IS 10262 : 2009
6.1 Chemical Composition
The raw materials used for the manufacture of
cement consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina and
iron oxide. These oxides interact with one another in
the kiln at high temperature to form more complex
compounds. The relative proportions of these oxide
compositions are responsible for influencing the
various properties of cement; in addition to rate of
cooling and fineness of grinding.
Table 6.2 Approximate Oxide Composition Limits of
Ordinary Portland cement
Oxide Percent
content
CaO 6067
SiO2 1725
Al2O3 3.08.0
SO3 1.33.0
Fe2O3 0.56.0
MgO 0.14.0
Alkalis (K2O, Na2O) 0.41.3
The oxides present in the raw materials when
subjected to high clinkering temperature combine
with each other to form complex compounds. The
identification of the major compounds is largely
based on R.H. Bogues work and hence it is called
Bogues Compounds. The four compounds usually
regarded as major compounds are listed in table 1.5.
6.1.1 Bogues Compounds
Name of Compound Formula Abbreviated
Formula
Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S (54.1 %)
Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 C2S(16.6%)
Tricalcium aluminate3Cao.Al2O3 C3A(10.8 %)
Tetra calcium aluminoferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
C4AF (9.1%)
In addition to the four major compounds, there are
many minor compounds formed in the kiln. The
influence of these minor compounds on the
properties of cement or hydrated compounds is not
significant. Two of the minor oxides namely K2O and
Na2O referred to as alkalis in cement are of some
importance.
6.1.2 Hydration of Cement
Anhydrous cement does not bind fine and coarse
aggregate. It acquires adhesive property only when
mixed with water. The chemical reactions that take
place between cement and water is referred as
hydration of cement. The chemistry of concrete is
essentially the chemistry of the reaction between
cement and water.On account of hydration certain
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products are formed. These products are important
because they have cementing or adhesive value. The
quality, quantity, continuity, stability and the rate
of formation of the hydration products are
important. Anhydrous cement compounds when
mixed with water, react with each other to form
hydrated compounds of very low solubility. The
hydration of cement can be visualized in two ways.
The first is through solution mechanism. In this
the cement compounds dissolve to produce a
supersaturated solution from which different
hydrated products get precipitated. The second
possibility is that water attacks cement compounds
in the solid state converting the compounds into
hydrated products starting from the surface and
proceeding to the interior of the compounds with
time. It is probable that both through solution and
solid state types of mechanism may occur during
the course of reactions between cement and water.
The former mechanism may predominate in the
early stages of hydration in view of large quantities
of water being available, and the latter mechanism
may operate during the later stages of hydration.
7.1.1 Plasticizers or water reducing Admixtures
Sometimes the use of plasticizers is employed to
reduce the cement content and heat of hydration in
mass concrete. The organic substances or
combinations of organic and inorganic substances,
which allow a reduction in water content for the
given workability, or give a higher workability at the
same water content, are termed as plasticizing
admixtures. The advantages are considerable in
both cases: in the former, concretes are stronger, and
in the latter they are more workable.
The basic products constituting plasticizers are as
follows:
(i) Anionic surfactants such as lignosulphonates and
their modifications and derivatives, salts of
sulphonates hydrocarbons.
(ii) Nonionic surfactants, such as poly glycol esters,
acid of hydroxylated carboxylic acids and their
modifications and derivatives.
(iii ) Other products, such as carbohydrates etc.
Among these, calcium, sodium and ammonium
lignosulphonates are the most used. Plasticizers are
used in the amount of 0.1% to 0.4% by weight of
cement. At these doses, at constant workability the
reduction in mixing water is expected to be of the
order of 5% to 15%. This naturally increases the
strength. The increase in workability that can be
expected,at the same w/c ratio, may be anything
from 30 mm to 150 mm slump, depending on the
dosage, initial slump of concrete, cement content and
type.
