A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book358 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS: where Zy = base impedance (line-to-neutral) of the generator [2] Ey, = base voltage (line-to-neutral) [V] Sy = base power per phase [VA] ‘The base impedance is used as a basis of compari- son for other impedances that the generator pos- ‘sesses. Thus, the synchronous reactance may be ex- pressed as a per-unit value of Zz. In general, X,(pu) lies between 0.8 and 2, depending upon the design of the machine. Example 16-3——__ A30 MVA, 15S kV, 60 Hz ac generator has a synchro- nous reactance of 1.2 pu and a resistance of 0.02 pu. Caleulate a. The base voltage, base power and base imped- ance of the generator b. The actual value of the synchronous reactance c. The actual winding resistance, per phase d, The total full-load copper losses Solution a. The base voltage is Ey = E,/N3 = 15 000/N3 = 8660 V The base power is Sp = 30 MVA/3 = 1OMVA =10'VA The base impedance is Zy = En’/Sp = 8660/10" =7150 (16.3) b. The synchronous reactance is X= X(pu) X Zp = 12% =12X75 =90 c. The resistance per phase is R = R(pu) X Zp = 0.02 Z_ = 0.02 x 7.5 = 01502 Note that all impedance values are from line to neutral, d. The per-unit copper losses at full-load are P(pu) = F(pu) R(pu) = PX 0.02 = 0.02 Note that at full-load the per-unit value of J is equal to 1. The copper losses for all 3 phases are P = 0.02 S, = 0.02 x 30 = 0.6 MW = 600kW 16.12 Short-circuit ratio Instead of expressing the synchronous reactance as a per-unit value of Zp, the short-circuit’ ratio is sometimes used. It is the ratio of the field current /,, needed to generate rated open-circuit armature voltage E, to the field current /,, needed to produce rated current /g, on a sustained short-circuit. The short-circuit ratio (/,,//,2) is exactly equal to the re- ciprocal of the per-unit value of X, as defined in Eq. 16.2. Thus, if the per-unit value of X, is 1.2, the short-circuit ratio is 1/1.2 or 0.833. 16.13 Synchronous generator under load The behavior of a synchronous generator depends upon the type of load it has to supply. There are many types of loads, but they can all be reduced to two basic categories: ® Figure 16.19 Equivalent circuit of a generator under load.A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book362 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS: 1. Adjust the speed regulator of the turbine so that the generator frequency is close to the system frequency. 2. Adjust the excitation so that the generator voltage E, is equal to the system voltage E. Figure 16.24 ‘Synchroscope. (Courtesy of Lab-Volt) 3. Observe the phase angle between E, and Eby means of a synchroscope (Fig. 16.24). This in- strument has a pointer that continually indi- cates the phase angle between the two volt- ages, covering the entire range from zero to 360 degrees. Although the degrees are not shown, the dial has a zero marker to indicate when the voltages are in phase. In practice, when we synchronize an alternator, the pointer rotates slowly as it tracks the phase angle between the alternator and system volt- ages, If the generator frequency is slightly higher than the system frequency, the pointer rotates clockwise, indicating that the genera- tor has a tendency to lead the system fre- quency. Conversely, if the generator fre- quency is slightly low, the pointer rotates counterclockwise. The turbine speed regulator is fine-tuned accordingly, so that the pointer barely creeps across the dial. A final check is made to see that the alternator voltage is still equal to the system voltage. Then, at the mo- ment the pointer crosses the zero marker . . . Figure 16.25 This floating oil derrick provides its own energy needs. Four diesel-driven generators rated 1200 kVA, 440 V, 900 r/min, 60 Hz supply all the electrical energy. Although ac power is generated and distributed, all the motors on board are thyristor-controlled de motors. (Courtesy of Siemens)A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book366 © ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS stator currents create a revolving field and acorre- sponding set of N and § poles. Forces of attraction and repulsion are developed between the stator poles and rotor poles, and these magnetic forces produce a torque that opposes the mechanical torque exerted by the turbine. When the electro- magnetic torque is equal to the mechanical torque, the mechanical angle will no longer increase but will remain at a constant value a, There is a direct relationship between the me- chanical angle a and the torque angle 8, given by 8 = pal2 (16.4) where 8 = torque angle between the terminal voltage E and the excitation voltage E, {electrical degrees] p = number of poles on the generator x = mechanical angle between the centers of the stator and rotor poles [mechanical degrees] Example 16-6. The rotor poles of an 8-pole synchronous