NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sEco*D;llTl

KENDRIYA VIDYAIAYA MUZAFFA?RUR

(sEcoND sHtFr)

?HYSISCS INVESTIQ/.rORY PR OJ ECT

Season:- 2A:L6-17

PROJEff: TO STUDY THE VARAfl ON,IN CURRENT

FLOW'Nq, N A CIRCUIT CONTAININ4 AN LPR, BECAUSE OF A
VARIATION.

REPOTED BY: N,KHIL DWtvEDt

CI.,A,SS: aZ (9ECOND SHIFO

REPORTED TO : Mr. VTJAY KUMAR

e.Crr. PHYS,d;S)

Page 1 of 19
PH}SI6 INVESNGATORY PROfi CT
NIKHIL DWIVE]DI xil (sEcoND sHtFT)
201.6-17

KflNDenYA VuuYmumYm NdUz&f,f,A&PUB

Physics I nvestigatory Project

{,efitficste
This is to certiSr that NIKHIT DWIYEDI, a student of class
KI-SCIENCE (SECOND SHIFTLof KENDRIYA
VI DYALAYA M UZAFFARPUR has successfu lly completed
the research on the below mentioned project under the
guidance of Mr. VIIAY I(UMAR (P.G.T. PHYSICS).

Teacher's Signature

Page 2 of 1.9
PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
 NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHtFT)
20]6-L7

t would like to express v^g special thanlcs to trng teacher as well

as our principal who gave vwe the gold.en opportunitg to d.o this
wonderful project in PHYstcs, which also helped vne in d.oing a
lot of Research. I cav^e to know ab;out r^a^g things.
^ew
rhis proiect couldn't have been sdtisfactorilg cornpleted without
the support and guidance of My parents.

I would like to thank v^g parents who hetped vne in gathering

diverse inforvvtation, collecting data and guid.ing me frolv. tivne to
tivne in vnaking this project, despite their busg sched.ule. Theg
gave vne d"ifferemt ideas in rnaking this project unique.

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PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
 xil (sEcoND sHrFr)
2016-t7

ffi

1 Certificate of Excellence

2 Acknowledgement
3 Aim of ploject

4 lntroduction

5 Theory

6 Apparatus required

7 Procedure followed

I Obseruation

I Conclusions

10 Precautions

11 Bibliography

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PHYSICS t NVESTIGATORY PROJ ECT
NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHtFT)
2016-L7

MG Phm

m
A resistor photoresist or or tight-d.epend.ent resistir(LDR)
is a tight-comtrolled. variable. The resistance of a
photor|sist ot" decreases with incneasimg incident light
intevtsitg; in other words, it exhibits photocomductivitg. A

. photoresist or can be applied. in tight-sensitive detector

circuits, and" tiglnt and d.ark activated. switching circuits.
These resistot"s use pure sevwicond.uctot s like siticon or
gery^a^iuvn. When the light falls on the LDR, then the
electroms get excited bg the incident photons and vnove
frovn the valence band to the conduction band. amd"
therefore'the nuvnber of ch,arge carriers increases. tn other
wonds, the cond.uctivitg goes up.
'here
Distinction need"s to be vwade between photocells and.
LDRs. ln a photocell, whem it is excited bg light (photons),
electricitg is generated". Unlike photocells, LDRs, d"o not
generate electricitg but onlg change their cond.uctivitg.
page 5 of 19
PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
 t
,-:4

NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHrFT)

20L6-17

Alight dependent resistor worlcs on the principle of photo

conductivitg. . Photo comductivitg E a^ electro -optical
phenovvrenon 'in which the vwaterial's comductivitg rs imcreased
when light is absorbed bg the vnaterial. Modern light dependent
resisiors are rnade of vnaterialS such as lead supptied, lead
selenide, indiurn antivnonite and vvtost cornvwonlg cadvniuvn
supptied (Cods) o:nd. cadvvriuwt selenide.

w
circuifi aynbol

Page 6 of X.9
PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHrFT)
20L6-L7

When light falls i.e. when the photoms fall on the ynaterial, the
electrons in the valence barid of the sevniconductoy. vwaterial are
excite:dto the comduction band.. These photons in the incid.ent
light should have e^ergA greater than the band" gap of the
sevwicomductor vwatenial to .vrnake the electrons juvvrp fror,n the
valence band. to the conduction band. Hence when liqht having
enough ,^rrg1g strikes oh the d"evice, y^ore and. electrons
^i,
are excited to the conduction band which results in large muvvtber
of' of this process is v^ore and. v^ore
charae carriers. The result
current stants f{owing through the device when the circuit is
closed and hence it is said. that the resistance of the
device has been decreased. This is the v^ost covvry^o^
working principle of LDR.

