Appendix A

PROOFS OF SELEC ED EOREMS

In this appendix, we provide the proofs of selected theorems from the body of the text
These are results that were not proved in the body of the text for one reason or another
The first several results require the formal (s-6) definition of limit, which was not
discussed until section 1.6. Given what we've done in section 1.6, we are now in a position
to prove these results. The first of these results concerns our routine rules for calculating
limits and appeared as Theorem 3.1 in section 1.3

i PM A

Suppose that lim f(x) and lim g(x) both exist and let c be any constant. The
x a

following then apply:

(i) xlim
a
[c f(x)] = c xlim

f(x),
(ii) lim[(x g(x)]==lim (x 1img(x),
x a

iii) lim[f(x) . g(x)] = [lim f(x)1 [u1rn g(x)1 and

(
LX LX J

x)= li m
f(
f(
( f li
x a x)
(iv) li m = ( i
( m g(x
) o)

(V)1 g(x) li m g(x)

PROOF
(i) Given lim f(x) = L1, we know by the precise definition of limit that given any number
xa
Si > 0, there is a number 1j > 0 for which

} f(x) - L1 <Sj, whenever 0 < - a <i

In order to show that lim [cf(x)] = c lim f(x), we need to be able to make cf(x) as
x a x a
close to cL1 as desired. We have

(xL1}= (x L1}

We already know that we can make} f(x) - L1} as small as desired. Specifically, given any
number s1 > 0, there is a number > 0 for which

(x cL1=c} f(x L1{< cIs1, whenever 0 a <iS

A-}
APPEND1XA Proofs of Selected Theorems A-2

Taking 1 = -- and S = S!, we get

l 8
CJ 1X) CLj1} <
== I =8, wnenever a.
dEl==IC
IC}

This says that Jim [cf(x)] = cLj, as desired

x
(ii) Likewise, given urn g(x) = L2, we know that given any number 82 > 0, there is
x a
a number S, > 0 for which

! g(x) - L71 < 2, whenever 0 < - aI <S2. (A.2)

Now, in order to verify that
u1rn(x g(x)] 1 2,
x a

we must show that, given any number > 0, there is a number S > 0 such that

(x g(x) 1 L2)I<s, whenever 0<lx S

Notice that
NOtiCethat

(xg(x L2 (A.3)

by the triangle inequality. Of course, both terms on the right-hand side of (A.3) can be
made arbitrarily small, from (A. 1) and (A.2). In particular, if we take E! = 82 = , then as
long as
0 S! and 0< <S2,
we get from (A. 1), (A.2) and (A.3) that
(x g(x) 1 2) (x l g(x 21

:=8.

Z 2
as desired. This will occur if we take
0< x al <S=min{S1,57},
where taking S = min{51, 52} simply means to pick S to be the smaller of Sl and 52. (Recog-
nizethatifO < x al <S =min{S1,S7},then0 < x al <Si and 0< x al <52.)
(iii) In this case, we need to show that for any given > 0. we can find a S > 0,
such that
I f(x)g(x L1L2I<s, whenever 0 S
The object, then, is to make I f(x)g(x) - L1 L2 I as small as needed. Notice that we have
(x)g(x 1 21= (x)g(x g(x) 1 g(x) 1 1 7}

= (x i]g(x
1 g 211

(x 1}Ig( g(x 2

by the triangle inequality. Now, notice that we can make I f(x) - L1 I and} g(x) - 2 I as
small as we like. If we make both of the terms in (A.4) less than , then the sum will be
less than s, as desired. In particular, we know that there is a number S2 > 0, such that

Ig ) L21<21L wnenever U<Ix (11

A-3 APPENDIX A Proofs of Selected Theorems 3

assuming L1 0, so that
S
g(x 7}
2Lj
S
IfL1 =0,then L1g(x L7}=0<2

So, no matter the value of L1, we have that

l . z
l


} L1}}g x) L7}<-"
2 wnenever u (11<02.

