MBDCI

Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Maurice Dusseault
 MBDCI

The Challenge of Shales

Shale is the most challenging of the rock types
we drill for the following reasons:
 It is the most common (70% of drilling)
 It is widely variable (shale is a very broad term)
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

 It can be chemically reactive (smectitic shale)

 It can be mechanically weak (fractured shale)

 It can react poorly with OMB (carbonaceous sh.)

We assess issues of shale stability mainly by

 Understanding stresses (natural, induced)
 Understanding volume changes
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Stress Trajectories, Concentrations

v Stress trajectories are

lines which represent
the flow of stresses
through the solid body

Shear stresses cannot

pass through a fluid,
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

HMAX
circular however, compressive
opening, HMAX stresses can (i.e. a fluid
pw pressure in a borehole)

Region of elevated

On the boundary of the

opening, is zero and
r = pw (pressure)
v
Remember that stress concentrations around the borehole
lead to yield, with a zone of microfissuring & weakening
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Shrinkage / Swelling

Other things being equal, in a shale, moisture
content is inversely linked to strength

In a borehole, exposure to higher mud salinities
leads to moisture transfer , loss of V
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

This reduces the tangential stresses,

This increases rock stability , but
 Microfissures can open (more rapid fluid flux)
 Local strains can degrade cohesion

Conversely, exposure to lower mud salinities

leads to swelling: yield, weakening, sloughing
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Water in Shales

Silicate minerals adsorb
up to 9-11 layers of bound H2O; closest
layers most tightly bound, molecular water on their surfaces
exchange occurs by Brownian effects

te r

The larger the area, the
a
ew more H2O absorbed
Na + f re
a te r
e dw icle
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

b t
ad
so
r
a l pa
r
Na+
In reactive shales, most
r
i ne
l a ym r Na+ hydrated water is not free
c ate cations
w
fre
e
In non-reactive shales,
at
thro H2O is more free to
move (advection)
pore throat blocked by adsorbed H2O

In smectitic (reactive) shales, >90% of H2O is bound

In illitic or chloritic (non-reactive) shales, usually <30% is bound
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Measuring Geochemical Sensitivity

is a measure of shale reactivity

= SaGsw
 = Reactivity coefficient (dimensionless)
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

 Sa = Specific surface of shale effects

 Gs = Solids specific gravity
 w = Water mass density
 = Double layer thickness effects

Measures both clay and aqueous properties

You can make these measurements on the

rig on drill chips and cavings if you want

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Smectitic Shales

High content of swelling clays (smectite, also
called bentonite or montmorillonite)

High surface area means there is a great deal
of electrostatically absorbed water on clays
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

These shales are by far the most reactive

shales because of their high surface area

Smectites are destroyed by T at depth, they
do not exist below ~6000 m

Above 4000 m, they are usually intact,
unfissured and ductile. (OBM works great)
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Quartz-Illite Shales

Clays have been changed from smectite and
kaolinite to illite and quartz

Very low surface area, and the deposited silica
acts as a cement, also, low porosity
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

They are geochemically non-reactive

The mineral change involves a great deal of
shrinkage, leading to intense fracturing

Fractured shales are almost never reactive (no
smectite), are deeper, high k

Mechanical effects dominate
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Other Shales?

Marly (CaCO3) shales never a problem

Coaly shale, may be a problem if fissile and
with OBM (wettable)

Oil shale (kerogenous shale) usually strong
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Kaolinite shales can be a problem, but they

dont swell (low reactivity)

Chloritic shales are quite inert (non-reactive),
stability problems are very rare

Soil vermiculite shales are very rare, etc
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Intact Shale Response no Damage

pressure
Pressure from mud weight
pw
p(r) in steady-state A zero time
Transient p curves, B intermediate time
gradient decreases C long time
with time C
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

B
pore pressure
A

distance (r)
borehole

Steeper pressure gradients near the borehole wall give better

pressure support. The natural decay to steady-state means
support diminishes slowly with time, as a function of k.
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In Intact Shale Without Damage

