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MBDCI
Hydraulic Fracture Geomechanics

4-C Hydraulic Fracture Geomechanics
Maurice Dusseault
MBDCI
Hydraulic Fracturing Uses
To enhance well productivity (drainage area)

Propped fractures in reservoirs, geothermal well
fracs, access to naturally fractured zones ....
To introduce thermal energy (steam fractures)

To measure stress (Minifrac, LOT, XLOT)
For drill cuttings annular reinjection - CRI
For massive solid waste disposal
For acidizing, for choking rates
Other uses
MBDCI
E.g.: A Fracture Choking Production
Propped fracture chokes off the

Poor recovery high-k zone, allowing a larger
from lower production proportion from lower
sand bodies zones, increasing recovery ratios
high k sand body

medium k sand
medium k sand
shales
medium k sand
Problem Solution
Concept developed by Statoil Arthur Bale
MBDCI
Equipment issues
HF Modeling
growth
Stress assumptions
for analysis Pressures vs time
Courtesy Natchiq Corp
MBDCI
Conventional Assumptions
Fractures propagate as a planar surface

through a solid material
The material is assumed to have an intrinsic
resistance to fracture (eg: KIC)
The far-field stresses stay sensibly constant,

material properties as well
Fractures are approximately symmetric
Other similar assumptions are common, and
these assumptions are used in developing
models that are used in analysis
MBDCI
E.g.: Fractures are Symmetric
sulphur
Fractures reflect the local stress field,
salt
saltdome and tend to elongate asymmetrically
dome
gas
fracture oil
Close
wells
salt
A A
More distant wells
Clearly, not all fractures are symmetric! Local stress fields

are important! Are other HF modeling assumptions
robust?
MBDCI
Typical Model Attributes

Rock behaves as a L-E material
Fracture orientation remains constant
Constant fracture tip toughness (KIC)
Mode I (opening mode) fracture, no shear

Bleed-off with a 1-D flow model = (1/t)
Fluid buoyancy effects often ignored
Constant permeability assumed
Simplifications are necessary for modeling,
but they must be robust!
MBDCI
Impact of Assumptions
In soft, weak sandstones, the various
assumptions made in fracture modeling lead
to a number of problems
Length in SWR greatly over-predicted
Aperture predictions are invalid
Injection pressures rise with time
Fracture orientation changes occur
Fractures rise, even horizontal ones
Shearing along flanks ignored
Non-linear bleed-off ignored (L, t)
Other effects as well

MBDCI
So What Do We Do??
We behave as responsible engineers:
Recognize that models are simplifications
Learn more about stresses, geomechanics
Calibrate models in real field cases

Understand that production changes stresses
Take measurements when it is feasible
Design on expected behavior, but

Understand the physics behind fracturing
Learn from the data, analyze the unexpected
This is what engineering is all about

MBDCI
Behavior of Hydraulically
Induced Fractures
MBDCI
Fracture Growth is Complex!
Poor fluid Horizontal

Out-of-
diversion fractures
zone
growth
? ?
?
?
Upward ? Twisting
Pay
fracture fractures
growth Pay
? ?
Perfect
fracture
Multiple fractures T-shaped
dipping from vertical fractures
Pinnacle Tech. Ltd.
MBDCI
Controls on Fracture Direction
In situ stresses are the major control!!!

Fractures propagate normal to 3
Local fracture propagation direction may be
affected by joints, fractures, bedding, but for

short distances only
Stresses may also be changed by processes!
By massive injection processes (+p)
By thermal effects (T)
By production (depletion) effects (-p)
By solid waste injection (V)
MBDCI
Local Fabric and Fracturing
Locally, fracture 3
follows fabric;
globally, fractures
Local stress field around
follow stress fields the borehole (10 D max)
3 Joint system in the rock

Local fabric will affect fracture direction, but at a large-
scale, 3 direction governs the fracture orientation.
MBDCI
Goals and Reality
Or Or
500 ft
1200 ft
Pay
zone
What we want What we get

MBDCI
Multiple Zone Stimulation
Pay zone
Pay zone
Pay zone
What we want What we get

MBDCI
Why Vertical Fractures Rise
Fracture fluid gradient is almost always less

than the 3 gradient = excess p is
generated at the top of the fracture
Rise rate can be affected by fluid density
Rise rate can be affected by leak-off rates