7.1.2 Action of Plasticizers

The action of plasticizers is mainly to fluidify the mix
and improve the workability of concrete, mortar or
grout. The mechanisms that are involved could be
explained in the following way:
7.1.3 Dispersion.
Portland cement, being in fine state of division, will
have a tendency to flocculate in wet concrete. These
flocculation entraps certain amount of water used in
the mix and thereby all the water is not freely
available to fluidify the mix.
When plasticizers are used, they get adsorbed on the
cement particles. The adsorption of charged polymer
on the particles of cement creates particle-to-particle
repulsive forces which overcome the attractive
forces.
The overall result is that the cement particles are
deflocculated and dispersed. When cement particles
are deflocculated, the water trapped inside the flocs
gets released and now available to fluidify the mix
and hence the inter-particle friction is reduced.
8.1 Workability
Hundred per cent compaction of concrete is an
important parameter for contributing to the
maximum strength. Lack of compaction will result
in air voids whose demaging effect on strength and
durability is equally or more predominant than the
presence of capillary cavities.
To enable the concrete to be fully compacted with
given efforts, normally a higher water/cement ratio
than that calculated by theoretical considerations
may be required. That is to say the function of water
is also to lubricate the concrete so that the concrete
can be compacted with specified effort forthcoming
at the site of work. The lubrication required for
handling concrete without segregation, for placing
without loss of homogeneity, for compacting with the
amount of efforts forth-coming and to finish it
sufficiently easily, the presence of a certain quantity
of water is of vital importance.
The quality of concrete satisfying the above
requirements is termed as workable concrete.
8.1.1 Workability may be defined as the ease with
which concrete can be compacted hundred per cent
having regard to mode of compaction and place of
deposition.
8.1.2 Factors Affecting Workability
Workable concrete is the one which exhibits very
little internal friction between particle and particle
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The factors helping concrete to have more
lubricating effect to reduce internal friction for
helping easy compaction are given below:
(a)Water Content
(b)Mix Proportions
(c)Size of Aggregate
(d)Shape of Aggregates
(e)Surface Texture
(f )Grading of Aggregates
(g)Use of Admixtures
8.1.3 Slump Test
Slump test is not a suitable method for very wet or
very dry concrete. It does not measure all factors
contributing to workability, nor is it always
representative of the placability of the concrete.
However, it is used conveniently as a control test and
gives an indication of the uniformity of concrete from
batch to batch.
The apparatus for conducting the slump test
essentially consists of a metallic mould in the form
of a frustum of a cone having the internal
dimensions as under:
Bottom diameter : 20 cm
Top diameter : 10 cm
Height : 30 cm
For tamping the concrete, a steel tamping rod 16 mm
dia, 0.6 meter along with bullet end is used. The
internal surface of the mould is thoroughly cleaned
and freed from superfluous moisture and adherence
of any old set concrete before commencing the test.
The mould is placed on a smooth, horizontal, rigid
and non-absorbent surface. The mould is then filled
in four layers, each approximately 1/4 of the height
of the mould. Each layer is tamped 25 times by the
tamping rod taking care to distribute the strokes
evenly over the cross section. After the top layer has
been rodded, the concrete is struck off level with a
trowel and tamping rod. The mould is removed from
the concrete immediately by raising it slowly and
carefully in a vertical direction. This allows the
concrete to subside. This subsidence is referred as
SLUMP of concrete. The difference in level between
the height of the mould and that of the highest point
of the subsided concrete is measured. This difference
in height in mm. is taken as Slump of Concrete.
8.1.4 Compacting Factor Test
It is more precise and sensitive than the slump test
and is particularly useful for concrete mixes of very
low workability as are normally used when concrete
is to be compacted by vibration. Such dry concrete
are insensitive to slump test.
The sample of concrete to be tested is placed in the
upper hopper up to the brim. The trap-door is opened
so that the concrete falls into the lower hopper. Then
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the trap-door of the lower hopper is opened and the
concrete is allowed to fall into the cylinder.
The excess concrete remaining above the top level of
the cylinder is then cut off with the help of plane
blades supplied with the apparatus. The outside of
the cylinder is wiped clean. The concrete is filled up
exactly upto the top level of the cylinder. It is
weighed to the nearest 10 grams. This weight is
known as Weight of partially compacted concrete.