At time = 0, the borehole is just drilled
 Stressrelief from loss of radial effective stress
 The shale is dense and expands a wee bit

 Low permeability retards H2O ingress

3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

 Therefore, p actually drops! Good for stability

With time, this effect dissipates and support

right at the wall is gradually diminished

Note: fractured shales slough almost
immediately if mud is poor because high
permeability makes support difficult
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Damage Effect on p Support

no p for wall support
pressure
mud pressure
pw

B(damaged borehole) shale

transient A(intact p(r) curves
pressure borehole) with time
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

curves

po
formation pressure
pressure gradient
drops with time

borehole
distance (r)
low permeability shale = no mudcake

High rock damage. This permits pressure penetration, loss

of radial mud support. It is time-dependent and bad for stability.
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Damage Effect and Permeability

Microfissuring starts to develop (high )

The permeability of intact shale ~10-9 D

The permeability of damaged shale:
A function of the intensity of microfissuring
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

 A function of the connection and aperture too

Microfissured shale permeability ~10-3 D

Now, water can flow in, pressure support is
lost, and geochemistry effects are accelerated

V increases, the hole sloughs and grows, and it
continues until the wash out is huge
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Breakouts Mean Deeper Damage

Microfissuring, k is
HMAX
Shearing, fissures, massively affected
cohesion destroyed

hmin hmin
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

borehole

high
Breakouts,
ravelling, HMAX
sloughing
Microfissure damage always goes much deeper than
the measured breakout geometry on a geophysical log
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Fissuring in Shale, No Breakouts!

Anisotropic stresses usually
Single extensional axial
HMAX exist in the borehole plane
fractures develop parallel
to HMAX, region of low

hmin Any hole in a naturally

anisotropic stress field has
low large tangential stresses,
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

low radial stresses.

mud-filled
borehole

Extensional microfissuring
high from high compression
Shearing and dilation,
high tangential stress, All types of brittle damage make
normal to HMAX pressure penetration easier!

Understanding shale damage is vital! It governs stability.

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V and Stress Concentrations

region of stress
If a circular inclusion rarefaction
is heated, it expands
and attracts com-
pressive stress from +V
region of stress
all directions
concentration
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

If a circular inclusion region of stress

is cooled it contracts -V
rarefaction
and sheds com-
pressive stress from region of stress
all directions concentration

The behavior of an expanding or contracting inclusion is

a good model to help remember stress concentrations
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Microfissuring, Damage, Yield

In most cases, except in a case such as an
uplifted & eroded basin, shale is weak

High leads to yield = microfissuring

Reduces cohesion, shale is weakened more
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Microfissures coalesce to form chips

These become fully detached (no cohesion)

This happens in a TIME DEPENDENT way
 T, p diffusion as well as chemical diffusion

After some time, sloughing is a problem
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Mudcake and p Support

pressure sandstone
pw

p across p(r), steady-state,

mudcake
no mud-cake
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

po

p(r) with mudcake

distance (r)
borehole

mudcake limited solids

invasion depth

Pressure support orks in sands but not in shales.

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Chip Support by p Across Wall

borehole wall The support force is
proportional to p across the
chip, in direction of the
shale chip maximum pressure gradient.

p p - p
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Pressure gradient direction

Borehole filled
with mud at a F
Outward force on the shale chip
higher pressure (the seepage or hydrodynamic force)
than the shale

The pressure drop across the chip is related

to time (transient effect) and the material
permeability (increased by damage).

This is why damaged shale can stay in place for some time
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Time and Chemical Dimensions

Comparison to good old gyp mud: Gypsum HF100

North Sea: Rogaland and Hordaland shale sequence
Relative hole enlargement (gage = 1)

1.7

1.6 1.25 g/cm3

3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

1.5

1.4 KCl mud

1.3
1.35 g/cm3 Lignosulfonate mud
1.30 g/cm3
Gypsum HF100
1.2

1.1

1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Exposure time to mud (days)

Courtesy Geomec A.S.