(more leak-off = less rise)
Rise rate can be affected by stresses and
stiffness of overlying strata
Rock strength is largely irrelevant in
stopping large vertical fractures rising!!
MBDCI
Why Fractures Rise

Fracture fluid has a
pressure
density of < ~1.2 lateral (stress)
stress
The gradient of lateral vertical positive
fluid pressure
stress (dh/dz) is much fracture driving
force
more than this value stress gradient fracture fluid

is typically gradient is
Thus, there is an extra 17-23 kPa/m 10-13 kPa/m
driving pressure at top

Deficiency in driving 3 injection
point
injection
point
pressure at bottom pressure and stress
are about the same
Fracture tends to rise at the injection point
pressure
deficiency
MBDCI
Fractures Rising Out of Zone
injection
wellbore
shale t4
overburden
t3
reservoir
t2
t1
perforations
MBDCI
Horizontal Fractures
At shallow depth, heated or large V cases,
tectonic stress cases (3 = v, thrust regime)
Tend to climb away from injection point
Tend to be highly asymmetric in shape
Propagation of a shear band well in advance of

the parting fracture plane is common
Shallow rising fracs tend to pan-out under
stiff, competent strata (eg: cemented zones)
Almost impossible to numerically model in a
physically rigorous manner
MBDCI
Horizontal Fractures in SWR*
Horizontal fractures do not grow 3
pinj > v injection borehole
least principal stress = v

fracture
pans-out
3 under shale
fractures tend to rise

gently in this case
*SWR = Soft, weak rock such as unconsolidated sandstones

MBDCI
Different Stresses in Strata

Often, fractures do not rise out of the zone,
they stay in the zone and propagate laterally.
Why?
This usually means that hmin in the upper zone
is larger than in the lower zone

This is a barrier to upward propagation
It is easier to grow laterally that to grow
upward, which needs a higher fracturing
pressure
MBDCI
Blunting Upward Growth

stress This is the ideal
v fracture, only attained
hmin
when a higher stress
gradient in the
overburden blunts rise
High lateral stress

blunts vertical growth
Fracture grows in
the zone of lower
hmin
Key!!
depth
Is this common? Yes. For example, in the Gulf of Mexico

MBDCI
Natural hmin (PF) Variations
Absolute stress values Stress gradient plot

stress
hydrostatic po
hmin v hmin v
z z
shale
sandstone
shale
salt (po is undefined

in salt beds)
limestone
shale
depth depth
Pore pressure distribution
Frac gradient, PF in ppg, is fracture pressure/depth = hmin/z

MBDCI
GoM Case
In the GoM, it is typical that the shales have
higher lateral stresses than the sands
In other words, PF (shales) > PF (sands)
This provides a stress barrier to upward
propagation of hydraulic fractures

It is the common case in all gravitational
basins, also common in normal fault basins
However, this may not apply at great depth
Shales have undergone diagenesis, changes
Lateral stresses in shales now lower than sands
Also, not in tectonic basins, near salt

MBDCI
Lower Overburden 3 Case
stress
Preferential
hmin v propagation in the
zone of lower hmin
Initial
Fracture fracture
Normal
retreat growth
case
phase
depth
MBDCI
Case of Low Overburden PF

In this case, for tectonic reasons or
diagenetic alterations:
The overlying cap rocks (shales or siltstones)
have a lower PF than the reservoir rocks
It doesnt matter if the overlying rocks are

impermeable (shale), strong (limestone) or
of low porosity (anhydrite):
Fractures will tend to rise through them,
rather than propagate laterally
In some parts of the world, deep gas
fractures can rise 4000 m to the sea floor!
MBDCI
Induced Changes in Stress Fields
Near-field stresses are altered by fracture

pressure increase
primary fracture causes stresses to
increase as well
p
secondary fracture
3 +3 dilated zone
fracture tip
high pressure zone

p > 3 (original)
MBDCI
Fracture Direction Changes

A fracture pushes the rock apart, and the
pressures are higher than 3
As the fracture L grows, the aperture also
grows, and this increases the stress normal
to the fracture
Near the well, it now becomes easiest to
propagate in a different direction
This is done deliberately in Fracn Pack
Also, the injection plane may flip back and
forth between the two directions
This has been measured in real frac jobs
4-C Hydraulic Fracture Geomechanics Spanish Peaks
MBDCI
4-C Hydraulic Fracture Geomechanics Spanish Peaks
MBDCI
MBDCI
Fracture Orientation Changes

