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Some of the devices that supply on/off signals are pushbuttons, photoeyes, limit switches, float switches
and proximity switches. The application of your control system will determine the types of discrete devices
you choose. There are a variety of discrete end devices and modules that can be used in a PLC system
to send and receive on/off signals. These devices can be AC or DC and are available in different voltage
ranges. 0-24VDC and 0-230VAC are two voltage ranges available, with 0 being the OFF signal and
24VDC or 230VAC being the ON signal. Usually there is a threshold for detection, where the 0-24VDC
module will detect anything over 22VDC as the ON signal and anything below 2VDC as the OFF.
Digital Input
Position, level, temperature, pressure, flow and speed are just some of the measurements that analog
devices can provide to a control system. You are probably asking yourself: How does pressure, which is
a physical quantity, become an electrical signal? That is a great question! The conversion is done using
transducers. A transducer will take a physical quantity like pressure and convert it to an electrical signal. A
lot of transducers use the physical quantity to control the resistance in the electrical circuit. For example,
an RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) will change its resistance value based on heat. As heat
increases so does the resistance in the circuit, altering the supplied voltage or current. Same holds true
for pressure transducers that use strain gauges. As pressure is applied to the strain gauge, the resistance
in the circuit goes up and the voltage or current level changes. Some flow detectors will use the flow of a
fluid to push a fin that is connected to a rotary potentiometer. Faster flow equals more resistance change.
The electrical signals that transducers provide can be voltage or current based. 4 to 20mA, 0 to 20mA, 0
to 10VDC and -10 to +10 VDC are a few of the available ranges produced by transducers. The PLC
supplies the voltage or current and the transducer will return a value in its configured range. That value
will be proportional to the amount of pressure, flow, etc. that is present. We now arrive at two important
parts of this discussion: scaling and resolution.1
Switch
1 http://library.automationdirect.com/understanding-discrete-analog-io/
Is a device, which can make or break an electrical
circuit or we can say that switch is a controlling
device, which interrupt the flow of current or direct
the flow of current in another direction.
Mechanical Switch
Electrical/Electronic Switches
Electromechanical Switches
Latch Switch
Momentary Switch
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SWITCHES
2 http://www.electricaltechnology.org/2014/11/types-of-switches-electrical.html
SPST (Single Pole Single Throw)
SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw) SPST (Single Pole Single Throw)
Pushbutton Switches
Rocker Switches
Rotary Switches
Toggle Switches
Wall Switches
Foot Switches
Level Switches
Limit Switches
Membrane Switches
RELAYS
4 http://www.thomasnet.com/articles/electrical-power-generation/types-of-switches
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many
relays use an electromagnet to mechanically
operate a switch, but other operating principles
are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays
are used where it is necessary to control a
circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
The first relays were used in long distance
telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated
the signal coming in from one circuit and re-
transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were
used extensively in telephone exchanges and
early computers to perform logical operations.5
HISTORY OF RELAYS
Relays
5 http://www.explainthatstuff.com/howrelayswork.html
6
A relay is an electromagnetic switch operated by
a relatively small electric current that can turn on
or off a much larger electric current.
LATCHING RELAY
SEED RELAY
7 http://www.explainthatstuff.com/howrelayswork.html
8 http://relays.weebly.com/latching-relay.html
A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a
solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside
an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which
protects the contacts against atmospheric
corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic
material that makes them move under the
influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid or
an external magnet. Reed relays can switch
faster than larger relays and require very little
SEED RELAY
power from the control circuit. However, they
have relatively low switching current and voltage
ratings. Though rare, the reeds can become
magnetized over time, which makes them stick
'on' even when no current is present; changing
the orientation of the reeds with respect to the
solenoid's magnetic field can resolve this
problem.9
MERCURY RELAY
POLARIZED RELAY
10 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay
A polarized relay is a type of electromagnetic
relay, which has a permanent magnet as
opposed to a neutral relay. It has two magnetic
fluxes: a working one, generated by coils with a
flowing current, and a polarizing one, generated
by a permanent magnet. The polarized relay
consists of a steel core with two magnetizing
coils, a rolling steel armature, which has
contacts on the left and right, two movable
contacts and a permanent magnet. The
armature of the relay can take three positions. 1.
