STRUCTURAL MODELING

SIMPLIFIED GUIDELINES OF MODELING TECHNIQUES

BY DR YEHYA TEMSAH
 Preface
Structural analysis is a key part of design in civil structural engineering. The
structural analysis is the procedure that enables the determination of the
structural response (the internal forces and the movement components)
considering the applied external effects (loads, displacements, thermal) and
the boundary conditions. It was not too long ago that structural analysis
methods were performed manually using the various conventional theory of
structures methods such as the moment distribution method, the slope
deflection method, the matrix method.

The use of these conventional manual methods is commonly accompanied

with difficulties when conducting complex structural analysis e.g. the study of
three dimensional structures, the dynamic analysis, the non-linear
behaviorMoreover, these methods require long time for calculation and may
result in inaccuracy of the obtained results.

Another method of calculation is the finite element method (FEM). The FEM,
developed long time ago, provides high level of accuracy when used in the
structural analysis, but the mathematical complexity of the method made it
impractical for manual analysis. The development of the computers and the
evolution of their capacity in the previous decades allowed for the integration
of the FEM as numerical method for the use in the structural analysis.
Accordingly, the FEM became typically the base for the modern structural
analysis.

Performing adequate numerical structural studies requires basic knowledge in

the FEM and strong theoretical structural background (Theory of Structures,
structural behavior of Tall Buildings). In other words, The behavior of a
structure ,when subjected to more or less complex effects (dynamic, non-
linearity), should be predictable by the user based on his former theoretical
knowledge and experience in the structural domain. The importance of the
above concept was highlighted by ACI President's Memo Jos M. Izquierdo-
Encarnacin 2003:

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As a rule, a program should be used only if engineers can predict the general
deflection and distribution of moments in the structure prior to obtaining a
solution. The computed solution is used to verify the results previously
predicted by the engineers. If the solution is significantly different from the
prediction, engineers should use the results only if they can satisfactorily
explain the reason for the discrepancy and find it acceptable.

The type of expected results may include:

Approximate values of some structural response components such as
the slabs/beams deflections or the sway/drifts buildings. The
approximate values may be obtained from simplified theory of
structures methods (moment distributions...)
Recognizing the deformed shape of the whole structure and the
structural elements under the applied loads

Since most of the software, manuals provide guidelines for the use of specific
software considering the user as already having the required theoretical
knowledge and adequate experience, the intent of this manual to provide
simplified basic guidelines of the structural modeling techniques combining:
The complexity of numerical analysis by using Finite Element
Method(FEM)
The systematic procedures to use these software that are stated in the
software help manuals

The aim is to enable the user to construct a numerical model that properly
generate the expected responses of a structure

In other words, it is a simplified framework to provide guidelines for all

structural engineers including fresh graduates and undergraduate students. It
presents clarifications and answers that help the user comprehend the
different aspects of structural modeling by understanding the concepts of
analysis of the structural elements and the various ways to reflect this analysis
as given inputs within the software.
It tackles the structural elements as separate subjects clarifying the different
ways to deal with these elements based on given criteria.

Hoping this manual to serve its purpose, it is only the first edition. Your
comments, feedbacks, suggestions and queries are all welcomed to bring out
the best of and enhance the editions yet to come.
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 Contents
1. Introduction
2. Degrees of Freedom
3. Finite Elements for Structural Modeling
4. Local Axis System
5. Meshing of Area Elements (Slabs, Walls, Domes)
6. Modeling of Columns
7. Vertical Alignment
7.1 Elements of centerlines along the same vertical axis
7.2. Use stiff rigid elements
7.3. Use of shell FE
8. Modeling of Structural Walls and Core Walls
8.1 Meshing of Walls
8.2 Vertical Discontinuity in Walls
8.3 Openings in the Structural Walls
8.4 Pier assignment of shear walls and core Walls
8.5 Modeling of Walls and Core-Walls with Frame FE
9. Horizontal Alignment
10. Modeling of Beams
11. Deep Beam (Wall-Beam)
12. Modeling of Floor Slabs
13. Modeling of Ramps and Stairs
14. Story Data
15. Basic Assumptions
16. Lateral Earth Pressure on Basement Walls
17. Stiffness Modifiers
17.1 Stiffness modifiers for the FE direct results
17.2 Stiffness modifiers for the FE indirect shell results

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18. Diaphragm behavior of floor slabs
19. Connectivity of Vertical to Horizontal Structural Elements
20. P-Delta analysis of buildings
21. Seismic additional eccentricity
22. Modeling of Foundations
23. Modeling of Piles
24. Modeling of Pile-Raft foundation
25. Import of geometrical data from AutoCAD Files

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1. Introduction

The structural study of new or existing structures aims to design or assess the
structures capacity to support the effects of the straining effects as applied
external loads, imposed movements, temperature, acceleration transmitted
from supports.