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Shale Swelling, Geochemistry

Driven by chemistry differences (C)
 Changes in physical properties c/t
 Shrinkage or expansion V/t

Advection component (p) can be

3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

important, especially with damaged shale

 Changes in effective stresses /t
 Also, V/t related to /t

Thermal effects (T) can affect processes

 Thermally-induced volume changes

These three diffusion processes are (t),
coupled, complex, and non-linear (sorry!)
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How Oil Base Muds Work

Intact shales: tiny, water-wet pores: a high
capillary entry pressure exists, so pw - po acts
right on hole wall, giving good support

No filtrate invasion = little shale deterioration
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

by geochemistry

Shales shrink (-V) by dewatering because of
high salinity of the aqueous phase in OBM

Undrained behavior (-p) maintained longer
because of low k in shales, little H2O transfer

All of these are beneficial in general
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The Capillary Fringe

pw po = p = ow/2r oil-base
mud
oil r H2O
shale
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

p capacity
po
ow = oil-water pw
surface tension
r = curvature radius

shale,
borehole water-wet

Capillary fringe

The major OBM effect is the capillary fringe support,

which is why they work so well in intact shales
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OBM However

The capillary effect is lost in fractured shales -
poor support

The salinity effect is irrelevant in non-reactive
(Quartz-Illite) shales
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

If fissility planes exist in coaly shales or deep

oil shales, OBM often worse than WBM

OBM is usually much more expensive

It is not the answer to all shale problems

When OBM works (in intact reactive shales), it
is absolutely fabulous
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Shale Shrinkage is Good!

Water can be sucked out by several
mechanisms (see list next slide)

Causes a V around the hole, changes

3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

low wall reduced peak

stress

peak
shift (r) distributions

borehole
radius
zone of
shrinkage

Stability is enhanced!
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Shrinkage Mechanisms

Cooling the borehole wall causes shrinkage

Using a Ca++-base WBM tends to generate
shrinkage in highly reactive shales

Using a K+-base WBM also, because K+
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

fits into cation sites more snugly

If the WBM filtrate is substantially more
saline than the pore water in the shale:
 Osmotic suction is set up, water is sucked out
of the shale, shrinkage occurs

Some chemicals coat clays, reducing the
water layer thickness, leading to shrinkage
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WBM and Shales

We must cope with fractures and fissures

We must cope with high wall stresses

We must cope with reactive shales

Agents to block fissures are useful
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

 Gilsonite, LCM graded mud if large fissures

Agents that are chemically beneficial
 Reduce clay reactivity
 Agents that lead to shrinkage

 Agents that reduce permeation and diffusion

NaCl-saturated mud is almost always good

for reactive ductile shales (slow ROP!)
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KCl-Glycol Muds

Potassium ion displaces Na+ in clay minerals

K+ fits well into lattice = shale shrinkage

Higher concentration of K+ = more shrinkage

This shrinkage leads to reduced near the
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

wall = better stability!

Glycol in suspension used. Why?
 Glycol particles block microfissures = less flow
 This tends to reduce and delay sloughing

 Also, glycol tends to adsorb on clay particles

All three effects are generally beneficial for

borehole stability
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Effect of K+-Induced Shrinkage

Shrinkage reduces
tangential stress -
]max
]max

3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Shrinkage
effect

Far-field
radius - r stresses

elastic solution (expected)

effect of shale shrinkage
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Role of Glycol in K+-Glycol Mud

It has a chemical
glycol plugs
microfissures
effect, reducing
swelling
pi

It has a mechanical
pw
effect, blocks cracks
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

This helps maintain

the support pressure
chip

pi
pw
F
Glycol concentration
must be kept above the
WBM cloud point (solubility
chip support F: limit) so that free
F ~ A(pw pi)
droplets are
A = chip area
throughout the mud
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Ca++-Based Muds