This car. be clear[g seen frovu the graph. The resistance of the
LDR falls rapidlg with the increasing intercitg of the incident
light,

The converse is also true when light intensitg rs reduced or cut

off.

Page 7 of 19
PHySTCS TNVESTTGATORY PROJ ECT
 xFfiEesfiiq$wl
,., ,mt6-17

.,''.

',1
Pqp,8r lr$. ,
NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHtFT)
2076-L7

An euvtptg cardboard box was usedto vwivnic a house. An opening

was cut on the box to present a door. Behind. the d"oor., a ligttt
source is placed and in the'line of vision of the light source, a^
LDR is also placed,.

A circuit is connected. to the LDR which switches o^ a relag when

the light beann is intercepted. A schevwatic diagray^ of the set-.up

As seem in the above diagravvr, a light source is positioned behind,

the door on the right-hand and an LDR is .placed, in the
sid.e
sarwe line of vision at the opposite end of the door. When the
light bearn falls on the LDR, it lowers the resistance of the sav^e
and this activates the switching transistor circuft. rhe fu.ansistor

Page 9 of 19
PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJ ECT
 NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHtFT)
2016-L7

cit"cuit (described later) is connected to a relag which is in turm

comnected to am external buz.er.

The relag is a special tgpe of switch which rs driven bg its

'has
rwagnetic coil. The relag two positions. ln de-energized
condition, position-l- will be a,ctive and in energized conditiom,
I

wlnen the circuit is powered, the relag goes to position-1- to

wh,ich the buzze,r is comnected.. Thus, the bur.er wiil start ringing.
But when the tight source is switched" on, the resistance of UOa
falls and this drives the transistor switching circuit and the relag
gets energizbd.. This puts the relag switch in position-z, which
I

cuts .off the buzzer. tn this iond,itiom, whenever the light beavw is

intercepted bg an opaque object, the LDR stops receiving the

incid.ent light and" its rosistance becotnes high. Thk d"e-energizes
the relag and puts it to position-7. and the buzer starts ringing.

Thus, to suvnvvtarize, we ca^ sag that the if the light source is om

and. the LpR is illuvv,inated., the buzzer will not ring. But the
rnovvrent, the figlr$ source is interrupted, the buzz.er witt
start ringing
we can luvtagine the intercuption of the light beavvt, to be
caused bg an intnuder and hence thls arramgevnent can
autowaticallg detect ang intruder.bg turni^g o^ the buzer.
page 10 of 19
PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJ ECT
NIKHIL DWIVEIDI x, (sECoND;,[:rr]

flte buzz.er is just one of t;he devices we have connected to the

re{ag. As such we can connect v^a^g devices to the relag such as
sirens, flashing tights or eve^ am autom,atic dialer to the nearest
police station. rhis intruder alarrn can be easilg set up in houses,
bamlcs, schools etc.

to reverse the effect of light. Viz.

The savwe circuit can be rew.ired
we can rwake the buzzer ring whemever, light is present and
interestingtg ihis set up ean be used as a rvtormimg alarrn.

Now, let u,s understand how the switching takes place when the
LDR is illuvvtinated" bg light. For the autornatic switchina, wo have
used the following circuit consisting of Transistors. One of the
vvtost covruvruoy. uses for tramsistors im'an electronic circuit is as
sivwple switches. lm short,
"9V
a transistor conducts
current 'across the
collector-evwitter path
onlg when sufficient
voltage is applied. to its
base.

tlv ' When no sufficient base

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PHYSTCS ! NVESTIGATORY PROJ ECT
 NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHtFT)
2016-L7

voltage is present, the switch is off. When sufficient base voltage

is present, the switch is on.

flte circuit uses two transistors, comnec:ted in series. The base

voltage of the first tramsistor is ad,justed carefullg through the
variable resistor (potentiovvreter) so that the slightest imcrease in
the base voltage can fire the transistor TL. Thus, when there is
no light on the LDR, the transistor rernaims un-fired. But when
Iight falls on the LDR, the LDR starts conducting and the net
base voltage . of transistor TL crosses the threshold. voltage,
causing TL to fire. Therefore, the collector current of ft d.rives
transistor T2 and T2 begins to fire. flte collector current of rz is
large enough to energize thd relag. The relag gets energized"
^Q,w
and changes the contact position frovw 1- to 2. when tight is cut
off, the base voltage of rt fatts back to less than the threshold,
voltage of its base -evvtitter junction and. therefore, the relag
gets d.e-energized".