The cylinder is emptied and then refilled with the
concrete from the same sample in layers
approximately 5 cm deep. The layers are heavily
rammed or preferably vibrated so as to obtain full
compaction. The top surface of the fully compacted
concrete is then carefully struck off level with the top
of the cylinder and weighed to the nearest 10 gm.
This weight is known as Weight of fully compacted
concrete.
The Compacting Factor = Weight of partially
compacted concrete / Weight of fully compacted
concrete
9.1 Definition of Durability
The durability of cement concrete is defined as its
ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack,
abrasion, or any other process of deterioration.
Durable concrete will retain its original form,
quality, and serviceability when exposed to its
environment.
For a long time, concrete was considered to be very
durable material requiring a little or no
maintenance. The assumption is largely true, except
when it is subjected to highly aggressive
environments. We build concrete structures in
highly polluted urban and industrial areas,
aggressive marine environments, harmful sub-soil
water in coastal area and many other hostile
conditions where other materials of construction are
found to be non-durable. Since the use of concrete in
recent years, have spread to highly harsh and hostile
conditions, the earlier impression that concrete is a
very durable material is being threatened,
particularly on account of premature failures of
number of structures in the recent past.
9.1.1Significance of Durability
When designing a concrete mix or designing a
concrete structure, the exposure condition at which
the concrete is supposed to withstand is to be
assessed in the beginning with good judgement. In
case of foundations, the soil characteristics are also
required to be investigated.
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9.1.2 Chemical Action
When we are dealing with the durability of concrete,
chemical attack which results in volume change,
cracking of concrete and the consequent
deterioration of concrete becomes an important part
of discussion. Under chemical attack, we shall
discuss about sulphate attack, alkali-aggregate
reaction,carbonation, deicing effect of salt, acid
attack and effect of sea water.
9.1.2.1 Sulphate Attack
Most soils contain some sulphate in the form of
calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium.
Therefore sulphate attack is a common occurrence in
natural or industrial situations.
Solid sulphates do not attack the concrete severely
but when the chemicals are in solution, they find
entry into porous concrete and react with the
hydrated cement products. A characteristic whitish
appearance is the indication of sulphate attack. The
term sulphate attack denote an increase in the
volume of cement paste in concrete or mortar due to
the chemical action between the products of
hydration of cement and solution containing
sulphates. In the hardened concrete, calcium
aluminate hydrate (C-A-H) can react with sulphate
salt from outside. The product of reaction is calcium
sulphoaluminate, forming within the framework of
hydrated cement paste. Because of the increase in
volume of the solid phase which can go up to 227 per
cent, a gradual disintegration of concrete takes
place.
The reactions of the various sulphates with
hardened cement paste is shown below
Let us take the example of Sodium Sulphate
attacking Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2+Na2SO4.10H2OCaSO4.2H2O+2NaOH+8H2O
The rate of sulphate attack increases with the
increase in the strength of solution. A saturated
solution of magnesium sulphate can cause serious
damage to concrete with higher water cement ratio
in a short time. However, if the concrete is made
with low water cement ratio, the concrete can
withstand the action of magnesium sulphate for 2 or
3 years. The concentration of sulphates is expressed
as the number of parts by weight of SO3 per million
parts. 1000 PPM is considered moderately severe
and 2000 PPM is considered very severe, especially
if MgSO4 is the predominant constituent.
Another factor influencing the rate of attack is the
speed in which the sulphate gone into the reaction is
replenished. For this it can be seen that when the
concrete is subjected to the pressure of sulphate
bearing water on one side the rate of attack is
highest. Similarly, alternate wetting and drying due
to tidal variation or spraying leads to rapid attack.

9.1.2.2 Chloride Attack
Chloride attack is one of the most important aspects
for consideration when we deal with the durability
of concrete. Chloride attack is particularly important
because it primarily causes corrosion of
reinforcement. Statistics have indicated that over 40
per cent of failure of structures is due to corrosion of
reinforcement.