Notice that the first term in (A.4) is slightly more complicated, as we must also estimate
the size of{ g(x)}. Notice that

g(x)}=}g(x L2+L2g(x L2}+}L7}

Since Tim g(x) = L2, there is a number & > 0, such that
x a
} g(x) - L2} < 1, whenever 0 < -a

From (A.6), we now have that

} g(x)g(x L7 L2}<1 L7}

Returning to the first term in (A.4), we have that for 0 < - a < 3,

} f(x) - L1Hg(x)} <}f(x) - L1}(l +} L2}). (A.7)

Now, since lim f(x) = L1, given any a > 0, there is a number l! > 0 such that for
x
0<!x ,

l}<2(1 +} L2D
From (A.7), we then have

(x l}}g(x)}<L (x 1}(1 2})

S
}) (1+ }L2

< 2(
2( 1+L D
1+
2 })
S
2"
wheneverO < - a < 1 and 0 < - a <3.Togetherwith(A.4)and(A.5),thistells
us that for l = rnin{11, +, 63}, if 0 < - a < 1, then
(x)g(x l H (x g(x) l}}g(x H

= 5,
2 2
which proves (iii)
(iv) We first show that
1 1
Tim =

a g(x 2
l

as small

for L2 0. Notice that in this case, we need to show that we can make

as possible. We have

1 1 2 g
(A.8)
g 2g
4 APPENDIX A ~ Proofs of Selected Theorems A-4

Of course, since u1rn g(x) = L2, we can make the numerator of the fraction on the right-
x
hand side as small as needed. We must also consider what happens to the denominator,
though. Recall that given any 82 > 0, there is a 62 > 0 such that

} g(x) - L2} < s2, whenever 0 < - a < 62

In particular, for 82 = this says that

} L2}
}g(x
z
2}

Notice that by the triangle inequality, we can now say that

2H2 - g(x g(x) 2-g(x)g(x)} < g(x)}

5iihtraCtincr
J
trnm hrth czirIecz nnw crivecz iicz
~'~~~~~~~'J
~~~~ 2

L g(x
)}
< }g

2 1
so that
2{

From (A.8), we now have that for 0 < - a < 62,

1 1 2 g 2 2 g(x)}
< (A.9)
g(x 2 2g

Further, given any s > 0, there is a 63 > 0 so that

2 g(x)}
whenever 0 a<63

From (A.9), we now have that for 6 = min{67, 63}.

1
1 2 2 g(x)}
<: 8.
g(x 7 I
~2

whenever 0 < - a < 6, as desired. We have now established that

1 1
lim =
~a g(x 2

From (iii), we now have that

)
f(x) !. H. 1 1
u1rn --- = iim} J X) -=~ I = [ li rn f( x [ li m

x a gx x aL g( [x- a g(x)

/1 L1
= L1 I- I =
\L7/ L2
which proves the last part of the theorem. a

The following result appeared as Theorem 3.3 in section 1.3

5
APPEND1X A Proofs of Selected heorems S

Suppose that Tim f(x) = L and n is any positive integer. Then,

x

1im /
x

where for n even, we assume that L > U.

~~~
~

PROOF
Since urn f(x) = L, we know that given any number r! > 0, there is a number 1 > 0,

so that

(x 81, whenever 0

To show that lim /7 = /L, we need to show that given any s > 0, there is a > 0
x z
such that

<8,whenever 0 11.

Notice that this is equivalent to having

8 +8.