The structural analysis constitutes a major step in the structural study. It

consists of determining the structural responses (movements and internal
forces) resulting from the straining effects and boundary conditions
(supporting systems). This may be performed manually using the conventional
methods of the theory of structures yet will be approximate, or by more
accurate methods such as the use of Finite Elements Method (FEM). To carry
out the analysis of a given structure by using FE, its structural elements are
divided into finite number of small elements of shapes like lines (frame
elements) or areas (triangles or quadrangle elements). FE forms
interconnected with their boundary nodes.

FE models can be created using one-dimensional (frame elements), two-

dimensional (2D shell elements) or three-dimensional (3D solid elements).

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2. Degrees of Freedom

The degrees of freedoms (D.O.F) represent the components of movement

(translations and rotations) of an element from an initial to a final position. The
movement components for an element in space consist of:

3 displacement components: UX, UY, and UZ

3 rotational components: RX, RY, and RZ

Where Ui represents the displacement parallel to i axis, and Rj

represents the rotation around the j axis.

3. Finite Elements for Structural Modeling

The finite elements that are commonly used for the structural analysis are:

The Frame (or bar) elements with various D.O.F, such as the frame
elements with 1 D.O.F (along translation D.O.F direction) to represent tie
beams, or frame elements with 3 D.O.F (one translation and 2 rotation
D.O.F) to represent beams subjected to non-axial loads within one plane
(local x-z or local x-y), or with 6 D.O.F to represent columns subjected to
axial forces and shear forces along both (X & Y) horizontal directions

Frame Element

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 Frame elements may be also used to represent structural walls (column
with equivalent section), or slabs (the grillage method) where the slab is
represented by a grid of 3 D.O.F frame elements along the length and the
width of the slab.

Shell elements with various D.O.F, as example:

The plate elements (shell elements with 3 D.O.F UZ, RX, & RY) are used to
represent slabs

The membrane elements (shell elements with 3 D.O.F UX, UY, and RZ) are
used to represent structural elements in the case where the axial forces
represent the major internal force components (as the domes and arched
roof)

The shell elements with 6 D.O.F to represent structural elements where

the generated internal forces include axial forces and flexural moments
(shear walls, prestressed concrete floor slabs, water tank walls and slabs,)

Quadrangle and Triangle Shell Elements

Volumetric elements of 3, 6, or 8 nodes of 6 D.O.F, used for the modeling

of volumetric structures such as dams, thick transfer slabs....

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4. Global and Local Axis System

The geometry of a structure (joint coordinates) is defined in an user

defined global axis system. The structural response is not affected by the
location of the global axis origin (0,0,0).

Frame Local Axis Shell Local Axis

With the finite element method, each element is allocated an independent

local axis system (independent from the global system and the local
systems of the other elements), where typically:

The local x (or 1) axis is parallel to the element neutral axis, from
origin joint to end joint
The local y ( 2 or 3) axis is the second planar axis, perpendicular to x
axis
The local z (2 or 3) axis is perpendicular to xy (1-2 or 1-3) plane

The right hand rule may also helps in defining the local axis system shown
in the next figure.

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The analysis results for FE are obtained according to the local axis systems.
For example the internal forces of the frame element parallel to local axis 1
(or x) represents the axial force (FX), V2 (or FZ) the vertical shear, V3 (or
FY) the horizontal shear, T (Mx) the torsion moment, M2 (MZ) the
horizontal flexural moment, M3 (MY)the vertical flexural moment.

For the shell elements F11, F12 and F22 represent the in-plane internal
forces, whereas V11, V12, V22, M11, M22, & M12 represent the out-of-
plane internal forces.

F11 FXX; F22FYY; F12FXY

S11 SXX; S22SYY; S12SXY
M11 MXX; M22MYY; M12MXY

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5. Basic Assumptions

The modeling of structures with finite elements software is commonly

performed taking into consideration the following:

1. Rigid connectivity between FE, which generates complex behavior

of the rigidly interconnected structural systems (framing systems,
dual system, coupled system.). Rigid default connectivity type
may however be modified with total or partial releases of one or
more than one D.O.F

2. Linear behavior of materials (Hook's law). However, an

enhancement of the material behavior may be induced with the
modification of the elements stiffness

3. Assignment by default of support type as in Etabs where all joints

at the base level are assigned pin support type. The type of
supports may be modified to a fixed type in order to enable a
transmission of moments to the foundations. More realistic
system of foundation may be adopted with plate elements
(representing the foundations) supported by springs (elastic
foundations)

4. The dimensions of the FE (frame elements and shell elements) are

geometrically extended to the connectivity joint or line of these
elements.

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 In the case of large difference between the clear length and the FE
length, rigid elements may be added to account for this difference.

6. Meshing of Area Elements (Slabs, Walls, Domes)

Meshing is the operation that transforms a contour area (wall, slab,

dome...) into a set of FE (shell, membrane, or plate) type triangles,
quadrangles, or combination of both.