We have already discussed that due to the high
alkality of concrete a protective oxide film is present
on the surface of steel reinforcement. The protective
passivity layer can be lost due to carbonation. This
protective layer also can be lost due to the presence
of chloride in the presence of water and oxygen. In
reality the action of chloride in inducing corrosion of
reinforcement is more serious than any other
reasons. One may recall that sulphates attack the
concrete whereas the chloride attacks steel
reinforcements.
Chloride enters the concrete from cement, water,
aggregate and sometimes from admixtures. The
present day admixtures are generally contain
negligible quantity of chloride or what they call
chloride free. Chloride can enter the concrete by
diffusion from environment.
9.1.2.2.1 Corrosion of Steel (Chloride induced)
Corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemical
process. When there is a difference in electrical
potential along the steel reinforcement in concrete,
an electrochemical cell is set up. In the steel, one
part becomes anode and other part becomes cathode
connected by electrolyte in the form of pore water in
the hardened cement paste. The positively charged
ferrous ions Fe++ at the anode pass into solution
while the negatively charged free electrons e pass
through the steel into cathode where they are
absorbed by the constituents of the electrolyte and
combine with water and oxygen to form hydroxyl
ions (OH). These travel through the electrolyte and
combine with the ferrous ions to form ferric
hydroxide which is converted by further oxidation to
rust.
The reactions are described below
Anodic reactions
Fe Fe++ + 2e
Fe + 2(OH) Fe(OH)2(Ferrous hydroxide)
++ -
4Fe (OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 4Fe(OH)3 (Ferric oxide)
Cathodic reaction
4e + O2 + H2O 4(OH)
It can be noted that no corrosion takes place if the
concrete is dry or probably below relative humidity
of 60 percent because enough water is not there to
promote corrosion. It can also be noted that corrosion
does not take place if concrete is fully immersed in
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water because diffusion of oxygen does not take place
into the concrete. Probably the optimum relative
humidity for corrosion is 70 to 80 per cent.
The products of corrosion occupy a volume as many
as six times the original volume of steel depending
upon the oxidation state.
The increased volume of rust exerts thrust on cover
concrete resulting in cracks, spalling or
delamination of concrete. With this kind of
situations concrete loses its integrity. The cross
section of reinforcement progressively reduces and
the structure is sure to collapse.
9.2 Concrete Subjected to High Temperature
Concrete, though not a refractory material, is
incombustible and has good fire-resistant properties.
The effect of increase in temperature on the strength
of concrete is not much upto a temperature of about
250C but above 300C, definite loss of strength
takes place.
9.3 Freezing and Thawing
Water expands about 9% in volume during freezing.
The formation of ice lenses formed in the body of
fresh concrete disrupt the fresh concrete causing
nearly permanent damage to concrete.
9.4 Deicing Effect of Salts
Deicing chemicals used for snow and ice clearance
can cause and aggravate surface scaling.
9.5 Moisture Movement
The exposure of concrete to repetitive expansion and
shrinkage or repetitive compressive stress and
tensile stress due to alternate wetting and dying
may cause fatigue in concrete and affect the
durability of concrete.
9.6 Transition Zone
Concrete is a brittle material which develops micro
cracks even before any load is applied.Transition
zone is the zone between aggregate and hydrated
cement paste.
9.7 Biological Process
It is a common site that in many buildings plants
grow and the roots slowly penetrate into concrete or
small cracks in concrete and converts it into bigger
cracks with further growth.Even small plants such
as lichen, algae and mass growing on concrete
surface attract moisture and encourage physical and
chemical process to deteriorate the concrete.
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9.8 Structural Design Deficiencies
Sometimes inadequate provision of main steel
reinforcement, or inadequate provision for
temperature reinforcement, or wrong spacing of
bars, or absence of corner reinforcement may cause
unacceptable cracks in concrete.