If there is no current in the coils of the
electromagnet, the armature is in neutral, POLARIZED
middle RELAY
position; 2. When a direct current of this
direction is flowing, the magnetic flux of the
electromagnet in one part of the core will be
stored with the magnetic flux of the permanent
magnet, and the other will be subtracted from it,
so the armature is drawn in one direction or the
other and closes the appropriate contacts. 3.
When the direction of the current changes, the
magnetic fluxes will be stored in another part of
the core. Polarized relays have high sensitivity,
high gain and short response time, so they are
used in circuits of low-power automatic
equipment in those cases when high sensitivity
or performance are required.
TYPES OF RELAYS
A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical equipment: for example, a timer circuit with a relay
could switch power at a preset time. For many years relays were the standard method of controlling
industrial electronic systems. A number of relays could be used together to carry out complex functions
(relay logic). The principle of relay logic is based on relays which energize and de-energize associated
contacts. Relay logic is the predecessor of ladder logic, which is commonly used in programmable logic
controllers.
CONTACTOR is a heavy-duty relay with higher current ratings, used for switching electric motors and
lighting loads. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred
amps. High-current contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the
contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still a good conductor. Contactors with overload protection
devices are often used to start motors.
11 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay
12 http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/chpt-5/time-delay-relays/
Basic types of time-delay relay contacts.
Static relay
Buchholz relay
These safety relays have to follow design rules and manufacturing rules that are defined in one main
machinery standard EN 50205 : Relays with forcibly guided (mechanically linked) contacts. These rules
for the safety design are the one that are defined in type B standards such as EN 13849-2 as Basic safety
principles and Well-tried safety principles for machinery that applies to all machines.
Force-guided contacts by themselves can not guarantee that all contacts are in the same state, however
they do guarantee, subject to no gross mechanical fault, that no contacts are in opposite states.
Otherwise, a relay with several normally open (NO) contacts may stick when energised, with some
contacts closed and others still slightly open, due to mechanical tolerances. Similarly, a relay with several
normally closed (NC) contacts may stick to the unenergised position, so that when energised, the circuit
through one set of contacts is broken, with a marginal gap, while the other remains closed. By introducing
both NO and NC contacts, or more commonly, changeover contacts, on the same relay, it then becomes
possible to guarantee that if any NC contact is closed, all NO contacts are open, and conversely, if any
NO contact is closed, all NC contacts are open. It is not possible to reliably ensure that any particular
contact is closed, except by potentially intrusive and safety-degrading sensing of its circuit conditions,
however in safety systems it is usually the NO state that is most important, and as explained above, this
is reliably verifiable by detecting the closure of a contact of opposite sense.
Force-guided contact relays are made with different main contact sets, either NO, NC or changeover, and
one or more auxiliary contact sets, often of reduced current or voltage rating, used for the monitoring
system. Contacts may be all NO, all NC, changeover, or a mixture of these, for the monitoring contacts,
so that the safety system designer can select the correct configuration for the particular application.
Safety relays are used as part of an engineered safety system.
This thermal protection operates relatively slowly allowing the motor to draw higher starting currents
before the protection relay will trip. Where the overload relay is exposed to the same environment as the
motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient temperature is provided.
The other common overload protection system uses an electromagnet coil in series with the motor circuit
that directly operates contacts. This is similar to a control relay but requires a rather high fault current to
operate the contacts. To prevent short over current spikes from causing nuisance triggering the armature
movement is damped with a dashpot. The thermal and magnetic overload detections are typically used
together in a motor protection relay.
Electronic overload protection relays measure motor current and can estimate motor winding temperature
using a "thermal model" of the motor armature system that can be set to provide more accurate motor
protection. Some motor protection relays include temperature detector inputs for direct measurement from
a thermocouple or resistance thermometer sensor embedded in the winding.
Vacuum relays
Safety Relays
Multi-voltage relays
This is one of the most common failure modes for electrical contacts. The following is a checklist of some
possible contributing factors.
Contamination or corrosion of the contact surface can increase contact resistance, thus raising the
temperature at the points of contact and increasing the tendency to weld.
A loose rivet joint, a poor weld or brazed joint can also contribute to contact heating which may lead to
welding.
Poor contact alignment reduces the effective contact area and can contribute to contact welding.
A mechanical problem in the device which reduces contact force or reduces the opening force of the
contacts may cause a contact welding problem.
Currents that are higher than normal can cause contact welding. For new applications, in addition to the
above.
Make sure the contacts are a suitable size and material for the application.