generator shift by 10 mechanical degrees from no-load to full-load. a. Calculate the torque angle between £, and the terminal voltage E at full-load. b. Which voltage, £ or £,, is leading? Solution a, The torque angle is: 3 = pa/2 =8 x 10/2 = 40° b. When a generator delivers active power, E, always leads E. 16.20 Active power delivered by the generator We can prove (see Section 16.23) that the active power delivered by a synchronous generator is given by the equation (16.5) where P = active power, per phase [W] E, = induced voltage, per phase [V] ° E = terminal voltage, per phase [V] X, = synchronous reactance per phase [0] 8 = torque angle between E, and E [°} This equation can be used under all load condi- tions, including the case when the generator is con- nected to an infinite bus. To understand its meaning, suppose a generator is connected to an infinite bus having a voltage E. Furthermore, suppose that the de excitation of the generator is kept constant so that E, is constant. The term E,E/X, is then fixed, and the active power which the alternator delivers to the bus will vary di- rectly with sin A, the sine of the torque angle. Thus, as we admit more steam, 8 will increase and so, too, will the active power output. The relationship be- tween the two is shown graphically in Fig. 16.29. Note that between zero and 30° the power increases almost linearly with the torque angle. Rated power is typically attained at an angle of 30°, Peas = oo LO x 15 r F 10 Os ° oO ww 6 90 120 150° 180 —— ach degrees Figure 16.29 Graph showing the relationship between the active power delivered by a synchronous generator and the torque angte.A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book370 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS: E ix (b) Figure 16.33 Power flow between two voltage sources. From the sine law for triangles, we have IX/sin 8 = E,/sinw = E,/sin (90 + @) = E,/cos 8 Consequently, cos @ = E, sin 8/X (16.7) Substituting (16.7) in Eq. 16.6, we find p= AE sins (16.8) where P = active power transmitted [W] E, = voltage of source 1 [V] voltage of source 2 [V] X = reactance connecting the sources [12] 8 = phase angle between E, and Ey [°] The active power P received by B is equal to that delivered by A, because the reactance consumes no active power. The magnitude of P is determined by the phase angle between £, and £y; the angle 8 be- tween E, and / does not have to be specified. The active power always flows from the leading to the lagging voltage. In Fig, 16.33, itis obvious that E; leads Ey; hence power flows from left to right. Example 16-9 Referring to Fig. 16.33a, source A generates a volt- age E, = 20kV 25° and source B generates a volt- age E, = 15kV 2 42°, The transmission line con- necting them has an inductive reactance of 14 Q. Calculate the active power that flows over the line and specify which source is actually a load. Solution ‘The phase angle between the two sources is 42° — 5° = 37°. The voltage of source B leads that of source A because its phase angle is more positive. Consequently, power flows from B to A and so Ais actually a load. The active power is given by po teas 16.8 = sin (16.8) _ 2OKV XISKVY = ry sin 37° 20.000 x 15.000 = SOO NN 0.602 = 12.9 % 108 = 12.9MW Note that, strange as it may seem, power flows. from the source having the lower voltage (15 kV) to the one having the higher voltage (20 kV). 16.24 Efficiency, power, and size of electrical machines ‘The physical size of an electrical machine has a pro- found effect upon its efficiency, power output, rela- tive cost, and temperature rise. The following analysis reveals why these characteristics are inti- mately related. Let us consider a small ac generator having the following characteristics: power output 1kW rated voltage 120 V, 3-phase rated current 48A rated speed 1800 r/minA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book374 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS c. The per-unit value of X, 4d, The short-circuit ratio Advanced level 16-20 16-21 16-22 16-23 16-24 ‘The synchronous generator in Fig. 16.2 has an efficiency of 98.4% when it delivers an output of 500 MW. Knowing that the de exciting current is 2400 A at a de voltage of 300 V, calculate the following: a. The total losses in the machine b. The copper losses in the rotor ¢. The torque developed by the turbine d. The average difference in temperature between the cool incoming air and warm outgoing air, if the air flow is 280 m'¥s Referring to Fig. 16.4, each coil on the ro- tor has 21.5 turns, and carries a de current of 500 A. Knowing that the air gap length is 1.3 inches, calculate the flux density in the air gap at no-load. Neglect the mmf re- quired for the iron portion of the magnetic circuit. (See Section 2.17). Referring to Fig. 16.17, the following in- formation is given about a generator: 12kV E=14kV x,=20 E, leads E by 30° a. Calculate the total