of moksha. The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated
on the same date (Kartika Amavasya). Diwali is celebrated in an atmosphere of austerity,
simplicity, serenity, equity, calmness, charity, philanthropy, and environmental consciousness.
Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and diyas (small oil lamps).
The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On
Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahvra in all Jain temples all across
[59]
the world. The new Jain year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains
[60][55]
are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan.
Rituals[edit]
Main article: Jain rituals

Praying at the feet of a statue of Bahubali

There are many rituals in the various sects of Jainism. The basic worship ritual practised by Jains
[61]
is "seeing" (darsana) of pure self in Jina idols. One example related to the five life events of
the tirthankaras called the Panch Kalyanaka are rituals such as the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha
[62][63]
Mahotsava, panch kalyanaka puja, and snatra puja. Jain practices include
[64]
performing abhisheka (ceremonial bath) of the images.
Jains follow six obligatory duties known as avashyakas: samayika (practising serenity),
chaturvimshati (praising the tirthankara), vandan (respecting teachers and
[52]
monks), pratikramana (introspection), kayotsarga (stillness), and pratyakhyana (renunciation).
Pilgrimages[edit]
Main article: Tirtha (Jainism)

Jal Mandir at Shikharji, said to place where 20 tirthankars

achieved Nirvana
[65]
Jain pilgrim (Tirtha) sites are divided in the following categories:

Siddhakshetra Site of the moksha of an arihant (kevalin) or Tirthankara, such as Mount

Kailash, Shikharji, Girnar, Pawapuri and Champapuri (capital of Anga).

Atishayakshetra Locations where divine events have occurred, such

as Mahavirji, Rishabhdeo, Kundalpur, Tijara Jain Temple, Aharji.

Puranakshetra Places associated with lives of great men, such

as Ayodhya, Vidisha, Hastinapur, and Rajgir.

Gyanakshetra Places associated with famous acharyas, or centers of learning, such

as Shravanabelagola.
Monasticism[edit]
Main article: Jain monasticism
Acharya Gyansagar, a prominent Digambara Acharya (the head of
a monastic order)
In Jainism, monasticism is encouraged and respected. Monks and nuns live extremely austere
and ascetic lifestyles. They follow the five main vows strictly and observe complete abstinence.
[66]
Jain monks and nuns have neither a permanent home nor any possessions. They do not use
vehicles and always travel barefoot from one place to another, irrespective of the distance. They
wander from place to place except during the months of Chaturmas. They do not prepare food
and live only on what people offer them. Digambara monks and nuns carry a broom-like object,
called a picchi (made from fallen peacock feathers) to sweep the ground ahead of them or before
[67][68][69]
sitting down to avoid inadvertently crushing small insects. Svetambara monks carry
a rajoharan (a broom-like object made from dense, thick thread strands). Jain monks have to
follow six duties known as avashyakas: smyika (practising serenity), chaturvimshati (praising
the tirthankara), vandan (respecting teachers and
[52]
monks), pratikramana (introspection), kayotsarga (stillness), and pratyakhyana (renunciation).
The monks of Jainism, whose presence is not needed for most Jain rituals, should not be
confused with priests. However, some sects of Jainism often employ a pujari, who need not be a
[70]
Jain, to perform special daily rituals and other priestly duties at the temple.

Philosophy[edit]
Main article: Jain philosophy

Part of a series on

Jain philosophy

Concepts

Anekntavda
Sydvda
Epistemology
Jain Cosmology
Ahimsa
Karma
Dharma

Vitalism
Kevala Jna
Moks a (Liberation)
Dravya (Six eternal substances)
Tattva (Seven fundamentals)
Sangha (Community)
People
Ancient
Kundakunda
Samantabhadra
Umsvmi
Siddhasena Divkara
Medieval
Pujyapada
Akalanka
Jinasena
Nemichandra
Haribhadra
Hemacandra
Yaovijaya
Modern
Champat Rai Jain
Pt. Sukhll
Bal Patil
v
t
e
Dravya (Substance)[edit]
Main article: Dravya

Chart showing the classification of dravya and astikaya

According to Jainism, there are six simple substances in existence: Soul, Matter, Time,
Space, Dharma and Adharma. Jain philosophers distinguish a substance from a body (or thing)
by declaring the former to be a simple element or reality and the latter a compound of one or
more substances or atoms. They claim that there can be a partial or total destruction of a body or
[71]
thing, but no substance can ever be destroyed. According to Champat Rai Jain:
Substance is the sub-strate of qualities which cannot exist apart from it, for instance, the quality
of fluidity, moisture, and the like only exist in water and cannot be conceived separately from it. It
is neither possible to create nor to destroy a substance, which means that there never was a time
[72]
when the existing substances were not, nor shall they ever cease to be.

Jva (soul)[edit]
Main article: Jva (Jainism)
Jain philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that separates body (matter) from the soul
[73]
(consciousness) completely. Jains maintain that all living beings are really soul, intrinsically
perfect and immortal. Souls in samsra (that is, liability to repeated births and deaths) are said to
[74]
be imprisoned in the body.
The soul-substance, called Jva in Jainism, is distinguished from the remaining five substances
(Matter, Time, Space, Dharma and Adharma), collectively called ajva, by the intelligence with
[71]
which the soul-substance is endowed, and which is not found in the other substances. The
nature of the soul-substance is said to be freedom. In its modifications, it is said to be the subject
of knowledge and enjoyment, or suffering, in varying degrees, according to its circumstances.
[75]
Jain texts expound that all living beings are really soul, intrinsically perfect and immortal.
[76]
Souls in transmigration are said to be embodied in the body as if in a prison.