Support members for electrical contacts should be as highly conductive as possible to help keep the
contacts cool. This factor should not be overlooked for it can make the difference between success and
failure for a given contact set.
If electrical contacts are eroding too rapidly, review all of the factors listed in the contact welding section
(above), because the same factors can cause increased erosion rates even if the conditions are not
severe enough to cause welding. In addition:
Check for contact bounce. If electrical contacts are chattering when closing, erosion can be significantly
increased as a result.
For AC circuits, contacts should not open too rapidly. The contacts should be opened fast enough to
minimize arc re-ignition, but slow enough to minimize the arc length (arc energy is proportional to arc
length). The arc will tend to extinguish at the first current zero after the contacts have opened beyond a
critical distance. For DC circuits, the electrical contacts should be opened rapidly to minimize arc duration.
For both AC circuits and DC circuits, contacts should close rapidly with minimum bounce.
Any device that is added to reduce arc duration or intensity between electrical contacts will reduce
erosion.
Mechanical erosion can be reduced by lowering the contact force within a reasonable limit. However, if
the contact force is too low, the electrical erosion will far exceed any reduction in mechanical wear.
Problem #3: Material transfer from one electrical contact to the other
Material transfer is generally associated with DC circuits due to the polarity of the circuit being interrupted.
If the electrical contacts operate under non-arcing conditions, a phenomenon known as metal bridge
transfer causes material to migrate from the positive to the negative contact.
If the electrical contacts are operating under arcing conditions, in addition to metal transfer, another
phenomenon occurs that causes material transfer from the negative to the positive contact. This is a
result of arc emission and is referred to as arc transfer. As a result, the arc duration and intensity will
determine whether the net transfer will be to the negative contact or the positive contact.
Selection of electrical contact materials that resist material transfer is important for DC applications. High
melting and boiling points, good resistance to contact welding, high electrical and thermal conductivity
and high hardness are properties that help reduce material transfer.
This problem is generally caused by either foreign contamination or corrosion of the electrical contact
material. High contact resistance can lead to overheating, contact welding, high erosion rates, or no
contact at all.
Contract corrosion can be controlled by using a contact material that is not readily attacked by the
environment in which the contacts will operate.
Electrical contacts can be operated in a sealed controlled atmosphere to eliminate or reduce corrosion
and foreign contamination.
Designing the electrical contact system to provide some wiping action can be vital in keeping contact
surfaces clean during operation.13
DIP Switches
13 http://www.pepbrainin.com/technical-resources/troubleshooting-common-electrical-
contact-problems/
Rotary DIP Switches contain multiple electrical
contacts. The way it is used is by rotating the
switch to align it with a number printed on the
package. These may be large like thumbwheels,
or small enough to require a screwdriver.
Its really easy to hone in on the electric switch you need using our parametric filters. You can use them to
quickly refine your Switch search results by switch operation, circuitry, termination style, actuator style,
number of positions and package style.
Typical Dip Switch applications include: Telecommunications, Computer Motherboards, Remote controls
for frequency setting (like garage door openers) and other electronic devices requiring option settings. 14
Keypad
Joystick
14 http://www.futureelectronics.com/en/switches/dip-switches.aspx
15 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keypad
A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick
that pivots on a base and reports its angle or
direction to the device it is controlling. A joystick,
also known as the control column, is the principal
control device in the cockpit of many civilian and
military aircraft, either as a center stick or side-
stick. It often has supplementary switches to
control various aspects of the aircraft's flight.16
Joystick
7-Segment Display
A standard 7-segment LED display generally has 8 input connections, one for each LED segment and
one that acts as a common terminal or connection for all the internal display segments. Some single
displays have also have an additional input pin to display a decimal point in their lower right or left hand
corner.
In electronics there are two important types of 7-segment LED digital display.
1. The Common Cathode Display (CCD) In the common cathode display, all the cathode connections of
the LEDs are joined together to logic 0 or ground. The individual segments are illuminated by
application of a HIGH, logic 1 signal to the individual Anode terminals.
2. The Common Anode Display (CAD) In the common anode display, all the anode connections of the
LEDs are joined together to logic 1 and the individual segments are illuminated by connecting the
individual Cathode terminals to a LOW, logic 0 signal. 17
16 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystick
17 http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/combination/comb_6.html
Pilot Lamp
Buzzer
Buzzer
18 www.thefreedictionary.com/pilot+lamp