Now, raising all sides to the iith power, we have

(/7J 8)zz<f(x)<(
/i:+8)"

Subtracting L from all terms gives us

(JE 8) f(x (,/E+8)

Since 8 is taken to be small, we now assume that s <, ./E. Observe that in this case,
0 < VT - 8< Vi. Let 8j = min{(VTE + s)" - L, L - (VE - 8)h1}> 0. Then, since
lim f(x) = L, we know that there is a number 1 > 0, so that
x a

8j (x L<81, whenever 0< a <11

It then follows that

(/L 2 L < 81<f(x L<Si (Vi+s) L,

whenever 0 < x a < 1. Reversing the above sequence of steps gives us

Tim /j = VE, as desired.
x a

The following result appeared in section 1.3, as Theorem 3.5

6 APPENDIX A Proofs of Selected Theorems A-6

(Squeeze Theorem)
Suppose that
f(x g(x(x), (A.1O)

for all x in some interval (c, d), except possibly at the point a E (c, d) and that
uirn f(x) = u1rn h(x) = L,
x x a

for some number L. Then, it follows that

limg(x)=L, also
x a

PROOF
To show that lim g(x) = L, we must prove that given any s > 0, there is a S > 0, such that
x a

{g(x) - U} <s, whenever 0 < fx - al <S

Since lim f(x) = L, we have that given any s > 0, there is a S! > 0, such that
x- a

}f(x 8, whenever 0 aI 1.

Likewise, since uirn h(x) = L, we have that given any s > 0, there is a S2 > 0, such that
x

Ih(x) - L} <s, whenever 0 < -a

Now, choose S = min{Si, 82). Then, if 0 < Ix - a <5, it follows that 0 < -a
and 0 < - a <82, so that

! f(x and } h(x 8

Equivalently, we can say that
S< (x)<L r and U h(x)<L S.

It now follows from (A.l0) and (A.ll) that if 0 < Ix - a <5, then

S<f(x) g(x) h(x) 8.

which gives us
g(x) 8

or} g(x) - U{ < s and it follows that lirn g(x) = L, as desired.

x a

The following result appeared as Theorem 4.3 in section 1.4.