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The regularity of the FE shapes and their size affect the accuracy of the analysis
results. The most regular FE shapes are the square for quadrangle FE and the
equilateral triangle for the triangular FE. However, it is recommended to
consider the ratio of shape not more than 1:2 (the minimum length to
maximum length).
The "mesh refinement" transforms the FE into smaller element sizes and
therefore increases the FE number in a contour area. The next figures show a
rectangular (8x8m) solid slab, 20 cm thick meshed with regular rectangular
mesh than with an irregular mesh respectively. The moment value at the
center of area for the regularly meshed slab was 32.7 KNm whereas the
irregular mesh generated 30.4 KNm moment at the same point.

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Theoretically, the use of regular elements shape and the mesh refinement
(decreases of the FE size) results in results that are more accurate.
However very fine mesh results in large size of the generated model and
higher run time without significant increase of the accuracy of the
obtained results.

It is recommended to use refined mesh in the zones where concentration

of stresses are expected i.e. zones of the slab near supports or where
subjected to concentrated loads or moments. It is advisable to use mesh
size with the ratio 2:2:1 (the size of the element in its plane directions is 2
times the thickness). Another recommendation is to consider the elements
size not greater than 0.5m, or the span divided by 10.

The below figure 1 shows the layout of 20cm concrete solid slab supported
by 9 columns with 8.0 m spacing, whereas figures 2, 3, and 4 show the
moment maps due to the self weight of the slab meshed with elements
size (1.6x1.6m), (0.4x0.4 m), and (0.1x0.1 m) respectively.

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 Figure 3 Figure 4

It can be noticed that:

The moment value is increased by 6.76 % with the coarse mesh

(1.6x1.6m) for the fine mesh (0.4x0.4m) -from 68.669 KNm/m to
73.313 KNm/m-.The fine mesh represents the recommended ratio
(2:2:1).

The use of very fine mesh (0.1x0.1m) generates moment (73.216

KNm/m) slightly different than the moment of the fine mesh.
(variation of 0.13%).

In brief, when the structural study targets the global behavior of the
building -as in Etabs- and the design of the structural elements (except the
floor slabs design), the refinement of the floor slabs mesh is not of major
importance since the results will not be used for the design of the slabs.
The refinement becomes of importance when the study targets the slabs
analysis and design (as in SAFE).

7 . Modeling of Columns

Columns as previously mentioned are commonly represented by frame F.E.

The frame FE analysis results, namely the internal forces, are directly used
for the design of sections, or the determination of the capacity, of the
columns.

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8. Vertical Alignment

As the dimensions of columns and/or walls elements may be reduced in

the upper floors as the internal forces decrease, the center lines (CL) of
these elements become non-vertically aligned; therefore the frame FE will
be disconnected at the floor levels.

The vertical continuity of the vertical elements is realized throughout the

following methods:

8.1. Elements of center lines along the same vertical axis

Vertical elements can be considered aligned if their center lines are at the
same vertical "Z" axis or if their center lines are slightly shifted. Slight
difference in the vertical alignment of the center lines may be ignored in
order to avoid the complexity related to the use of short rigid elements to
connect the CL at the floor levels

Architectural layout (eccentric CL of Columns) Vertical Alignment

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8.2. Use of Rigid Elements

The differences between the columns center lines may be considered with
the use of stiff rigid elements at the floor levels (applicable for both
columns and walls). Rigid Element is a weightless frame FE with extremely
high flexural and shear stiffness.

8.3. Use of shell FE

Compared to the frame FE, higher geometrical and analytical accuracy are
generated with the use of shell elements because more joints are used to
define the column (4 FE instead of 2). However, the design of the column
in this case should not be performed in the same software since shell
elements are considered as shear walls in the design process (as in ETABS).

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9. Horizontal Alignment of walls

The walls and core-wall may have different thicknesses of their parts as shown
in the next figures. These differences lead to discontinuity of the neutral axis of
the wall and the core wall parts and therefore disconnected wall section and
core-wall section when shell elements are used to represent these structural
elements.

The automatic conversion of sections including thickness variations from

AutoCAD Polyline to structural wall elements may result in improper
connections of the shell elements.

To avoid the complexity of connectivity by rigid elements and to enable the

continuity between the parts, it is advisable to consider an idealized wall or
core wall sections as shown in the next figures.

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10. Columns embedded or connected to Structural Walls

Columns may be embedded in the structural walls in the basement floors as

for the cases shown in the below figures.

The following assumptions may be adopted for the numerical study:

The part of the core-wall going along the retaining wall may be
considered same as a part of the retaining wall with different thickness
(as previously explained in paragraph 9).

The implanted column need not to be assigned within the shell core-wall
element, as the internal forces in the embedded columns decrease due
to the shell stiffness. The internal forces of the column section above the
shell element commonly govern the design of the column. Typically, the
reinforcement of the critical section at the bottom of the column (at the
link with the shell element) is extended to the floor below in the shell
element.

The columns linked to a structural wall may be shifted to the wall center
line (or the wall center line shifted to the columns c.g ), or a rigid stiff
beam element may be used to connect the column c.g to the wall center
line.