10.1 Water/Cement Ratio
Strength of concrete primarily depends upon the
strength of cement paste. We know that the strength
of cement paste depends upon the dilution of paste
or in other words, the strength of paste increases
with cement content and decreases with air and
water content. In 1918 Abrams presented his classic
law in the form:
S=/
where x =water/cement ratio by volume and for 28
days results the constants A and B are 14,000 lbs./sq.
in. and 7 respectively.
Abrams water/cement ratio law states that the
strength of concrete is only dependent upon
water/cement ratio provided the mix is workable. In
the past many theories have been propounded by
many research workers. Some of them held valid for
some time and then underwent some changes while
others did not stand the test of time and hence slowly
disappeared. But Abrams water/cement ratio law
stood the test of time and is held valid even today as
a fundamental truth in concrete-making practices.
No doubt some modifications have been suggested
but the truth of the statement could not be
challenged.
The graph showing the relationship between the
strength and water/cement ratio is approximately
hyperbolic in shape. Sometimes it is difficult to
interpolate the intermediate value. From geometry
it can be deduced that if the graphs is drawn
between the strength and the cement/water ratio an
approximately linear relationship will be obtained.
This linear relationship is more convenient to use
than water/cement ratio curve for interpolation.
11.1 Determination of Tensile Strength
Direct measurement of tensile strength of concrete
is difficult. Neither specimens nor testing apparatus
have been designed which assure uniform
distribution of the pull applied to the concrete.
While a number of investigations involving the
direct measurement of tensile strength have been
made, beam tests are found to be dependable to
measure flexural strength property of concrete.
The value of the modulus of rupture (extreme fiber
stress in bending) depends on the dimension of the
beam and manner of loading. The systems of loading
used in finding out the flexural tension are central
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point loading and third point loading. In the central
point loading, maximum fiber stress will come below
the point of loading where the bending moment is
maximum. In case of symmetrical two point loading,
the critical crack may appear at any section, not
strong enough to resist the stress within the middle
third, where the bending moment is maximum. It
can be expected that the two point loading will yield
a lower value of the modulus of rupture than the
centre point loading.
The standard size of the specimens are 15 x 15 x 70
cm. Alternatively, if the largest nominal size of the
aggregate does not exceed 20 mm, specimens 10 x 10
x 50 cm may be used.
The mould should be of metal, preferably steel or
cast iron and the metal should be of sufficient
thickness to prevent spreading or warping. The
mould should be constructed with the longer
dimension horizontal and in such a manner as to
facilitate the removal of the moulded specimens
without damage.
The tamping bar should be a steel bar weighing 2 kg,
40 cm long and should have a ramming face 25 mm
square.
The testing machine may be of any reliable type of
sufficient capacity for the tests and capable of
applying the load at the rate specified. The
permissible errors should not be greater that 0.5
per cent of the applied load where a high degree of
accuracy is required and not greater than 1.5 per
cent of the applied load for commercial type of use.
The bed of the testing machine should be provided
with two steel rollers, 38 mm in diameter, on which
the specimen is to be supported, and these rollers
should be so mounted that the distance from centre
to centre is 60 mm for 15 cm specimen or 40 cm for
10.0 cm specimens. The load is applied through two
similar rollers mounted at the third points of the
supporting span, that is, spaced at 20 or 13.3 cm
centre to centre. The load is divided equally between
the two loading rollers, and all rollers are mounted
in such a manner that the load is applied axially and
without subjecting specimen to any torsional
stresses or restrains.
11.1.1 Procedure
Test specimens are stored in water at a temperature
of 24 to 30C for 48 hours before testing. They are
tested immediately on removal from the water
whilst they are still in a wet condition. The
dimensions of each specimen should be noted before
testing. No preparation of the surfaces is required.
The bearing surfaces of the supporting and loading
rollers are wiped clean, and any loose sand or other
material removed from the surfaces of the specimen
where they are to make contact with the rollers. The
specimen is then placed in the machine in such a
manner that the load is applied to the uppermost

surface as cast in the mould, along two lines spaced
20.0 or 13.3 cm apart. The axis of the specimen is
carefully aligned with the axis of the loading device.