g
4
Suppose lim g(x) = L andf is continuous at L. Then,
x

lim ))=f0
x*a f(g(x g(x)):f(L)
, ~~~~,~~~~~~:,;~:~~s~~s~~~~~~,,~~~~:~s~~~,~,~~~
~~~~~:,
A-7 APPENDIX A Proofs of Selected Theorems 7

PROOF
To prove the result, we must show that given any number 8 > 0, there is a number 6 > 0
for which

If(g(x)) - f(L)I <8, whenever 0 < Ix - aI <6

Sincef is continuous at L, we know thattL

lim f(t) = f(L). Consequently, given any s > 0,
there is a 61 > 0 for which

lf(t) - f(L)I <8, whenever 0< It LI <6

Further, since lim g(x) = L, we can make g(x) as close to L as desired, simply by making x
x a
Su C1en
suffi
m ci
ly ose o a
en 1y
t c1
cl ar cu ar ere mus e a num er
t . In p ti l , th 0 for whi t b i b 6 > ch} g(x) - LI < S

whenever 0 < Ix - al <8. It now follows that if 0 < Ix - aI <6, then Ig(x) - LI <Si,
so that

}f(g(x) f}<8,

as desired..

The following result appeared as Theorem 5.1 in section 1.5

For any rational number t > 0,

lim
0
x OCX

=
where for the case where x - no, we assume that t ,where q is odd.

PROOF
We first orove that lim = 0. To do so, we must show that given any number s > 0,
1

there is an M > 0 for which - - 0 <8, whenever x > M. Since x no, we can take
Xt
x to be positive, so that

8
z
.Az

which is equivalent to 81
X

1
X.
or 81/r

1
Noti ce tha t t kinu M t
a o b y b e an num er ~~ rea er g t th an r il
- - , we will have
Xr 0 <8 when-

0

ever x > M, as desired.

8 APPENDIX A Proofs of Selected Theorems A-8

For th e case u rn - = 0, we mus t sh ow that given an num er 8 > y

b 0, th ere s ani
x- - oc

N<0
Ofor
rWhich
whi <2 w enever x < Since x no we can ex e
XI
ch - 0 h N. - , tak to b

negative, so that
1 1
0= 8.
I

8r
1

which is equivalent to

1
or x.
8'

since v < 0. Multiplying both sides of the inequality by 1, we get

1

x.
21 1 /

1
Notice that taking N to be any number less than - . we will have
~ 0 <s,whenever

x <N, as desired.

In section 3.2, we proved l'H6pital's Rule only for a special case. Here, we present a
gClIeldl piuui 101 UIC ease rirsi, we rieeu we roiiowmg generaiization or tne iviean value
~~,~~'1.~~~~J 1~~ 1) ~~~~ 1 J t ', 11

Theorem.

rJJ,r

THEOR1 M A . . (G eneralized Mean Val ue Theorem )

suppose tflatj and g are continuous on the intervalL a, bj and differentiable on

!the interval (a, b) and that g'(x) U, for all x on (a, b). Then, there is a number
:ZE 12 sucn that
f(b f(a
g(b g(a) g )
J 0

Notice that the Mean Value Theorem (Theorem 9.4 in section 2.9) is simply the special
case of Theorem A.6 where g(x) = x

PROOF
First, observe that since g'(x) 0, for all x on (a, b), we must have that g(b) - g(a) 0
This follows from Rolle's Theorem (Theorem 9.1 in section 2.9), since if g(a) = g(b), there
would be some number c e (a, b) for which g'(c) = 0. Now, define

(x)==[f(b f(a)]g(xg(b g(a)]

Notice that h is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), since bothf and g are
continuous on [a, bj and differentiable on (a, b). Further, we have

(a)=[f(b f(a)IJg(ag(b g(a)] f(a)

===f(b)g(a g (a)


A-9 APPENDIX A Proofs of Selected Theorems 9

and

=g(a)f(b f(a)g(b),
so that h(a) = h(b). In view of this, Rolle's Theorem says that there must be a number
z e (a,b) for which
0 =[f(b(a)]g'(zg(b g(a)j

f(b f(a
or
g g(a) g/(z)'
as desired..

We can now give a general proof of l'H6pital's Rule for the

i .



case. The proof of the
l

case can ne rounci in a more advanced text.

7
(}'H6pital's Ru!e)

Suppose thatf and g are differentiable on the interval (a , b), except possibly at some

fixed point c E (a, b) and that g'(x) 0, on (a, b), except possibly at x = c. Suppose

(x) 0

turther that lim has the indeterminate torm - or and that lim - = L

c g(x) 0 c cg

(or cx). Then,

1~(x) 1 fi
urn =lim

~c g(x) x cg

0.
0
}

PROOF

O
case) In this case, we have that lim f(x) = lim g(x) = 0. Define
x x C

= f f if x C ifx c
F and G
= }g(x)

10 if x = c (x)= if x= c

Notice that

and

so that both F and G are continuous on all of (a, b). Further, observe that for x c,
F'(x) = f'(x) and G'(x) = g'(x) and so, both F and G are differentiable on each of the
intervals (a, c) and (c, b). We first consider the interval (c, b). Notice that F and G are
continuous on [c, b] and differentiable on (c, b) and so, by the Generalized Mean Value
Theorem, for any x ci (c, b), we have that there is some numberz, with c <z <x, for which
F'(z) F(x(c) (x) f

G G(x G(') G(x) g(x)'

where we have used the fact that F(c) = G(c) = 0. Notice that as x c+, z c+, also,
since C <Z <x. Taking the limit as x - c+, we now have
1lim
(x) 1 F 1 fi
uirn =uirn --- = I
x +g(x +G z; cg
 A-10
10 APPENDIX A Proofs of Selected Theorems

f(
Similarly."'bV focusing on the interval (a, c), we can show tilatxjim = L, wnicii piuves
" ~ '

that lim
g = L (since both one-sided limits agree).

The following theorem corresponds to Theorem 6.1 in section 8.6

0<
Given any power series, bj<(x - c)'<, there are exactly three possibilities
k=O

(i) the series converges for all x E ( oo, oc) and the radius of convergence is
r =(x
(ii) the series converges only for x = c (and diverges for all other values of x)
and the radius of convergence is r = 0 or
(iii) the series converges for x e (c - r, c + r) and diverges for x <c - r and for
x > c + r, for some number r with 0 <r <00.

In order to prove Theorem A.8, we first introduce and prove two simpler results

00
(i) If the power series bi<xk converges for x = a 0, then it also converges b0r
k=0
allx with} xl < al
X

i) If the power series bi<x'< diverges for x = d, then it also diverges for all x
k=0
with
Jq
"J'

PROOF

(i) Suppose that bkak converges. Then, by Theorem 2.2 in section 8.2,*im
k-oo
l bkak = 0
k=0
For this to occur, we must be able to make ibkaki as small as desired, just by making k
sufficiently large. In particular, there must0 e a numoer iv > u, sue"L11 L IVkU I1"Ul"11
r ~~~ 1~ L .ki - 1 11

k> N. So, for k> N, we must have

/~k x k x
)

7

bk == =bk


l

\tt a C'

If lxi < lal, then < 1 and so, k k j5 a convergent geometric series. It then follows
k=()

from the Comparison Test (Theorem 3.3 in section 8.3) that

k=O ibkx'< I converges and hence

bkxk converges absolutely

k=O
 A EN DIX A roofs of Selected heorems

x:z
c ~ J J ~~~ f~ ~~~ ~1~ !~'l ~
(ii) suppose that bkd diverges. INotice that it xis any number with} xI > d, then
0
x
~ f ~~~ ~~1 1
J ~111J
b x must diverge, since it it converged, we would have by ~
part (i) that bkd would
k=0 k=0
also converge, which contradicts our assumption.

Next, we state and prove a slightly simpler version of Theorem A.8

1 1 C

i.

1
11

~.
1