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11. Structural Walls and Core Walls

Structural (shear) Walls and core-walls are commonly represented by shell FE.
The internal forces generated in these elements include in-plane and out-of-
plane components (Axial and shear forces, torsion and biaxial flexural
moments). Considering shear wall as a membrane FE results in an
underestimation of the wall capacity since in the membrane FE 3 in-plane DOF
are involved in the analysis whereas in the shell FE 6 DOF are involved no
generation of the out of-plane internal forces in the shear wall modeled as
membrane FE.

10.1 Meshing of Walls

A rectangular wall may be represented with minimum one rectangular

shell element in each floor. In Etabs, it has by default the local axis system
as shown in the next figure.

For a higher accuracy of the analysis results, its highly advisable to mesh
wall elements as previously recommended (the single wall shell element is
not automatically meshed by default in Etabs).

10.2 Vertical Discontinuity in Walls

A wall varying in length along the building height results in discontinuous

vertical shell elements.

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 Deformed Shapes due to Lateral Forces

To ensure the continuity of the wall, shell elements may be assigned auto
edge constraints (Etabs assigns by default auto-edge constraints). A better
approach of this case may be obtained by subdividing the longer element
into several elements as shown in the next figure.

Deformed Shapes due to Lateral Forces

10.3 Openings in the Structural Walls

Openings in the structural walls may be ignored if the area of the openings
is smaller than 15% of the wall area at the same floor (an exception is to be
considered for the case of longitudinal or transversal strip openings).
Larger openings shall be included within the wall shell elements.

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10.4 Pier assignment of shear wall and core Walls

When shell elements are used for the walls and core-walls, the generated
results are distributed per unit length of the element (forces/ unit length,
moments/unit length...). For design purposes it may be preferable to
obtain the resultants of wall internal forces as concentrated along the
neutral axis, similarly to the frame FE results. This may be achieved with
different ways in the software (as advanced "reduced results" in Robot
Millennium or as pier results in Etabs....)

The pier function (or the reduced results) generates internal forces
including an important component for the design of the wall section that is
the in-plane moment of the wall (this component is not directly obtained
as FE shell result).

The in-plane moment (M3 or MY) is calculated from the summation of the
couples of axial forces generated from the normal stresses of the shell
element (s22 or syy).

Walls and core walls(1) may be assigned same pier label at all floor levels
except for the case were the wall is subdivided in more than one shell
within the same floor (case for large wall opening(2) ), in such case each
shell is assigned a different pier label.
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The core wall maybe assigned several pier labels for each shell element.
Whatever is the assignment method of the core wall, the design results will
be the same (the area of reinforcement of the whole pier section =
summation of the reinforcement area of the different piers) since the pier

results -or the reduced results- are generated from the same FE shell
analysis.
(1)
When a wall is assigned an opening, the shell element shall be
subdivided into elements connected at boundary joints as illustrated
in the next figures.

Wall (shell element) Subdivision into several

with opening shell elements

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10.5 Walls and Core-Walls with Frame FE

Structural walls and core walls may be represented by frame FE for a

simplified analysis as follow:

The structural wall is assigned a frame FE -wide section- at the center of

gravity1 (CG) line of the wall sections.

The Core-wall is assigned 2 frames FE:

o The first frame element is going along the neutral axis of the core-
wall, and assigned the section properties related to axial stiffness
(namely the area and the modulus of elasticity).

o The second frame is located along the vertical axis of the shear
center and assigned the section properties related to the flexural
and torsion stiffness properties (Ix, Iy, and Iz) 2,3 .

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The main advantage of using the Frame FE approach is the direct use of the
results (the internal forces) in the design of the wall/ core-wall sections,
whereas the use of shell elements requires followed by a pier assignment
(or reduced results) to generate results similar to the frame. The main
disadvantage is related to the disregard of the warping stresses of the
core-wall section behaving as thin-walled.
(1)
The Center of Gravity (CG) -or the center of area- is structurally defined
as the point of the cross section of an element that causes uniform
stresses and shortening -or elongation- of the element when subjected
to normal forces. When the applied normal force is eccentric with
respect to the CG, it generates different axial shortening (or elongation)
of the section points.
(2)
The Shear Center (SC) is structurally defined as the point of the cross
section of an element that causes lateral displacement for the case of
vertical elements (in-plane displacement of the element cross sections),
when a lateral force is applied at the SC. When the lateral force is
applied eccentrically to the SC the element, sections displace
horizontally and rotate (twist).

Wall Axially loaded Wall subjected to eccentric load

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 Shear Force along the Shear center Torsion moment generated
from eccentric shear force

10.4 Boundary zones of shear walls and Core-Walls with

Shear walls are assigned boundary zone of higher ratio of reinforcement

when the normal stresses at the wall boundaries exceed certain limit. The
boundary zones length from the of shear wall edge is varying from 0.15Lw
to 0.25Lw as shown in the next figure.

For the core wall sections the boundary zones may be defined as the
corner zones of the walls intersection as the sections type U-shape, L-

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shape, box-shape ... However in the case of complex section shape not all
walls intersection constitutes boundary zones.

The end zone in core-wall sections may be identified with as the zones
maximum normal stress values within the simplified normal stress
equation for a section subjected to axial force (N), and biaxial moments
(Mx and My) as explained in the following procedure.