As stated. earlier, the relag is conmectedto a buzz.er through a

batterg. so, whenever, light is interrupted"., the relag goes to
position-L whero, the buzz.er is conmected. and. the buzz.er starts
nvlgt^9.

fue ringing buzzer wards off the intrud.er and, alevts the
neighbors about the intrusion. tn addition to the buzz.er, o^e can

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PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJ ECT
NIKHIL DWVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHtFT)
20L6-L7

also conmect a high intensitg flash light to warm the people in the
neighbo rho o i7 about the intrusi on.
One has alsoto install a stealth switch that is knowm onlg to the
owner so that the owmer ca^ d.isable it for his own entrg.

ln'the set up described, the following obseruatioms were vnade bg

(a) varging the nqture.of tight source, (b) varging the
transluce^cA of the interceptor object.

Tab[e of obse

S, NO TgPE of Light Material of Result

Source lnterceptor
L White tight Opaque Buzzer Rings
Transparent Buzzer does
not ring.
2 Near ultra- Opaque Buzzer Rings
violet Transparent Buzzer does
not ring.
3 Low intensitg Opaque Buzzer Rings
red laser Transparemt Buzzer does
not ring.

Extension of scope in future

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PHYSTCS I NVESTIGATORY PROJ ECT
-

NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHtFT)

2016-L7

The d'evice was also tested under invisible light using a -tY revnote
control as an infrared light .source. The sarne obsentations were
vwade. as above. rhis extends the scope of the project to the
invisible lig4t sources such as ultraviolet and infrared. The
advantage is that; we can d,upe the intruder bg using invisible
light as the light rags will not be visible eve^ in the night.

Another interesting application that ca^ be thought of is a^

autovvratic 'people countet' that car- be used to y^easure the
nuvnber of people traversing a certain passage or entrance in an
auditoriuv^ or theatre. lt can also be used as a 'traffic countet' in
eheck. posts and toll gates. For this, we v^ust sivwplg replace the
buzz.er with a digital counter. A tgpicald.igital counter is shown
in the accot/^panging picture.

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PHYSICS I NVESTIGATORY PROJ ECT
NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sECoND SHTFT)
20L6-L7

VAR.IATION LDR
'N
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An
intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an
efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. ln intrinsic devices
the only available electrons' are in the valence band, and hence
the photon must . have enough energy to excite the electron
across the entire bandqap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, atso
called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the
conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump,
Iower energy photons (that is, Ionger wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. lf a sample of
silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (im
Photoresistors are less light-sensitive devices
than photodiodes or phototransistois: the two latter components
are true semiconductor devices, while a photoresistor is a passive
component and does not have a PN-junction. The photoresistivity
of any photoresistor may vary widely depending on ambient
temperature, making them unsuitable for applications requiring
precise measurement of or sensitivity to light photons.purities),
there will be extra electrons available for conduction.

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PHYSICS I NVESTIGATORY PROJ ECT
NIKHIT DWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHrF0
20L6-17

CONCLUSION

Based on the obsewation above, it eam be cometuded that

the LDR based electrqnic switch cam be successfullg
t t. ..
deploged for the fotlowing applicatioms:

L. {ntruder deteetion / burgtar's' alarvq for horore uses.

2. Av\ti*theft alarvvr for Banlc and offices.

S.People Counter at Aud,itoriuvns

4.Vehicle eounter at tr*ffie check posts.

Page 16 of 19
PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECf
NIKHILDWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHtFT)
20L6-L7

p&f;fieuTT$r[$
The project uses certain devices that can be harvvtful to huvvtans
and" anivnals if proper ca,utiom amd, care are not obsewed..

,t. ttser diode: Although we have used a low intensitg laser,

this can be harvvtfu( if aivned accidentlg at the eges or if the

wear protective sun-glasses while assevnbling / positioning

the tight source.

2. Ultravio,let LED: UV LED with wavelengths betwe'en 3Ls

and 4oo which evvrits the least energetic. and harynful
^vA,
tgpe of uv tight. However, prolonged. exposure should be
avoided. which can d,avnaae the skin and, eges.

3. Buzzer: This device evwits high frequencg aud,io sounds that

oam davvrage the ears when put close to the ears or heard
for pro (.onged, period.

4.'The LDR: should a need arise to destrog the project; care

'be
should taken to dispose of the LDR properlg as it

Page 17 of 19
PHVsrcs rNvEsnGAToRY PRoJ Ecr
NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHrFT)
20L6-77

co'ntai^s . hat'vwful chev,nicals that ca^ davwage the

enviromrnemt

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httPm

, ' u'* * 1.. .;,,*. r,,,* " - s.,-

.. s..{ " ....E.d:

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PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJ ECT
NIKHIL DWIVEIDI xil (sEcoND sHrFT)
2016-L7

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PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJ ECT