active power output of the generator. b. Draw the phasor diagram for one phase. «. Calculate the power factor of the load. ‘The steam-turbine generator shown in Fig. 16.3 has a synchronous reactance of 1.3 pu. The excitation voltage E, is adjusted to 1.2 pu and the machine is connected to an infinite bus of 19 kV. If the torque angle 8 is 20°, calculate the following: a, The active power output b. The line current c. Draw the phasor diagram, for one phase In Problem 16-23, calculate the active power ‘output of the generator if the steam valves are closed. Does the alternator receive or de- liver reactive power and how much? 16-25 The generator in Problem 16-20 is driven by a hydraulic turbine whose moment of inertia is 54 x 10° Ib-f, The rotor has a J of 4.14. 10° kg-m?, a. If the line circuit breakers suddenly trip, calculate the speed of the generating unit (turbine and alternator) 1 second later, assuming that the wicket gates remain wide open. b, By how many mechanical degrees do the poles advance (with respect to their normal position) during the 1-second interval? By how many electrical degrees? 16-26 A 400 Hz alternator has a 2-hour rating of 75 kVA, 1200 r/min, 3-phase, 450 V, 80 percent power factor (Fig, 16.34), The stator possesses 180 slots and has an inter- nal diameter of 22 inches and an axial length of 9.5 in. The rotor is designated for a field current of 31 A at 115 V. Calculate a, The number of poles on the rotor b, The number of coils on the stator . The number of coils per phase group an the stator d. The length of one pole-pitch, measured along the circumference of the stator e. The resistance of the de winding on the rotor and the power needed to excite it Industrial application 16-27 A 33.8 kVA, 480 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz, diesel- driven emergency alternator is designed to ‘operate at a power factor of 80 percent. The following additional information is given: Efficiency: 83.4% ‘Weight: 730 Ib Wk? (moment of inertia): 15.7 Ib-f Insulation: class B Calculate a. The minimum horsepower rating of the diesel engine to drive the generator b. The maximum allowable temperature of the windings, using the resistance methodA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book378 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS industry (Fig. 17.1). At the other end of the power spectrum, we find tiny single-phase synchronous motors used in control devices and electric clocks. They are discussed in Chapter 18. 17.1 Construction Synchronous motors are identical in construction to salient-pole ac generators. The stator is composed of a slotted magnetic core, which carries a 3-phase lap winding. Consequently, the winding is also identical to that of a 3-phase induction motor. ‘The rotor has a set of salient poles that are excited by ade current (Fig, 17.2). The exciting coils are connected in series to two slip-rings, and the de cur- Figure 17.3 rent is fed into the winding from an external exciter. Slots are also punched out along the circumference of the salient poles. They carry a squirrel-cage wind- ing similar to that in a 3-phase induction motor, This damper winding serves to start the motor, Moder synchronous motors often employ brush- less excitation, similar to that used in synchronous generators. Referring to Fig. 17.3, a relatively small 3-phase generator, called an exciter, and a 3-phase rectifier are mounted at one end of the motor shaft. The de current /, from the rectifier is fed directly into the salient-pole windings, without going through brushes and slip-rings. The current can be varied by controlling the small exciting current /. that flows in the stationary field winding of the exciter. Fig. 17.4 Figure 17.2 Rotor of a 50 Hz to 16 2/3 Hz frequency Converter used to power an electric railway. The 4-pole rotor at the left is associated with a single-phase alternator rated 7000 kVA, 16 2/3 Hz, PF 85%. The rotor on the right is for a 6900 kVA, 50 Hz, 3-phase, 90% PF synchronous motor which drives the single- phase alternator. Both rotors are equipped with squirrel-cage windings. Today, these machines are replaced by solid-state fre- quency converters. (See Section 29.6.) (Courtesy of ABB) de control source - stationary exciter poles alternator (3-phase excit S-phase connection - bridge rectifier de line rotor of synchronous motor stator of synchronous motor + Sephase input to stator Diagram showing the main component of a brushless exciter for a synchronous motor, It is similar to that of a syn- chronous generator.A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book382 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Figure 17.7a Equivalent circuit of a synchronous moter, showing ‘one phase, E Ey ee Figure 17.7b Motor at no-load, with E, adjusted to equal E. Ey = E-Eg 8 = pal2 Figure 17.7¢ Motor under load &, has the same value as in Fig. 17.76, but it lags behind E. The