~~~

ivci au1

FOWCI

LIkA ,i ueit ase t

aeii

.~,~~
Pus51u i ues
0
(i)

co,

00;

(ii)

the series converges for all x n

and

c)

(iii)

r,

some number r with 0 < r < X.

and

and

the

the

r)

the
the

and

x
series

radius
PROOF

>
If neither (i) nor (ii) is true, then there must be nonzero numbers a and d such that the series

radius
series

diverges

r,

.1
~, ,, n1
~~ A 1~ mi-~~ A fl ~1~, .... . i..n v r.
'U11VL1L 101 A i auuu u1vC1 ccc, 101 1 4 I 10111 1IICUICIII P\.0/, ULThCI VC 111111 - UkA
k=0

for
converges
diverges for all values of x with{ x >! d}. Define the set S to be the set of all values of x for
of

which the series converges. Since the series converges for x = a, S is nonempty. Further,
d{ is an upper bound on 5, since the series diverges for all values of x with} x > d{. By the
convergence

of
converges

Completeness Axiom (see section 8.1), S must have a least upper bound r. So, if} x > r,

for

then bxk diverges. Further, if} x < r, then} xl is not an upper bound for S and there
k=0 convergence
must be a number t in S with} xl < t. Since t E 5, bj<v'< converges and by Theorem A.9,
k=0
x
only

bi<x'< converges since} xl < t t. This proves the result.

k=0
<
for

We can now prove the original result (Theorem A.8)

for
is
x

PROOF OF THEOREM A.8

(

is
x

<
e

Let t = x - c and the power series bk(x - c)'< becomes simply bkt'<. By Theo-
=

k=O k=0
(

rem A. 10, we know that either the series converges for all t (i.e., for all x) or only for t = 0
0

(i.e., only for x = c) or there is a number r > 0 such that the series converges for t < r
or

(i.e., for lx - cl < r) and diverges for ll > r (i.e., for lx - cl > r). This proves the original
(and

result..
diverge


J

"

{j