- The normal stress equation: (for an elastic linear distribution of stresses)

= N/A (Mx/Ix)*x (My/Iy)*y

- The datum of the stress diagram (line 0f zero stress) is obtained for = 0,
which lead to:

= N/A (Mx/Ix)*x (My/Iy)*y y= a*x+b (line equation)

- The extreme values of stresses for a given (N, Mx ,and My) are obtained
for the points at the far points of the section on the datum line as shown in
the next figure.

As it can be concluded, the external corner edges of the section generate

the extreme stresses, whereas the stresses at all section parts (including
the interior walls intersections) are within the extreme values.

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11. Modeling of Beams

Similarly to the columns, beams are commonly represented in the

numerical model as frame FE or with shell elements as for the cases listed
in the next paragraph. Due to the rigid -by default- connectivity type
between beam frame elements to the vertical (columns or walls) frame or
shell elements, the numerical analysis generates framing (beam-columns)
and coupling (beam-walls) behaviors.

Due to the complexity of the design, detailing, and execution of the beam-
column and the beam-wall connections, the beam elements may not be
included in the building numerical. The beams role as supporting elements
of the floor slabs may be included in the study of the slabs (using SAFE
software for example).

When beams are included in the structural model in order to support

gravity loads, rotational releases should be assigned to the beam-column
and beam-wall connection to prevent framing or coupling behavior.

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However releases of all structure beams may lead to instability warning
messages due to excessive releases.

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 12. Deep Beam (Wall-Beam)

Beams may be represented by shell FE (that is considered as the more

accurate modeling approach) for the following cases of beams:

Deep beams (or the wall beams) where the beam depth may cover a
whole floor height. The deep beams may be used to support the loads of
implanted columns
The coupling beams which are beams connecting walls along their
strongest axis of inertia
Beams connecting slab parts of different levels within the same floor.

Similar to the case of pier assignment of shear walls, when beams are
represented by shell elements, they are assigned spandrel label to generate
design forces (or as reduced results) at the centerline of the beam.

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The internal forces include the in-plane flexural moments (M3 or My) that
are calculated from the summation of the couple of forces generated from
the normal stresses (s11 or sxx), in a way similar to the determination of
the in-plane moment of shear wall assigned as pier.

13. Floor Slabs

Floors slabs are represented by thin 6 DOF shell FE. However slabs may be
represented by either:

Membrane FE to prevent the slab flexural stiffness from generating

framing behavior ,with columns, or coupling behavior (with walls) due to
lateral forces.

Plate FE which includes the flexural out of-plane slab inertia in the
numerical analysis. In this condition, no temperature analysis can be
performed since no in-plane D.O.F are involved.

Shell FE, where all degrees of freedom are used to generate in-plane and
out of-plane internal forces (as the PT slabs).

14. Ramps and Stairs

Ramps and Stairs are type of inclined slabs between story levels. However,
and since they do not affect significantly the gravity loads distribution or
the diaphragm behavior of the floor slabs when buildings are subjected to
lateral forces, an approximation may be considered as flat ramps and
stairs at each floor level.

15. Story Data

The story data for the numerical model may be summarized with the
following points:

Stories number: is the same as the number of floors or number of

slabs.

The story height: is the distance between the floor slabs mid-
thickness, except for the floor directly above foundation where the

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 story height is considered as the distance from the top of the
foundation to the mid-thickness of the first slab.

When the foundation system in not included in the numerical model,

the first floor slab is the cover slab of the foundation level, i.e. if the
building consists of 2 basement floors, the first floor slab assigned is
the basement 1 architectural slab.

Unlike the architectural drawings of floor slabs that shows the slab
geometry ,including shafts, recessed zones, and the vertical
elements above this slab, in some software (as ETABS), slabs are
assigned the vertical elements below -supporting- the slab,
supporting it.

16. Lateral Earth Pressure on Basement Walls

The basement Walls constitute important stiffeners for the buildings

when subjected to lateral forces due to wind pressure or earthquakes.
The earth pressure on the basement walls may be ignored due to the
following reasons:
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 In the case of completely embedded basement floors

- The basement walls are subjected to equal and opposite lateral

earth pressure. Thus, the corresponding resultant is equal to
null.

- The lateral earth pressure generates compressive stresses in

the floor slabs and commonly minor effects on the vertical
elements. However, in the case of non-rigid diaphragm of the
floor slabs, the effect of the lateral pressure on the vertical
elements should be taken into consideration.

In the case of partially embedded basement floors (no basement

peripheral walls at one or more than one sides of the basement
floors), part of the lateral earth pressure is transmitted as story
shear to the vertical elements. In such case, the earth pressure
should be assigned to the basement walls.

17. Stiffness Modifiers

When the structural analysis is conducted considering elastic behavior

of concrete material (Hooks low: = E) as in the case of most
engineering software, the flexural cracking of concrete and the
corresponding reduction of the flexural stiffness is not taken into
consideration.