Fracture geometry after Probable fracture geometry
first 2/3 of main treatment at end of pumping
Creation of new Limited further growth
vertical frac to of N80E fracture
original vertical frac
Wellbore
vertical frac
horizontal frac
Courtesy Pinnacle Technologies
Tiltmeter data during fracturing confirms multiple

orientations and flipping of growth plane (California)
MBDCI
Depletion and Fractures

The well-known depletion effect changes
the total stresses in the well influence region
Not all wells are depleted evenly
There are other effects associated with:
Proximity of no-flow boundaries

Lithological differences (stratification)
Reservoir heterogeneity, plus , k with p
Compaction and stress redistribution
Combined, these give an uncertainty as to

fracture direction after the depletion of a
field
MBDCI
Depletion Effect Heterogeneity
Original fracture orientation, Fracture orientation in a mature field

virgin reservoir conditions with infill wells, altered p, refracs
Concept: SPE 29625

by Wright et al.
initial
production
hmin injection
Differential depletion, natural

heterogeneity, thickness
differences
Local effects have overridden initial stress orientations,

so that the second EOR generation had fractures at
different and generally unpredictable orientations
MBDCI
Depletion and Pressurization

Suppose in situ stresses are similar (5-8%)
If fractures originally horizontal, 3 = v
Depletioncan reduce hmin to below v
This means refracs will be vertical!
If fractures originally vertical, hmin = 3

Pressurization can increase h to above v
This means fracs may become horizontal
during an injection process! (Especially heating)
Be careful, p can change frac orientations!
Re-determine your fracture directions in
wells if this is critical to the process
MBDCI
Increase in 3 Orientation
pBD, breakdown pressure
Sudden propagation
Bottom Hole Pressure
Large-scale stress change

with continued injection
3
3
Time (or V if constant injection rate used)

MBDCI
Do Fractures Initiate Suddenly?
In intact rock, yes, because the value of is

the highest at the borehole wall
However in many cases, is reduced in a zone
near the well (T, damage, etc)
The fracture can initiate before breakthrough

It grows slowly and gives a non-linear response
When it passes the peak , it then shoots out
suddenly
The p-t response is quite non-linear
Very common in unconsolidated sandstones
MBDCI
Non-Linear Response
propagation
bottomhole pressure
breakthrough
stable fracture propagation
fracture initiation occurs very early
po
virgin reservoir pore pressure
non-linear response
time (constant pumping rate)
Fracture is initiated and grows well before it breaks through and extends
This is usually the case in weak rocks like tar sands

MBDCI
Permeability Effects
High k stratum generates massive blunting
Propagation potential reduced if a new high-
k stratum encountered (loss of hydraulic E)
In extremely low-k strata (shales), no bleed-
off, distant propagation, high p generated

Bleed-off changes with time as the pressure
gradients change with inflow
Fluid-loss control agents can be used wisely
in such cases, but understand the role of
stresses as well, or your risks will increase
MBDCI
Blunting in a High-k Zone

A
Section A-A
Low k
stratum
Blunting through
High k
high k zone effect
stratum
Low k
stratum
flow
l u id
F
Fracture retreats after Fracture before

A
high k zone intersected intersection
MBDCI
Rock Strength Effects

Rocks are jointed, fissures, bedded, flawed
Fracture will find these flaws immediately
Resistance of such materials to propagation is
minimal with a a large fracture length
If strength is correlated to another property

(k, E, 3), it may appear to be important
In general, strength (fracture toughness) is
largely irrelevant for large fracs
MBDCI
Local Fabric and Fracture
Locally, fracture 3
follows fabric;
globally, fractures The strength of the intact rock
is not relevant in this case
follow stress
3 Joint system in the rock

MBDCI
Cooling-Induced Fractures
To Water
displacement
To front
T
T
front
T
HMAX
hmin
T
MBDCI
Geothermal Fracturing
Hot fluids out Cold water in

Cross-section Large propped fracture
Massive cooling by conduction
Daughter fractures
propagate at 90 to the
mother fracture, heat
exchange becomes better.
MBDCI
Thermal Cooling Effect on SRT*
*Step-Rate Test
pressure
before injection
pfrac after injection
pfrac
lowered pfrac near wellbore

higher pfrac far from wellbore
rate
MBDCI
Monitoring Fractures
Precision real-time tilt monitoring (<3000m)