No packing is used between the bearing surfaces of
the specimen and the rollers. The load is applied
without shock and increasing continuously at a rate
such that the extreme fibre stress increases at
approximately 0.7 kg/sq cm/min that is, at a rate of
loading of 400 kg/min
for the 15.0 cm specimens and at a rate of 180 kg/min
for the 10.0 cm specimens. The load is increased
until the specimen fails, and the maximum load
applied to the specimen during the test is recorded.
The appearance of the fractured faces of concrete
and any unusual features in the type of failure is
noted.
The flexural strength of the specimen is expressed as
the modulus of rupture fb which if a equals the
distance between the line of fracture and the nearer
support, measured on the centre line of the tensile
side of the specimen, in cm, is calculated to the
nearest 0.05 MPa as follows:
Pxl
fb =
bd2
When a is greater than 20.0 cm for 15.0 cm
specimen or greater than 13.3 cm for a 10.0 cm
specimen, or
3P x a
fb =
bd2
when a is less than 20.0 cm but greater than 17.0
cm for 15.0 specimen, or less than 13.3 cm but
greater than 11.0 cm for a 10.0 cm specimen where
b = measured width in cm of the specimen,
d = measured depth in cm of the specimen at the
point of failure,
l = length in cm of the span on which the specimen
was supported, and
p = maximum load in kg applied to the specimen.
If a is less than 17.0 cm for a 15.0 cm specimen, or
less than 11.0 cm for a 10.0 cm
specimen, the results of the test be discarded.
11.2 Indirect Tension Test Methods
11.2.1 Cylinder Splitting Tension Test: The test is
carried out by placing a cylindrical specimen
horizontally between the loading surfaces of a
compression testing machine and the load is applied
until failure of the cylinder, along the vertical
diameter.
When the load is applied along the generatrix, an
element on the vertical diameter of the cylinder is
subjected to a vertical compressive stress of
2P D2
x[ -1]
xLxD r x (Dr)
and a horizontal stress of
2P
xLxD
where, P is the compressive load on the cylinder
L is the length of cylinder
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D is its diameter
and r and (D r) are the distances of the elements
from the two loads respectively.The loading
condition produces a high compressive stress
immediately below the two generators to which the
load is applied. But the larger portion corresponding
to depth is subjected to a uniform tensile stress
acting horizontally. It is estimated that the
compressive stress is acting for about 1/6 depth and
the remaining 5/6 depth is subjected to tension.In
order to reduce the magnitude of the high
compression stresses near the points of application
of the load, narrow packing strips of suitable
material such as plywood are placed between the
specimen and loading platens of the testing machine.
The packing strips should be soft enough to allow
distribution of load over a reasonable area, yet
narrow and thin enough to prevent large contact
area. Normally, a plywood strip of 25 mm wide, 3
mm thick and 30 cm long is used.
The main advantage of this method is that the same
type of specimen and the same testing machine as
are used for the compression test can be employed
for this test. That is why this test is gaining
popularity. The splitting test is simple to perform
and gives more uniform results than other tension
tests. Strength determined in the splitting test is
believed to be closer to the true tensile strength of
concrete, than the modulus of rupture. Splitting
strength gives about 5 to 12% higher value than the
direct tensile strength.
12.1 Maturity Concept of Concrete
While dealing with curing and strength
development, we have so far considered only the
time aspect. It has been pointed out earlier that it is
not only the time but also the temperature during
the early period of hydration that influence the rate
of gain of strength of concrete. Since the strength
development of concrete depends on both time and
temperature it can be said that strength is a function
of summation of product of time and temperature.
This summation is called maturity of concrete.
Maturity = (time x temperature)
Maturity concept is useful for estimating the
strength of concrete at any other maturity as a
percentage of strength of concrete of known
maturity. In other words, if we know the strength of
concrete at full maturity (19,800Ch), we can
calculate the percentage strength of identical
concrete at any other maturity by using the following
equation given by Plowman.