Since the vertical elements (columns and walls) are mostly subjected to
compressive axial forces, they crack less than horizontal elements
(beams and slabs) which are subjected mostly to flexural moments.
The elastic analysis results in:

Underestimation of the internal forces in the vertical elements

Overestimation of the internal forces in the horizontal elements.
Underestimation of the building lateral displacements (sway and
drifts), and deflections of slabs and beams.

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 The effects of concrete cracking can be considered with the ACI318
(6.6.3.1.1) reduced inertia for vertical and horizontal elements as
follow:

The reduction of inertia may be assigned to the different elements to

affect the direct FE analysis results, or to affect the indirect FE shell
results as explained hereafter:

17.1 Stiffness modifiers for the FE direct results

The frame FE (columns, beams, walls as wide columns...): the

reduction of stiffness is assigned for the moments of inertia
about axis 2 (or z) and axis 3 (or y).
The slabs (represented by plate of shell FE) the reduction of
stiffness is assigned for the flexural movements m11 (or mxx) and
m22 (or myy).

17.1 Stiffness modifiers for the FE indirect shell results

When shell FE represent walls and wall-beams, the modification of

the stiffness modifier, the out of-plane bending along m11 (mxx)
and m22 (myy), will not affect the in-plane main in-plane flexural
moment M3 (My) generated from normal stresses s22 (syy) for
the walls, and s11 (sxx) for the wall-beam. The modification of the
stiffness modifier components should therefore be as follow:

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 For The wall-beam: the reduction is assigned to membrane f11
(sxx) direction.

For The structural walls and the core-walls: the reduction is

assigned to membrane f22 (syy) direction (1), bending m22
(myy) direction, and bending m11 (mxx) direction (2).
(1)
It is to note that when reducing the membrane f22 (syy) modifier
in order to reduce the flexural stiffness for the in-plane moments,
this reduces also the axial stiffness of the walls; thus resulting in
an underestimation of design axial forces of the walls due to the
gravity (dead and live) loads.
(2)
Where the floor slabs are assigned rigid diaphragm behavior (no
in-plane moments are generated), m11 (mxx) has no significant
value and may be omitted.

18. Fixity level for seismic forces

When subjected to lateral earthquake forces, The fixity level of the building
may be defined as the level of maximum internal forces, or the level of
minimum displacements. Based on this definition, the fixity level may not
be necessarily the same as the foundations level, especially for buildings
with basement floors connected to the basement peripheral walls.

In most situations, when the basement floors are connected to the

peripheral basement walls ( the retaining walls) the ground level
represents the fixity level of the building with the reduction of the
earthquake moments on the structural resisting system of the building,
due to the contribution of the basement wall flexural stiffness.

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 However, during the design phase of the vertical elements, it should be
taken into account the fact that as the earthquake moment decreases
below the ground level, the axial gravity forces increase, and therefore
the design may be governed by maximum moment at ground level or
maximum axial at lower basement levels.

18. Diaphragm behavior of floor slabs

The effects of the lateral forces are commonly related to location of the
applied forces. This in turn is related to specific geometrical points such
as the center of mass (COM), and the center of rotation (COR).

The Center Of Mass represents the location of the resultant of floor mass
i.e. the center of slab area when the mass is uniformly distributed, and
the related vertical elements masses. The Vertical element masses
include half the vertical elements height below the slab, and half the
height above slab as shown in the next figure. The vertical element mass
is considered as the center of gravity of the section.

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 Floors lumped- masses Masses at a floor level

The Center of Rotation represents the center of inertia when the

resisting system to lateral forces consists of shear walls, core walls,
cantilevered columns) or the center of shear rigidity for the frame
resisting system. The COR location is defined as the resultant of vertical
elements inertia (or shear rigidity). The inertia of vertical elements is
located at the center area of solid sections (rectangular, circular.) or
the shear center for the thin walled sections (core walls).

The position of the COM or the COI may be determined considering

arbitrary origin as shown in the next figures for the determination of the
COR.

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For the study of the building response to lateral forces as wind pressure,
earthquakes, earth pressure. (Except the temperature effects),
diaphragm behavior is assigned to the floor slabs. The rigid diaphragm
behavior may be explained by the following figures.

Points A and B have original coordinates (xA, yA), (xB, yB) with respect
to a reference point O, and the angel AOB. When the floor slab is
subjected to horizontal force and torsion (in-plane) moment, the new
coordinates of A' (xA, yA),B' (xB, yB) and are defined in the deformed
slab.

If: xA= xA; yA= yA; xB= xB; yB= yB; and =, than A, B, O (and all
slab points) are moved with the same degrees of freedom (2
displacements UX, UY, and one rotation RZ) and the slab is behaving as
rigid diaphragm.

The assignment of diaphragm to floor slab has the main advantage of

reducing the numbers of unknowns (degrees of freedom) for each slab
point from 6 times the number of joints to 3, which results in reduction
of the runtime of the analysis. In addition, the diaphragm extent is used
in Etabs to evaluate the wind forces at the different story slabs levels.

The diaphragm behavior cannot be assigned to floor slabs for the

analysis of loads that generate in-plane forces or deformation such as
the temperature gradient and the prestressed forces.