Ajva (Non-Soul)[edit]
Matter (Pudgala) is considered a non-intelligent substance consisting of an infinity of
particles or atoms which are eternal. These atoms are said to possess sensible qualities,
[77][75]
namely, taste, smell, color and, in certain forms, touch and sound.

Time is said to be the cause of continuity and succession. It is of two

[78]
kinds: nishchaya and vyavhra

Space (aka)- Space is divided by the Jainas into two parts, namely, the lokka, that
is the space occupied by the universe, and the alokka, the portion beyond the universe.
The lokka is the portion in which are to be found the remaining five substances, i.e.,
souls, Matter, Time, Dharma and Adharma; but the alokka is the region of pure space
containing no other substance and lying stretched on all sides beyond bounds of the three
[79]
worlds (the entire universe).

Dharma and Adharma are substances said to be helpful in the motion and stationary
states of things, respectively, the former enabling them to move from place to place and the
[78]
latter to come to rest from the condition of motion.
Tattva (Reality)[edit]
Main article: Tattva (Jainism)
Jain philosophy is based on seven fundamentals which are known as tattva, which attempt to
explain the nature of karmas and provide solutions for the ultimate goal of liberation of the soul
[80] [81]
(moksha): These are:
 1. Jva the soul, which is characterized by consciousness

2. Ajva non-living entities that consist of matter, space and time

3. srava (influx) the inflow of auspicious and evil karmic matter into the soul

4. Bandha (bondage) mutual intermingling of the soul and karmas. The karma masks
the jiva and restricts it from reaching its true potential of perfect knowledge and
perception.

5. Samvara (stoppage) obstruction of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul

6. Nirjar (gradual dissociation) the separation or falling off of part of karmic matter from
the soul

7. Moksha (liberation) complete annihilation of all karmic matter (bound with any particular
soul)
Soul and Karma[edit]
Main article: Karma in Jainism

Depiction of a transmigratory soul (Samsri jva) according to Jain

philosophy. Gold represents nokarma, the quasi-karmic matter,
cyan (blue) depicts dravya karma, the subtle karmic matter, orange
represents the bhav karma, the psycho-physical karmic matter, and
white depicts sudhatma, the pure consciousness
According to Jain belief, souls, intrinsically pure, possess the qualities of infinite knowledge,
[82]
infinite perception, infinite bliss, and infinite energy in their ideal state. In reality, however, these
[83]
qualities are found to be obstructed due to the soul's association with karmic matter. The
[84]
ultimate goal in Jainism is the realization of reality.
The relationship between the soul and karma is explained by the analogy of gold. Gold is always
found mixed with impurities in its natural state. Similarly, the ideal pure state of the soul is always
mixed with the impurities of karma. Just like gold, purification of the soul may be achieved if the
[83]
proper methods of refining are applied. The Jain karmic theory is used to attach responsibility
to individual action and is cited to explain inequalities, suffering and pain. Tirthankara-nama-
karma is a special type of karma, bondage of which raises a soul to the supreme status of
[85]
a tirthankara.
Vitalism[edit]
Main article: Vitalism (Jainism)
Classification of Samsri Jvas (Transmigrating Souls) in Jainism.
Jain texts state that there are ten vitalities or life-principles: the five senses, energy, respiration,
[12]
life-duration, the organ of speech, and the mind. The table below summarizes the vitalities that
[86]
living beings possess in accordance with their senses.

Number of
Senses Vitalities
vitalities

Sense organ of touch, strength of

One-sensed
Four body or energy, respiration, and life-
beings
duration.

Two- The sense of taste and the organ of

sensed Six speech in addition to the former
beings four.

Three-
The sense of smell in addition to the
sensed Seven
former six.
beings

Four-
The sense of sight in addition to the
sensed Eight
former seven.
beings

Five- Nine The sense of hearing in addition to

sensed the former eight.
 Mind in addition to the above-
beings Ten
mentioned nine vitalities.

Cosmology[edit]
Main article: Jain cosmology

Shape of the universe as told by Kevalins

Jain texts propound that the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is
independent and self-sufficient, and does not require any superior power to govern it. Elaborate
descriptions of the shape and function of the physical and metaphysical universe, and its
constituents, are provided in the canonical Jain texts, in commentaries and in the writings of the
[87][88]
Jain philosopher-monks.
According to the Jain texts, the universe is divided into three parts, the upper, middle, and lower
[89]
worlds, called respectively urdhva loka, madhya loka, and adho loka. It is made up of six
[90]
constituents: Jva, the living entity; Pudgala, matter; Dharma tattva, the substance responsible
[90]
for motion; Adharma tattva, the substance responsible for rest; Aka, space; and Kla, time.