Strength at any maturity as a percentage of strength
at maturity of
()
19,800Ch. = A + B log10 3
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The values of coefficients, A and B depend on the
strength level of concrete. The values are given in
Table
Table 13 Plowmans Coefficients for Maturity
Strength after 28 days at 18C
(Maturity Coefficient of 19,800Ch):
MPa A B
Less than 17.5 10 68
17.5 35.0 21 61
35.0 52.5 32 54
52.5 70.0 42 46.5
The values of A and B are plotted against the cube
strength at the maturity of 19,800 Ch. A straight
line relationship will be obtained indicating that
they are directly proportional to the strength.
13.1 Soundness Test
It is very important that the cement after setting
shall not undergo any appreciable change of volume.
The testing of soundness of cement, to ensure that
the cement does not show any appreciable
subsequent expansion is of prime importance.
The unsoundness in cement is due to the presence of
excess of lime than that could be combined with
acidic oxide at the kiln.
Unsoundness in cement is due to excess of lime,
excess of magnesia or excessive proportion of
sulphates.
Unsoundness in cement does not come to surface for
a considerable period of time. Therefore, accelerated
tests are required to detect it. There are number of
such tests in common use.
13.1.1 Le Chatelier test
The apparatus consists of a small split cylinder of
spring brass or other suitable metal. It is 30 mm in
diameter and 30 mm high.
On either side of the split are attached two indicator
arms 165 mm long with pointed ends. Cement is
gauged with 0.78 times the water required for
standard consistency (0.78 P), in a standard manner
and filled into the mould kept on a glass plate. The
mould is covered on the top with another glass plate.
The whole assembly is immersed in water at a
temperature of 27C- 32C and kept there for 24
hours.
Measure the distance between the indicator points.
Submerge the mould again in water. Heat the water
and bring to boiling point in about 25-30 minutes
and keep it boiling for 3 hours. Remove the mould
from the water, allow it to cool and measure the
distance between the indicator points. The difference
between these two measurements represents the
expansion of cement. This must not exceed 10 mm
12
for ordinary, rapid hardening and low heat Portland
cements.
If in case the expansion is more than 10 mm as
tested above, the cement is said to be unsound.
The Le Chatelier test detects unsoundness due to
free lime only. This method of testing does not
indicate the presence and after effect of the excess of
magnesia.
14.1 Curing of Concrete
Curing is being given a place of increasing
importance as the demand for high quality concrete
is increasing. It has been recognized that the quality
of concrete shows all round improvement with
efficient uninterrupted curing. If curing is neglected
in the early period of hydration, the quality of
concrete will experience a sort of irreparable loss.
Theoretically, for a concrete made and contained in
a sealed container a water cement ratio of 0.38 would
satisfy the requirement of water for hydration and
at the same time no capillary cavities would be left.
However, it is seen that practically a water/cement
ratio of 0.5 will be required for complete hydration in
a sealed container for keeping up the desirable
relative humidity level.
In the field and in actual work, it is a different story.
Even though a higher water/cement ratio is used,
since the concrete is open to atmosphere, the water
used in the concrete evaporates and the water
available in the concrete will not be sufficient for
effective hydration to take place particularly in the
top layer.
If the hydration is to continue unabated, extra water
must be added to replenish the loss of water on
account of absorption and evaporation.
Alternatively, some measures must be taken by way
of provision of impervious covering or application of
curing compounds to prevent the loss of water from
the surface of the concrete. Therefore, the curing can
be considered as creation of a favorable environment
during the early period for uninterrupted hydration.
The desirable conditions are, a suitable temperature
and ample moisture.
The quick surface drying of concrete results in the
movement of moisture from the interior to the
surface. This steep moisture gradient cause high
internal stresses which are also responsible for
internal micro cracks in the semi-plastic concrete.