Microseismic monitoring using geophones at
depth relatively near the fracture site

Pressure-time response in the injection well
Impedance tests in a propped fracture

Borehole geophysical logging (T, tracers)
Other methods are problematic at best
Implies a poorer method of monitoring

MBDCI
Hydraulic Fracture Mapping
Dip = 0
Characteristic Maximum Displacement:
0.0020 inches
deformation pattern
makes it easy to Dip =90 Dip = 80
distinguish fracture Maximum Displacement: Maximum Displacement:
0.00045 inches
dip, horizontal and 0.00026 inches
vertical fractures
Gradual bulging of
earths surface for
horizontal fractures
Trough along
fracture azimuth for
vertical fractures
Dipping fracture
yields very
asymmetrical bulges
MBDCI
Tiltmeter Fracture Mapping
Tilts measured Surface tiltmeters

Mathematical soln
If depth > 3 km, tilt Downhole
measurements are tiltmeters in
offset well
quite difficult
Depth
One solution is use
of borehole Fracture
tiltmeters
Mapping has
recently been Courtesy Pinnacle Technologies
achieved at > 3km

MBDCI
Fracture and Tilt Vectors
Courtesy Pinnacle Technologies
Vertical Azimuth
Horizontal
1000 feet North 1000 feet North

Measured Tilt -- 250 nanoradians Tiltmeter Site Measured Tilt -- 500 nanoradians Tiltmeter Site
Theoretical Tilt -- 250 nanoradians Theoretical Tilt -- 500 nanoradians Wellhead
Frac: Vertical Azimuth: N39E Dip: 87 W Depth: 2300 ft Frac: Horizontal Azimuth: N/A Dip: 6 N Depth: 2900 ft
MBDCI
Lessons Learned
HF behavior is complex, but understandable
Stress fields dominate fracture propagation
behavior, strength is almost irrelevant
Almost all fractures rise from buoyancy,
except if there is a stress barrier that prevents it

Permeability, stiffness, etc. are important, but
they are second-order effects
Fractures change directions over time!
Monitoring fracture behavior is feasible, useful
Geomechanics concepts are essential for HF

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MBDCI

Hydraulic Fracture Geomechanics

Hydraulic Fracturing Uses

To enhance well productivity (drainage area)

To introduce thermal energy (steam fractures)

E.g.: A Fracture Choking Production

Propped fracture chokes off the

high k sand body

Fractures propagate as a planar surface

The far-field stresses stay sensibly constant,

E.g.: Fractures are Symmetric

More distant wells

Clearly, not all fractures are symmetric! Local stress fields

Typical Model Attributes

Mode I (opening mode) fracture, no shear

Aperture predictions are invalid

Injection pressures rise with time

Fracture orientation changes occur

Fractures rise, even horizontal ones

Shearing along flanks ignored

Non-linear bleed-off ignored (L, t)

Other effects as well

Calibrate models in real field cases

Understand that production changes stresses

Take measurements when it is feasible

Design on expected behavior, but

This is what engineering is all about

Fracture Growth is Complex!

Poor fluid Horizontal

Controls on Fracture Direction

In situ stresses are the major control!!!

affected by joints, fractures, bedding, but for

Local Fabric and Fracturing

3 Joint system in the rock

Goals and Reality

What we want What we get

Multiple Zone Stimulation

What we want What we get

Why Vertical Fractures Rise

Fracture fluid gradient is almost always less

Rise rate can be affected by leak-off rates

Why Fractures Rise

more than this value stress gradient fracture fluid

driving pressure at top

Fractures Rising Out of Zone

Propagation of a shear band well in advance of

Horizontal Fractures in SWR*

Horizontal fractures do not grow 3

pinj > v injection borehole

least principal stress = v

fractures tend to rise

*SWR = Soft, weak rock such as unconsolidated sandstones

Different Stresses in Strata

is larger than in the lower zone

Blunting Upward Growth

High lateral stress

Is this common? Yes. For example, in the Gulf of Mexico

Natural hmin (PF) Variations

Absolute stress values Stress gradient plot

salt (po is undefined

Frac gradient, PF in ppg, is fracture pressure/depth = hmin/z

propagation of hydraulic fractures

Also, not in tectonic basins, near salt