Division of time as envisaged by Jains

Kla (time) is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, called klachakra, rotates
ceaselessly. According to Jain texts, in this part of the universe, there is rise and fall during the
[91]
six periods of the two aeons of regeneration and degeneration. Thus, the worldly cycle of time
is divided into two parts or half-cycles, ascending (utsarpin ) and descending
(avasarpin ). Utsarpin is a period of progressive prosperity, where happiness increases,
[7][92]
while avasarpin is a period of increasing sorrow and immorality. According to Jain
cosmology, currently we are in the 5th ara of avasarpin (half time cycle of degeneration). As of
[93]
2016, exactly 2,538 years have elapsed, and 18,460 years are still left. The present age is
one of sorrow and misery. In this ara, though religion is practiced in lax and diluted form, no
[93]
liberation is possible. At the end of this ara, even the Jain religion will disappear, only to
appear again with the advent of the first Trthankara after the 42,000 years of next utsarpin are
[94]
over.
 [95]
The following table depicts the six aras of avasarpi

Average Average
Name of the Degree of
Duration of Ara height of lifespan of
Ara happiness
people people

Utmost
happiness Six Three
Sukhama- and no 400 trillion miles palyopama
sukham sorrow sgaropamas tall years

Moderate
happiness Four Two
and no 300 trillion miles palyopama
Sukham sorrow sgaropamas tall Years

Happiness Two One

Sukhama- with very 200 trillion miles palyopama
dukham little sorrow sgaropamas tall years

Happiness 705.6
Dukhama- with little 100 trillion 1500 quintillion
sukham sorrow sgaropamas meters years

Sorrow with
very little 21,000 130 years
Dukham Happiness years[96] 6 feet maximum

Extreme
Dukhama- sorrow and
dukham misery 21,000 years 2 feet 1620 years
This trend will start reversing at the onset of utsarpin kl with the Dukhama-dukham ara being
[95]
the first ara of utsarpin (half-time cycle of regeneration).
According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called alkpurus as, are born on this earth
[97]
in every Dukhama-sukham ara. The Jain universal history is a compilation of the deeds of
[98]
these illustrious persons. They comprise twenty-four trthakaras, twelve chakravartins,
[99][97]
nine balabhadra, nine narayana, and nine pratinarayana.
[97]
A chakravart is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm. Though he possesses
worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the cosmos.
Jain puranas give a list of twelve chakravartins (universal monarchs). They are golden in
[100]
complexion. One of the greatest chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata
Chakravartin. Jain texts like Harivamsa Purana and Hindu Texts like Vishnu Purana mention that
[101][102]
India came to be known as Bharatavarsha in his memory.
There are nine sets of balabhadra, narayana, and pratinarayana.
[103]
The balabhadra and narayana are brothers. Balabhadra are nonviolent heroes, narayana are
violent heroes, and pratinarayana can be described as villains. According to the legends,
the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana. Of the nine balabhadra, eight attain liberation and
the last goes to heaven. On death, the narayana go to hell on account of their violent exploits,
[104]
even if these were intended to uphold righteousness.
Epistemology[edit]
Main article: Jain epistemology

Kinds of Knowledge
In Jainism, jnna (knowledge) is said to be of five kindsKevala Jnana (Omniscience), rutu
Jna (Scriptural Knowledge), Mati Jna (Sensory Knowledge), Avadhi
[105]
Jna (Clairvoyance), Manah prayya Jna (Telepathy). According to Jain text Tattvartha
sutra, the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge".
[106]
Jains maintain that knowledge is the nature of the soul. According to Champat Rai Jain,
"Knowledge is the nature of the soul. If it were not the nature of the soul, it would be either the
nature of the not-soul, or of nothing whatsoever. But in the former case, the unconscious would
become the conscious, and the soul would be unable to know itself or any one else, for it would
then be devoid of consciousness; and, in the latter, there would be no knowledge, nor conscious
[107]
beings in existence, which, happily, is not the case."
Agamas[edit]
Main article: Jain Agamas
After the attainment of omniscience, the tirthankara discourses in a divine preaching hall
called samavasarana. The discourse delivered is called hrut Jnna and comprises
[108]
eleven angas and fourteen purvas. The discourse is recorded by Ganadharas (chief
disciples), and is composed of twelve angas (departments). It is generally represented by a tree
[109]
with twelve branches.
Stella depicting hrut Jnna, or complete scriptural knowledge
Historically, the Jain Agamas were based on the teachings of Mahvra, the last Trthankara of
the present half cycle. The Agamas were memorised and passed on through the ages. They
were lost because of famine that caused the death of several saints within a thousand years of
[110]
Mahvra's death. These comprise thirty-two works: eleven angs, twelve upanga gamas,
[111]
four chedastras, four mlastras, and the last, a pratikraman, or Avashyak stra.
Kashaya (Passions)[edit]
Main article: Kashaya (Jainism)
Additionally, Jainism identifies four kashaya passions of the mind: Anger, pride (ego),
deceitfulness, greed. It recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride by humility,
[112]
deceitfulness by straight-forwardness and greed by contentment.

Liberation and Godhood[edit]

Main article: Moksha (Jainism)
The Path to Liberation[edit]
Main article: Ratnatraya
[106][113]
According to Jainism, the following three jewels constitute the path to liberation:

1. Right View (samyak darana) Belief in substances like soul (Jva) and non-soul without
[114]
delusions.

2. Right Knowledge (samyak jnana) Knowledge of the substances (tattvas) without any
[115]
doubt or misapprehension.

3. Right Conduct (samyak charitra) Being free from attachment, a right believer does not
[116]
commit hims (injury).
According to the Jain text, Sarvrthasiddhi, (translated by S. A. Jain):
Perfect release from all karmas is liberation. The path to liberation is the method by which it can
be attained. The singular 'path' is used in order to indicate that all the three together constitute
the path to liberation. This controverts the views that each of these singly constitutes a path.
Hence it must be understood that these threeright faith, right knowledge and right conduct
[117]
together constitute the direct path to liberation.