The diaphragm represents an infinitely in-plane (horizontal) stiffness of

the floor slab. When the in-plane stiffness is reduced by any factor, semi-
rigid or flexible diaphragm behavior may be assigned to the floor slab.

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 Rigid diaphragm is not applicable for the following cases.

The opening area in slab exceeds 50% of the floor area

The strip slab shape

Another criteria for the use of rigid diaphragm behavior, is when the
maximum lateral displacement in a floor slab exceeds 20 percent the
average displacement at the same floor slab.

19. Connectivity of Vertical to Horizontal Structural Elements

By default, the connectivity of the structural finite elements in the

numerical models is of rigid type, and may be transformed to released or
partially released connection types. However, these types of connectivity
do not effectively represent the accurate behavior of connections in the
executed structures (namely the concrete structures) due to the following
reasons:

a) The generated forces within the connecting joint are based on

perfect elastic behavior of the material (Hooks low) and gross
section properties of the connected elements. Yet at certain level of
stresses, the material behaves non-linearly, and cracks of concrete
sections start to appear leading to reduction of the sections inertia.
Same phenomena may be generated in plastic zones of the
elements, away from the connectivity joint, due to excessive reversal
shear or normal stresses.

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 Moreover, the use of stiffness modifiers to account for the reduction
of elements stiffness constitutes also an approximation since it is
based on the consideration of same uniform- reduction of the
stiffness along the element length. The realistic behavior generates
reduction of inertia (due to cracking) that varies within the same
element from section to another in accordance to the stresses
magnitude.

b) The common execution detailing practice of the horizontal-to-

vertical connection where no continuity in reinforcement is
provided. The floor slabs and beams are typically detailed as pin
supported by the columns and walls, as shown in the next figures.

A quasi hinge behavior is developed for the shown typical detail

unless the development length of rebar is enough extended to allow
for fixed or partially fixed joint behavior.

The rigid -by default- connectivity of the vertical elements to the

horizontal elements at top floor level generates moments that
govern the design of the vertical elements at this level. The ratio of
reinforcement of the vertical elements, at this level, commonly
exceeds the ratio at several floors below. The vertical element can

40
 be assigned end release to prevent the generation of moments at
the connecting joint. In the case where direct end release for walls
(or slab) is not available in the software as in Etabs for example, a
reduction of the out-of plane stiffness modifier (m22) leads to same
release results.

c) The release of rotation at an element edge cannot be achieved in the

common practice of construction unless special element, like bearing
pads is used. This is due to the requirement of real hinges to reduce
the section moment of inertia of connected element edge to enable
free rotational movements.

20. P-Delta analysis of buildings

The P-delta analysis of building accounts for the geometrical non-

linearity effects on the vertical elements. The next sketches show the
generated forces (Diagrams of normal forces, shear forces, and
moments respectively) of a vertical cantilever without geometrical
nonlinearity and with geometrical P-Delta analysis.

41
The effect of P-delta analysis may not have important effects on building
unless the stability coefficient ratio "" of the cumulative secondary to
main moment exceeds 0.1. According to the IBC 1617.4.6.2 "" is
determined by the equation:

= Px/VxhsxCd

Where:

Px = total unfactored vertical design load above level x

= design story drift occurring simultaneously with Vx
Vx = seismic shear force acting between levels x and x-1
hsx = story height below level x
Cd = deflection amplification factor

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 21. Seismic additional eccentricity

The torsion additional eccentricity for the study of seismic forces, given
as minimum of 5% of the floor projected length perpendicular to the
story seismic shear force, should be considered as positive and negative
respectively. By considering two cases of loading (positive and negative
eccentricities) the analysis generates an envelope of internal forces for
the resisting system elements.

When the structural study includes dynamic analysis cases of loading, no

additional eccentricity need to be taken into consideration for the static
seismic analysis since the value of the base shear, which is used for the
scaling of the dynamic base shear, is not affected by the additional
eccentricity

22. Modeling of Foundations

The modeling of the foundations is performed as thick plates set on

elastic supports. However, the following should be taken into
consideration The soil stiffness is determined with the soil subgrade
modulus "Ksub" that is commonly provided by the geotechnical study or
by approximate methods as equal to 120*qallowable or Es/B(1-2),.....

Where:
qallowable = soil bearing capacity (t/m2)
Es= soil modulus of elasticity
B = the least foundation planar size
= soil poisson's ratio
By using the subgrade modulus, the software generates springs
(representing the soil stiffness) with single partially restricted
degree of freedom parallel to the vertical global direction.

Lateral supports (pin, roller, or spring) should be assigned to the

foundation to prevent instability of the structure

The above motioned methods represent an approximation to the

soil-structure interaction behavior, since it does not account for
the main important factors:
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 o The non-linear behavior of the soil
o the mutual interaction behavior of the soil-structure
(redistribution of stresses in the upper structural system
and the soil)
o The effects of load from adjacent structures

23. Modeling of Piles

The bearing pile is commonly represented by spring with one -or multi-
D.O.F. The spring is assigned stiffness along the vertical and horizontal
directions for pile-foundation hinge connectivity, or springs along the
vertical, horizontal, and rotational directions for the pile-foundation rigid
connectivity type.