14.2 Curing Methods
Curing methods may be divided broadly into four
categories:
(a) Water curing (b) Membrane curing (c)
Application of heat (d) Miscellaneous like
Application of heat, Steam curing at ordinary
pressure, High Pressure Steam Curing, Curing by
Infra-red Radiation ,Electrical Curing

14.2.1 Water Curing
This is by far the best method of curing .Water
curing can be done in the following ways:
(a) Immersion (b) Ponding (c) Spraying or Fogging
(d) Wet covering
The precast concrete items are normally immersed
in curing tanks for a certain duration. Pavement
slabs, roof slab etc. are covered under water by
making small ponds. Vertical retaining wall or
plastered surfaces or concrete columns etc. are cured
by spraying water. In some cases, wet coverings such
as wet gunny bags, hessian cloth, jute matting,
straw etc.,are wrapped to vertical surface for
keeping the concrete wet. For horizontal surfaces
saw dust, earth or sand are used as wet covering to
keep the concrete in wet condition for a longer time
so that the concrete is not unduly dried to prevent
hydration.
14.2.2 Membrane Curing
Sometimes, concrete works are carried out in places
where there is acute shortage of water. The lavish
application of water for water curing is not possible
for reasons of economy.It has been pointed out
earlier that curing does not mean only application of
water, it means also creation of conditions for
promotion of uninterrupted and progressive
hydration. It is also pointed out that the quantity of
water, normally mixed for making concrete is more
than sufficient to hydrate the cement, provided this
water is not allowed to go out from the body of
concrete. For this reason, concrete could be covered
with membrane which will effectively seal off the
evaporation of water from concrete. It is found that
the application of membrane or a sealing compound,
after a short spell of water curing for one or two days
is sometimes beneficial.
Sometimes, concrete is placed in some inaccessible,
difficult or far off places. The curing of such concrete
cannot be properly supervised. The curing is entirely
left to the workmen, who do not quite understand the
importance of regular uninterrupted curing. In such
cases, it is much safer to adopt membrane curing
rather than to leave the responsibility of curing to
workers.
Some of the materials, that can be used for
membrane curing are bituminous compounds,
polyethylene or polyester film, waterproof paper,
rubber compounds etc.
15 Vertical Load Carrying Frame Construction
This type of construction consists of frames
with flexible (hinged) joints and bracing
members. Steel multistoreyed building or
industrial frames and timber construction
usually are of this type.
13
IS 10262 : 2009
15.1 Such buildings shall be adequately
strengthened against lateral forces by shear
walls and/or other bracing systems in plan,
elevation and sections such that earthquake
forces shall be resisted by them in any
direction.
15.1.1 Moment Resistant Frames with Shear
Walls
The frames may be of reinforced concrete or
steel with semi-rigid or rigid joints. The walls
are rigid capable of acting as shear walls and
may be of reinforced concrete or of brickwork
reinforced or unreinforced bounded by framing
members through shear connectors.
The frame and wall combination shall
be designed to carry the total lateral force due
to earthquake acting on the building. The
frame acting alone shall be designed to resist at
least 25 percent of the total lateral force.
15.2 The shear walls shall preferably be
distributed evenly over the whole building.
When concentrated at one point, forming what
is called a rigid core in the building, the design
shall be checked for torsional effects and the
shear connection between the core and the
floors conservatively designed for the total
shear transfer.
15.3 The shear walls should extend from the
foundation either to the top of the building or to
a lesser height as required from design
consideration. In design, the interaction
between frame and the shear walls should be
considered properly to satisfy compatibility and
equilibrium conditions.
NOTE Studies show that shear walls of height about
85 percent of total height of building are advantageous.
16. Box Type Construction
This type of construction consists of
prefabricated or in situ masonry, concrete or
reinforced concrete wall along both the axes of
the building. The walls support vertical loads
and also act as shear walls for horizontal loads
acting in any direction. All traditional masonry
construction falls under this category. In
prefabricated construction attention shall be
paid to the connections between wall panels so
that transfer of shear between them is ensured.
17. CATEGORIES OF BUILDINGS
17.1 For the purpose of specifying the
earthquake resistant features in masonry and
wooden buildings, the buildings have been
categorized in five categories A to E based on
the seismic zone and the importance of building
I, where
I = importance factor applicable to the
building [see 17.2.1 and Table 17.]