Stages on the Path[edit]

Main article: Gunasthana
In Jain philosophy, the fourteen stages through which a soul must pass in order to attain
[118][119][120] [121]
liberation (moksha) are called Gunasthna. These are:

Gunasthna Explanation

Gross ignorance. The stage of wrong

1. Mithytva
believer

Vanishing faith, i.e., the condition of the

2. Sasdana mind while actually falling down from the
fourth stage to the first stage.[122]

3. Mishradrshti Mixed faith and false belief.[122]

4. Avirata Right Faith unaccompanied by Right

samyagdrshti Conduct.[123]

5. Deavirata The stage of partial self-control (rvaka)

[123]

First step of life as a Jain muni (monk).

6. Pramatta [123]
The stage of complete self-discipline,
Sanyati although sometimes brought into wavering
through negligence.

7. Apramatta Complete observance

Sanyati of Mahavratas (Major Vows)

8. Aprvakaraa New channels of thought.

9. Anivttibdara-
Advanced thought-activity
smparya

10. Sukshma Slight greed left to be controlled or

smparya destroyed.

The passions are still associated with the

11. Upanta-
soul, but they are temporarily out of effect
kasya
on the soul.

Desirelessness, i.e., complete eradication

12. Ksna kasya
of greed

Omniscience with vibrations. Sa means

13. Sayoga "with" and yoga refers to the three
kevali (Arihant) channels of activity, i.e., mind, speech and
body.[124]

The stage of omniscience without any

14. Ayoga kevali activity. This stage is followed by the
soul's destruction of the aghti karmas.

At the second-to-last stage, a soul destroys all inimical karmas, including the knowledge-
obscuring karma which results in the manifestation of infinite knowledge (Kevala Jnana), which is
[125]
said to be the true nature of every soul.
Those who pass the last stage are called siddha and become fully established in Right Faith,
[126]
Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. According to Jain texts, after the total destruction
of karmas the released pure soul (Siddha) goes up to the summit of universe (Siddhashila) and
[127]
dwells there in eternal bliss.
The soul removes its ignorance (mithyatva) at the 4th stage, vowlessness (avirati) at the 6th
stage, passions (kashaya) at the 12th stage, and yoga (activities of body, mind and speech) at
[128]
the 14th stage, and thus attains liberation.
God[edit]

Four and Twenty Tirthankaras

Main article: God in Jainism
See also: Paca-Parames thi

Infinite Liberated souls (Siddhas)

Jain texts reject the idea of a creator or destroyer God and postulate an eternal universe. Jain
cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts (avasarpin and utsarpin ). According to
Jain belief, in every half-cycle of time, twenty-four Trthankaras grace this part of the Universe to
[129][130][131]
teach the unchanging doctrine of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. The
word Trthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which means a fordable passage across a sea.
The Trthankaras show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and deaths.
[132]
Rishabhanatha is said to be the first Trthankara of the present half-cycle
[133]
(avasarpin ). Mahvra (6th century BC) is revered as the last Trthankara of avasarpin .
[134] [98]
Though Jain texts explain that Jainism has always existed and will always exist, modern
[135]
historians place the earliest evidence of Jainism in the 9th century BC.
In Jainism, perfect souls with the body are called Arihant (victors) and perfect souls without the
body are called Siddhas (liberated souls). Tirthankara is an Arihant who helps others to achieve
liberation. Tirthankaras become role models for those seeking liberation. They are also called
[136]
human spiritual guides. They reorganise the four-fold order that consists of male ascetics
[137][138]
(muni), female ascetics (aryika), laymen (rvaka) and laywomen (rvik). Jainism has
[139]
been described as a transtheistic religion, as it does not teach the dependency on any
supreme being for enlightenment. The tirthankara is a guide and teacher who points the way to
enlightenment, but the struggle for enlightenment is one's own. The following two verses of
[140]
the Ratnakaranda rvakcra expound the definition of God according to Jainism:
In the nature of things the true God should be free from the faults and weaknesses of the lower
nature; [he should be] the knower of all things and the revealer of dharma; in no other way can
divinity be constituted. (15)
He alone who is free from hunger, thirst, senility, disease, birth, death, fear, pride, attachment,
aversion, infatuation, worry, conceit, hatred, uneasiness, sweat, sleep and surprise is called a
God. (16)