The vertical stiffness Kz of the spring represents the least value between
the reinforced concrete capacity and the geotechnical capacity (skin
capacity + end bearing capacity if exist).

The best evaluation of Kz value is determined from the load bearing test,
which is commonly performed at the early stage of structure execution.
Therefore, a preliminary value of Kz should be adopted for the structural
study phase.

The preliminary value of Kz can be assumed as:

o Similar to the values from already tested piles of a nearby project

o From recommended geotechnical studies.
o Conservatively evaluated as the axial stiffness of the concrete pile
as:
F= Kz allowable Kz = F/ allowable
where:
F= Apile*conc
Apile = Cross section area of pile = d2/4
d = Pile diameter
conc = Allowable normal stress of concrete assumed limited to 0.25f'c
f'c = Compressive strength of concrete
allowable = Allowable settlement of pile that may be assumed as 0.01d
Kz = d2* 0.25 f'c/(4*0.01d) 20*f'c*d

44
 In the absence of accurate method to evaluate the horizontal stiffness
(Kx and Ky) it may be assigned an approximate value of 0.1 Kz.

A better modeling of the pile may be obtained by rigidly connecting

points of the foundation on the circumference of the pile to the point
spring.

Higher accuracy of pile behavior may be obtained with non-linear Kz

spring.

24. Modeling of Pile-Raft foundation

The modeling of the pile-raft foundation may be performed with springs

in accordance to the above-mentioned approaches. However, the large
difference between the pile and the soil vertical spring stiffness should
be taken into consideration. Otherwise, the analysis results in
overestimation of the soil spring contribution to support the loads
transmitted to the soil.

There are several approximate ways to account for this difference, such
as:

Neglecting the soil vertical stiffness in the case where the piles are
grid-closely-type distributed
45
 Assigning reduced vertical stiffness to the soil between piles

Neglecting the soil stiffness in the zones surrounding the piles and
considering full soil stiffness outside these zones in the case of
spaced distribution of piles

25. Warnings

Warnings in structural numerical analysis may be generated by many

reasons such as the boundary conditions, the F.E mesh (size, shape
irregularity, connectivity). Warning may be ignored in some cases or
they may importantly affect the analysis results.

25.1 Boundary conditions

The boundary conditions may generate geometrical instability of the

structure or the supporting joints, and therefore warnings, as illustrated
in the following cases.

Case1

Case2

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Case3

25.2 Loss of accuracy- Negative stiffness

Most software (as Etabs) performs arithmetic calculations with 15 digits of

accuracy. 3 cases might be encountered:

1. If the loss of accuracy is less than 6 digits, it is considered negligible

by the software and won't be reported

2. If the loss of accuracy is above 11 digits, the software will give an

error massage and the running is aborted.

3. If the loss of accuracy is between 6 and 11 digits, the global force

balance relative error should be checked for each load case to be
relatively small (within 1% for example). this can be checked in the
*.out file, the *.log file, or equivalent.

25.2 Negative stiffness

The warning due to negative stiffness results commonly for unstable

structure. The factors related to the stability (as the boundary conditions
and the stiffness) should be revised.

47
25. Import of geometrical data from AutoCAD Files

The geometrical structural data that are used for the numerical model
may be prepared from the architectural drawings following the below
recommended steps:

Four new layers are to be created in the AutoCAD architectural files for
th2e: slabs (S-Slab), Walls (S-Wall), Columns (S-Column), and Openings
(S-Opening).

The new structure layers are used to create the contour of the
corresponding elements i.e. Slabs, Walls, Columns, and Openings. All
contour lines are to be closed polyline type.

Each floor slab is exported into a new file with a reference point (same
horizontal coordinates point at all levels) at origin (coordinates 0, 0, 0).
The reference point should be architecturally fixed such as an inner
corner of the lift shaft or staircase.

The floor slab components are to be scaled to 1 unit length= 1m

The new file is to be saved as dxf file (preferably an old AutoCAD

version) with the same architectural floor slab label

Same above procedure is repeated for the floor slabs of different

geometry

48
49
Will be added to this guidelines:

1. Including Mxy to Mxx and Myy by Wood and Armer or other

2. Caisson behavior of basement floor slabs that better represents the

interaction soil-foundation-structure

3. to ensure the orientation of the local axis of the wall prior to assign pier
behavior

4. Water tank case of study

5. wall moment diagram in dual system

6. level of scaling dynamic to static

7. check of mass source

8. axial forces in vertical elements manual versus numerical

9. to ask najib kasty about unconnected mesh

Upcoming:

Tutorial movies for Buildings using Etabs and Robot

Tutorial movies for reinforced concrete Slabs and foundations using Safe

Tutorial movies for prestressed concrete slabs using Adapt

Advanced modeling of structures using Abaqus

Contact mail: ytemsah@hotmail.com

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