Gyp muds (low pH, CaSO4)

Lime muds (high pH CaO, Ca(OH)2)

Lime muds seem particularly effective in
controlling geochemically sensitive shales
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

 Cation exchange and shrinkage

 Increased interparticle bonding

BUT! These high solids muds tend to

reduce penetration rate = longer exposure

However, they are inexpensive and thus
expendable, + less environmental impact
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Signs of Geochemical Instability

Usually only with WBM

Increase in cavings volume

Cuttings are mushy and rounded
Bit balling, BHA balling, increased ECD
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Gradual continued increase in torque

Overpull off slips during trips

Pump pressure gradually increasing

Gradual changes in mud system properties,
rheology, solids content and type
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Signs of Mechanical Instability

All types of mud

Large cuttings and cavings, odd shapes,
increases of shale on shaker (in surges?),
 Splintery cavings, blocky chunks of shale
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Hole fill on connections and trips

Stuck pipe because of bridging, pack-offs

Lost circulation in shale zones (MW too high),
including ballooning effects

Changes in the pump pressure, often surges

Sudden erratic changes in torque
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Trajectory Choice (Avoidance?)

Selected trajectories and careful choice of drill
site can easily be applied to drilling on land.

mudline

v = 3
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Drilling to avoid crossing Drilling to cross fault and

fault in fractured shale fissile shale close to 90
HMAX = 1

extended reach
fault
deviated
well
troublesome fractured shale

reservoir
tight radius well

Drill through faults and fissile shales at 9025

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Is Faster Drilling the Best Cure?

Shorter exposure = less t for diffusion
processes to act on the shale, therefore less
deterioration develops

Approaches to achieve more rapid drilling
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

 Smallerholes (e.g. slim exploration holes)

 Reduce or eliminate logging if possible

 Longer bit runs = fewer trips

 Improved hole hydraulics

 Underbalanced or near-balance drilling

Small holes also are relatively stronger

Expandable liners + bicentre bits
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Drilling Faster Reduces Problems

10 days drlg. 30 days drlg.
Drilling exploration or
12 hole, production wells?
10 casing

Exploration wells can be
slim hole, fast wells
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Same
Reduced exposure time

depth, 5
9 hole casing
for troublesome shales
7 casing strings

Smaller diameter leads to
greater stability

Lower mud costs, etc.
6 slim hole,
exploration!
Fewer casing strings!
UNOCAL
Watch your ECD!
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Examination of Shale Chips

Mode of failure: shear, spalling, sloughing

Adequate cleaning? po > pw? Remedies?
SPLINTERY TABULAR ANGULAR

Borehole wall

Sheared surfaces
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Sheared surfaces

Preexisting cleavages planes in natural fracture/joint sets

Bedding planes

Top view

Side view
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Shale Chip Morphology

Sheared surfaces are usually visible on drill bit
fragments, learn to identify them

Large curved splinters usually indicate borehole
instability sourced chips
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Flat planar features usually indicate sloughing of

naturally fractured shales

Geochemical alterations on planar surfaces
indicate naturally fractured shales

Highly dispersed chunks poor inhibition in WBM

Etc.
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Shale Fragments
From 12400
Note the abundance of linear breaks (yellow) which
appear to be oblique to shale bedding surfaces,
indicating the probability of pre-existing fractures.
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling
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Typical Blocky Cavings

Hole
wall
shape
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Blocky
BlockyCavings
Cavings
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Small and Mixed Cavings

Smaller blocky
3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

cavings

Gravel-like cavings
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Lessons Learned

Shale is the most challenging material
 Reactive or non-reactive?
 Fissile? Fractured? Intact? Laminated?

Reactivity data help mud design decisions

3-E Geomechanics and Shale Drilling

Understanding damage and its effect on k

helps to optimize mud choice

Chemical + mechanical cures are important for
reactive shale (K-glycol, OBM, lime)

Mechanical cures are used for fractured and
non-reactive shales