History[edit]
Main article: History of Jainism

Ancient sculpture depicting Parshvanatha at Thirakoil, Tamil Nadu

Origins[edit]
See also: Timeline of Jainism and raman a
[141][142]
The origins of Jainism are obscure. Jainism is a philosophy of eternity, and Jains believe
[143][144][98][145]
their religion to be eternal. Rs abhantha is said to be the founder of Jainism in the
[146]
present half cycle. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the first Vice President of India wrote:
There is evidence to show that so far back as the first century B.C. there were people who were
worshipping Rs abhadeva, the first trthakara. There is no doubt that Jainism prevailed even
before Vardhamna or Prvantha. The Yajurveda mentions the name of three Trthakaras-
Rishabhadeva, Ajitntha and Aris t a
nemi. The Bhgavata Purna endorses the view that Rs abha
[147]
was the founder of Jainism.
[148]
Further, he believed that Jainism was much older than Hinduism:
There is nothing wonderful in my saying that Jainism was in existence long before the Vedas
were composed.
[149]
And in the first volume of The Cultural Heritage of India:
The Jains claim a great antiquity for their religion. Their earliest tirthankara was Rishabhdeva,
who is mentioned even in the Vishnu and Bhagawat Puranas as belonging to a very remote past.
In the earliest Brahmanic literature are found traces of the existence of a religious Order.
Jains revere Vardhamana Mahvra (6th century BCE) as the twenty-fourth tirthankara of this
era. He appears in the tradition as one who, from the beginning, had followed a religion
[150]
established long ago.
Parshvanatha, predecessor of Mahvra and the twenty-third tirthankara was a historical figure.
[134][151] [152][153][154][155]
He lived in the 9th century BCE.
On antiquity of Jainism, Dr. Heinrich Zimmer was of the view that:
There is truth in the Jaina idea that their religion goes back to a remote antiquity, the antiquity in
question being that of the pre-Aryan so called Dravidian period, which has recently been
dramatically illuminated by the discovery of a series of great Late stone Age cities in the Indus
[156]
Valley, dating from the third and perhaps even fourth millennium B.C.

Dr.Heinrich Zimmer

There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or
first centuries BC, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the
[157]
second century CE.
Royal patronage[edit]

Inscription of the incoming of Shrutkevali Bhadrabahu swami and

Samrat Chandragupt at Shravanbelgola. Chandragupta Maurya, a
Jaina Shravaka, became a Jain monk in the latter part of his life
The ancient city Pithunda, capital of Kalinga (modern Odisha), is described in the Jain
text Uttaradhyana Sutra as an important centre at the time of Mahvra, and was frequented by
[158]
merchants from Champa. Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara, was revered and worshiped in
Pithunda and was known as the Kalinga Jina. Mahapadma Nanda (c. 450 362 BCE) conquered
Kalinga and took a statue of Rishabha from Pithunda to his capital in Magadha. Jainism is said to
[159]
have flourished under the Nanda Empire.
The Maurya Empire came to power after the downfall of the Nanda. The first Mauryan
emperor, Chandragupta Maurya (c. 322298 BCE), became a Jain in the latter part of his life. He
was a disciple of Bhadrabahu, the last srut-kevali (knower of all "Jain Agamas"), who migrated
[160]
to South India. Samprati (c. 224215 BCE) (grandson of the Maurya emperor Ashoka) is said
[161]
to have been converted to Jainism by a Jain monk named Suhastin. After his conversion he
was credited with actively spreading Jainism to many parts of India and beyond, both by making
it possible for monks to travel to barbarian lands, and by building and renovating thousands of
[162] [163]
temples and establishing millions of icons. He ruled a place called Ujjain.
In the 1st century BCE, Emperor Kharavela, of the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga,
invaded Magadha. He retrieved Rishabha's statue and installed it in Udaygiri, near his capital
[164]
Shishupalgadh. According to Michael Tobias, he was a Jain ruler, who was also a military
[165]
victor. However, according to Helmuth von Glasenapp, this cannot be said with certainty:
[166]
Kharavela was probably a free-thinker who patronized all his subjects, including Jains.
Xuanzang (629 645 CE), a Chinese traveller, notes that there were numerous Jains present in
[166]
Kalinga during his time. The Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves near Bhubaneswar, Odisha,
[167]
are the only surviving stone Jain monuments in Orissa.
King Vanaraja (c. 720 780 CE) of the Chawda dynasty in northern Gujarat, raised by a Jain
monk named Silunga Suri, supported Jainism during his rule. The king of Kannauj Ama (c. 8th
century CE) was converted to Jainism by Bappabhatti, a disciple of the famous Jain monk
[168]
Siddhasena Divakara. Bappabhatti also converted Vakpati, the friend of Ama who authored a
[169]
famous Prakrit epic titled Gaudavaho.
Decline[edit]
Once a major religion, Jainism declined due to a number of factors, including proselytising by
other religious groups, persecution, withdrawal of royal patronage, sectarian fragmentation and
[170]
the absence of central leadership. Since the time of Mahvra, Jainism faced rivalry
[171]
with Buddhism and the various Hindu sects. The Jains suffered isolated violent persecutions
by these groups, but the main factor responsible for the decline of their religion was the success
[172]
of Hindu reformist movements. Around the 7th century, Shaivism saw considerable growth at
[173]
the expense of Jainism due to the efforts of the Shaivite saints like Sambandar and Appar.
[170]
Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth as well as decline of Jainism. The
Pallava king Mahendravarman I (600630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism under the
[174]
influence of Appar. His work Mattavilasa Prahasana ridicules certain Shaiva sects and
[175]
the Buddhists and also expresses contempt towards Jain ascetics. Sambandar converted the
contemporary Pandya king to Shaivism. During the 11th century, Basava, a minister to the Jain
king Bijjala, succeeded in converting numerous Jains to the Lingayat Shaivite sect. The
Lingayats destroyed various temples belonging to Jains and adapted them to their use.
[176]
The Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana (c. 11081152 CE) became a follower of
the Vaishnava sect under the influence of Ramanuja, after which Vaishnavism grew rapidly in
[177]
what is now Karnataka. As the Hindu sects grew, the Jains compromised by following Hindu
[176]
rituals and customs and invoking Hindu deities in Jain literature.
There are several legends about the massacre of Jains in ancient times. The Buddhist
king Ashoka (304232 BCE) is said to have ordered killings of 18,000 Jains or Ajivikas after
[178][179]
someone drew a picture of Buddha bowing at the feet of Mahvra. The Shaivite
king Koon Pandiyan, who briefly converted to Jainism, is said to have ordered a massacre of
8,000 Jains after his re-conversion to Shaivism. However, these legends are not found in the Jain
[180][181]
texts, and appear to be fabricated propaganda by Buddhists and Shaivites. Such stories
of destruction of one sect by another sect were common at the time, and were used as a way to
prove the superiority of one sect over the other. Another such legend about Vishnuvardhana
[182]
ordering the Jains to be crushed in an oil mill does not appear to be historically true.
The decline of Jainism continued after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. The
Muslims rulers, such as Mahmud Ghazni (1001), Mohammad Ghori (1175) and Ala-ud-din
[183]
Muhammed Shah Khilji (1298) further oppressed the Jain community. They vandalised idols
and destroyed temples or converted them into mosques. They also burned the Jain books and
killed Jains. Some conversions were peaceful, however; Pir Mahabir Khamdayat (c. 13th century
[183][184]
CE) is well known for his peaceful propagation of Islam. The Jains also enjoyed amicable
relations with the rulers of the tributary Vedic Hindu kingdoms during this period; however, their
number and influence had diminished significantly due to their rivalry with the Shaivite and
[176]
Vaisnavite sects.

Community[edit]
Main article: Jain community
[185]
The majority of Jains currently reside in India. With 6-7 million followers worldwide,
[186]
Jainism is relatively small compared to major world religions. Jains form 0.37% of India's
population. Most of the Jains are concentrated in the states of Maharashtra (31.46% of Indian
Jains), Rajasthan (13.97%), Gujarat (13.02%) and Madhya Pradesh
(12.74%). Karnataka (9.89%), Uttar Pradesh (4.79%), Delhi (3.73%) and Tamil Nadu (2.01%)
[187]
also have significant Jain populations. Outside of India, large Jain communities can be found
[188] [189]
in Europe and United States. Smaller Jain communities also exist in Canada and Kenya.
Jains developed a system of philosophy and ethics that had a great impact on Indian culture.
They have contributed to the culture and language in the Indian states of Tamil
[190]
Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
Jains encourage their monastics to do research and obtain higher education. Monks and nuns,
particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. According to the 2001
Indian census, Jains have the highest degree of literacy of any religious community in India (94.1
[186][191] [192]
percent), and their manuscript libraries are the oldest in the country. Jain libraries,
[192]
including those at Patan and Jaisalmer, have a large number of well-preserved manuscripts.
[193]

Schools and branches[edit]

Main article: Jain schools and branches
The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and vtmbara.
Monks of the Digambara ("sky-clad") tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of
the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas.
[194]
vtmbara ("white-clad") monastics on the other hand, wear white seamless clothes.
During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Acharya Bhadrabahu, the last rut-kevali (all knowing by
hearsay, that is indirectly) predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his
[195]
disciples. Sthulabhadra, a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, stayed in Magadha. After the
famine, when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they found that those who stayed at
Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who
[196]
remained naked. This is how the Digambara and vtmbara schism began, with
[197]
the Digambara being naked while the Svetambara were white clothed. Digambara saw this
as being opposed to the Jain tenets which, according to them, required complete nudity.
Evidence of gymnosophists ("naked philosophers") in Greek records as early as the fourth
century BCE supports the claim of the Digambaras that they have preserved the
[198]
ancient ramana practice.
The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of
[199]
the Digambara Acharya, Kundakunda (c. 2nd century CE). Digambaras believe that Mahvra
remained unmarried, whereas vtmbara believe that Mahvra married a woman who bore
[200]
him a daughter. The vtmbaras believe women may attain liberation and that
[201]
the tirthankara Mllntha was female.
Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire (c. 1st century
CE). Tirthankara represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm,
are identified as the Ardhaphalaka ("half-clothed") mentioned in texts. The Yapaniyas, believed to
have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, followed Digambara nudity along with several
[202]
vtmbara beliefs.

Jain literature[edit]
Main article: Jain literature

Kalpasutra folio on Mahavira Nirvana. Note the crescent

shaped Siddhashila, a place where all siddhas reside after Nirvana.
A King and a Monk (recto); Text (verso); Folio from
an Uttaradhyayana Sutra, LACMA
The Digambara sect of Jainism maintains that the Agamas were lost during the same famine in
which the purvas were lost. According to the Digambaras, chrya Bhutabali was the last ascetic
who had partial knowledge of the original canon. Later on, some learned chryas started to
restore, compile, and put into written words the teachings of Mahvra, that were the subject
[203]
matter of Aagamas. chrya Dharasen, in the first century CE, guided two chryas, chrya
Pushpadant and chrya Bhutabali, to put these teachings in written form. The
two chryas wrote, on palm leaves, S atkha d gama among the oldest-known Digambara
Jain texts. Digambara texts are classified under four heads, namely Pratham-anuyoga,
[204] [205]
charn-anuyoga, karan-anuyoga and dravya-anuyoga (texts expounding reality,
[206][207][208]
i.e. tattva).
Some of the most famous Jain texts include Samayasara, Ratnakaranda rvakcra,
[209]
and Niyamasara.
Some scholars believe that the author of the oldest extant work of literature in Tamil (3rd century
[210]
BCE), the Tolkppiyam, was a Jain. The Tirukkural by
Thiruvalluvar is considered to be the
[211]
work of a Jain by scholars such as Ka. Naa. Subramanyam, V. Kalyanasundarnar, Vaiyapuri
[212] [213]
Pillai, and P. S. Sundaram. It emphatically supports vegetarianism in chapter 26 and
states that giving up animal sacrifice is worth more than a thousand offerings in fire in verse 259.
[214]

[215]
The Nlatiyr
(a famous Tamil poetic work) was composed by Jain monks from South India in
[216]
100500.
The Silappatikaram, the earliest surviving epic in Tamil literature, was written by a Jain, Ilango
[217]
Adigal. This epic is a major work in Tamil literature, describing the historical events of its time
[217]
and also of the then-prevailing religions, Jainism, Buddhism and Shaivism.
According to George L. Hart, who holds the endowed Chair in Tamil Studies at the University of
California, Berkeley, the legend of the Tamil Sangams or "literary assemblies" was based on the
Jain sangham at Madurai: "There was a permanent Jaina assembly called a Sangha established
about 604 A.D. in Madurai. It seems likely that this assembly was the model upon which tradition
[218]
fabricated the Sangam legend."
Jain scholars and poets authored Tamil classics of the Sangam period, such as the Cvaka
[219] [215]
Cintman i and Nlatiyr.
In the beginning of the mediaeval period, between the 9th and
13th centuries, Kannada authors were predominantly Jains and Lingayatis. Jains were the
earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century.
[220]
Jains wrote about the tirthankaras and other aspects of the faith. Adikavi Pampa is one of
the greatest Kannada poets. Court poet to the Chalukya king Arikesari, a Rashtrakuta feudatory,
[221]
he is best known for his Vikramarjuna Vijaya.

Art and architecture[edit]

Main article: Jain art

Hathigumpha inscription of King Khravela at Udayagiri Caves, 2nd

Century BCE
Paintings at the Sittanavasal Cave, 7th century, Pudukottai, Tamil
Nadu
Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jains mainly
depict tirthankara or other important people in a seated or standing meditative
posture. Yakshas and yakshinis, attendant spirits who guard the tirthankara, are usually shown
[222]
with them. Figures on various seals from the Indus Valley Civilisation bear similarity to Jain
[222]
images, nude and in a meditative posture. The earliest known Jain image is in
[222]
the Patna museum. It is approximately dated to the 3rd century BCE. Bronze images of
Prva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these
[223]
are dated to the 2nd century BCE.
[224]
The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture. Decorated
[225]
manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology. Most
of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as Panch Kalyanaka, from the
life of the tirthankara. Rishabha, the first tirthankara, is usually depicted in either the lotus
position or kayotsarga, the standing position. He is distinguished from other tirthankara by the
[226]
long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures. In
paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and Indra's marking his forehead, are depicted.
Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a
[227]
house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi. Each of the twenty-
four tirthankara is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts
[228]
as Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali and Pravacanasaarodhara.
There are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions and over 100 sculptures in and
around Madurai. This is also the site where Jain ascetics of yesteryear wrote great epics and
[229]
books on grammar in Tamil.
Temples[edit]
Main article: Jain temple

This section needs expansion. You

can help by adding to it. (December 2016)

Palitana temples

Ranakpur Jain Temple

[230]
A Jain temple, Derasar or Basadi is a place of worship for Jains. Jain temples are built with
[231]
various architectural designs. There are mainly two type of Jain temples:

Shikar-bandhi Jain temple(one with the dome) and

Ghar Jain temple (Jain house temple without dome).

There is always a main deity also known as moolnayak in every Jain temple placed inside
sanctum called "Gambhara" (Garbha Graha). A Manastambha (column of honor) is a pillar that is
often constructed in front of Jain temples.
Remnants of ancient Jain temples and cave temples can be found all around India. Notable
among these are the Jain caves at Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa (Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh
and Ellora in Maharashtra, Palitana temples in Gujarat and the Jain temples at Dilwara
[232]
Temples near Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
The Sittanavasal Cave temple is regarded as one of the finest examples of Jain art. It is the
oldest and most famous Jain centre in the region. It possesses both an early Jain cave shelter,
and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha paintings;
the steep hill contains an isolated but spacious cavern. Locally, this cavern is known as
Eladipattam, a name that is derived from the seven holes cut into the rock that serve as steps
leading to the shelter. Within the cave there are seventeen stone beds aligned into rows, and
each of these has a raised portion that could have served as a pillow-loft. The largest stone bed
has a distinct Tamil-Brahmi inscription assignable to the 2nd century BCE, and some inscriptions
belonging to the 8th century BCE are also found on the nearby beds. The Sittannavasal cavern
continued to be the "Holy Sramana Abode" until the 7th and 8th centuries. Inscriptions over the
remaining stone beds name mendicants such as Tol kunrattu Kadavulan, Tirunilan, Tiruppuranan,
Tittaicharanan, Sri Purrnacandran, Thiruchatthan, Ilangowthaman, sri Ulagathithan and
[233]
Nityakaran Pattakali as monks.
[234]
The 8th century Kazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism in South India.
Statues and sculptures[edit]
Main article: Jain sculpture

This section needs expansion. You

can help by adding to it. (December 2016)

Image of Tirthankara Parshvanatha, Victoria and Albert Museum,

6th-7th Century
Jain sculptures are mainly the images depicting Tirthankaras. The sculpture could depict any of
the twenty-four tirthankaras with images
depicting Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha or Mahvra being more popular. These tirthankaras are
usually depicted in the lotus position or kayotsarga. Sculptures of chaumukha(quadruple) image
are also popular Jainism. Sculptures of Arihant Bahubali and protector deities like Ambika are
also found. Tirthanakar idols looks similar and are differentiated on the basis of symbol belonging
to each tirthanakar except Parshvanatha, statues of Parshvanath have snake crown on head.
However, there are a few differences in Digambara and Svetambara depiction of idols.
[235]
Digambara images are naked without any beautification whereas Svetambara ones are
[235]
clothed and decorated with temporary ornaments.
A monolithic, 18-metre (59-foot) statue of Bahubali, referred to as Gommateshvara, built in 981
AD by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya, is situated on a hilltop
in Shravanabelagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka state. This statue was voted as the first
[236]
in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by The Times of India. A Statue of
Ahimsa (depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in Nashik district in 2015 which is 33 m (108 ft)
[237]
tall. Idols made up from Ashtadhatu, Brass, Monolithic, Rock cut, precious stones are popular
in Jainism.
A large number of ayagapata, votive tablets for offerings and the worship of Trthankara, were
excavated from Kankali Tila, Mathura. These sculptures dated from the 2nd century BC to the
[238]
12th century CE.

Gommateshwara statue (10th century) at Shravanabelagola,

created by Chavundaraya

Statue of Ahimsa (completed in 2016), Mangi-

Tungi, Maharashtra, created by Gyanmati Mataji

Megalithic statue of Rishabhanatha at Bawangaja, 12th

century


Rishabhanatha statue at Gopachal Hill, Gwalior Fort, 15th

century
Symbols[edit]
Main article: Jain symbols

This section needs expansion. You

can help by adding to it. (December 2016)

The Jain emblem. The outline of the image represents the universe
according to Jain cosmology.
Swastika
The Swastika is an important Jain symbol. The four arms of the swastika symbolize the four
[113][239]
states of existence according to Jainism:

1. Heavenly being (devas)

2. Human being

3. Hellish being

4. Triyancha (subhuman like flora or fauna)

Symbol of Ahimsa
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes Ahimsa in Jainism with "ahim s" written in the
middle. The wheel represents the dharmachakra, which stands for the resolve to halt
[240]
the sam sra through the relentless pursuit of Ahimsa.
Jain emblem
In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahavira, the Jain community chose one
image as an emblem to be the main identifying symbol for Jainism. It consists of three Loks
(realms) ie, heaven, material world and hell. The semi-circular topmost portion
symbolizes siddhashila, which is a zone beyond the three realms. The three dots on the top
under the semi-circle symbolize the Ratnatraya right belief, right knowledge, and right conduct.
[241]
The swastika is present in top portion and The Symbol of Ahimsa in the lower portion.
Jain flag

Jain Flag
The five colours of the Jain flag represent the "Paca-Paramest h"i and the five vows, small as
[242]
well as great:

White - represents the arihants, souls who have conquered all passions (anger,
attachments, aversion) and have attained omniscience and eternal bliss through self-
realization. It also denotes peace or ahimsa (nonviolence).

Red - represents the siddha, souls that have attained salvation and truth. It also denotes
truthfulness (satya).

Yellow - represents the acharya the Masters of Adepts. The colour also stands for non-
stealing (achaurya).

Green - represents the upadhyaya (adepts), those who teach scriptures to monks. It also
signifies chastity (brahmacharya).

Black - represents the Jain ascetics. It also signifies non-possession.

Reception[edit]
Main article: Criticism of Jainism

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[weasel words]
Like all religions, Jainism is criticized and praised for some of its practices and beliefs.
The Jain theory of Karma has been challenged from an early time by
the Vedanta and Sm khya branches of Hindu philosophy. In particular, Vedanta Hindus
considered the Jain position on the supremacy and potency of karma, specifically its insistence
on non-intervention by any Supreme Being in regard to the fate of souls, as nstika or atheistic.
[243]
Mahatma Gandhi was greatly influenced by Jainism, and he adopted the Jain principles of
asceticism, compassion for all forms of life, the importance of vows for self-discipline,
vegetarianism, fasting for self-purification, and mutual tolerance among people of different
[244]
creeds. Mahatma Gandhi said:
No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahimsa so deeply and systematically as is
discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent
principle of Ahimsa or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to
achieve their end of life in this world and beyond. Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status
[245]
and Mahvra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahimsa.

Mahatma Gandhi

Swami Vivekananda appreciated the role of Jainism in the development of Indian religious
philosophy. In his words, he asks:
What could have saved Indian society from the ponderous burden of omnifarious ritualistic
ceremonialism, with its animal and other sacrifices, which all but crushed the very life of it, except
the Jain revolution which took its strong stand exclusively on chaste morals and philosophical
[246]
truths?