current lags 90° behind E, because X, is in- ductive. The phasor diagram under load is shown in Fig. 17.7c. Because / is nearly in phase with E, the motor absorbs active power. This power is entirely transformed into mechanical power, except for the relatively small copper and iron losses in the stator. In practice, the excitation voltage £, is adjusted to be greater or less than the supply voltage E. Its value depends upon the power output of the motor and the desired power factor. Example 17-2a___ A S00 hp. 720 r/min synchronous motor connected to a 3980 V, 3-phase line generates an excitation voltage E, of 1790 V (line-to-neutral) when the de exciting current is 25 A. The synchronous reactance is 22.0 and the torque angle between E, and Eis 30°. Calculate a. The value of E, b. The ac line current c. The power factor of the motor d. The approximate horsepower developed by the motor e. The approximate torque developed at the shaft Solution This problem can best be solved by using vector notation. a, The voltage & (line-to-neutral) applied to the motor has a value E = B/V3 = 3980/V3 = 2300V Let us select E as the reference phasor, whose angle with respect to the horizontal axis is assumed to be zero. Thus, E=2300 20° It follows that £, is given by the phasor E, = 1790 2. 30° The equivalent circuit per phase is given in Fig. 17.8a. Moving clockwise around the circuit and applying Kirchhoff's voltage law we can write -E+E,+&=0 E,=E-E, = 230020° — 17904 -30° = 2300 (cos 0° + jsin 0°) — 1790 (cos — 30° + j sin — 30°) = 2300 — 1550 + 895 = 750 + {895 = 1168250°A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book390 = ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS. to carry a line current that is 25% greater than one that operates at unity power factor. 17.12 V-curves Suppose a synchronous motor is operating at its rated mechanical load. We wich to examine its be- havior as the excitation is varied. Because a change in excitation does not affect the speed, the mechani- cal power remains fixed. Let us begin by adjusting the excitation [, so that the power factor is unity, thus yielding the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 17.16, We assume J, = 100 A and P = 800 kW. If we reduce the excitation to 70 A, the motor will draw reactive power from the line in addition to the active power, We assume that S increases to S = 1000 kVA. As a result, the line current will in- Ee © Figure 17.16 a. Synchronous motor operating at unity power factor with a mechanical load of 800 KW. Field excitation is 100A. b, Phasor diagram shows current in phase with the voltage. 1 te EO) py set P= wonw Tes @ (by Figure 17.17 a. Field excitation reduced to 70 A but with same mechanical load. Motor absorbs reactive power from the line. Phasor diagram shows current lagging behind the voltage. o ha EO) [Yas Ant @ (by Figure 17.18 a. Field excitation raised to 200 A but with same mechanical load. Mator delivers reactive power to the line, b, Phasor diagram shows current leading the voltage. crease from /, to /,; (Fig. 17.17). Note that the com- ponent of /,, in phase with Ey, is the same as-before because the motor is still developing the same me- chanical power. Current [,; lags behind Ey, and so the power fac- tor of the motor is lagging. The field current [, in the rotor is smaller than before, but the apparent power S absorbed by the stator is greater, If we increase the excitation to 4, = 200 A, the motor delivers reactive power to the line to which it is connected (Fig. 17.18). The apparent power is again greater than in the unity power factor case. We assume S = 1000 kVA. The line current be- comes I, and it leads Ey. However, the in-phase component of J.) is still equal to 4, because the me- chanical power is the same. By varying the excitation this way, we can plot the apparent power of the synchronous motor as a function of the de exciting current. This yields a V-shaped curve (Fig. 17.19). The V-curve is always displayed for a fixed mechanical load. In our case, the V-curve corresponds to full-load. The no-load V-curve is also shown, to illustrate the large reac- tive power that can be absorbed or delivered by simply changing the excitation, Example 17-5 A 4000 hp (3000 kW), 6600 V, 60 Hz, 200 r/min synchronous motor operates at full-load at a leading power factor of 0.8. If the synchronous reactance is 11.Q, calculate the following:A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book394 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS (a) 0 25 60 75 100 125% ——> mechanical power Figure 17.23 Comparison between the efficiency (a) and starting torque (b) of a squirrel-cage induction motor and a ‘synchronous motor, both rated at 4000 hp, 1800 r/min, 6.9 kV, 60 Hz. inductor) whose reactive power can be varied by changing the dc excitation. Most synchronous capacitors have ratings that range from 20 Mvar to 200 Mvar and many are hydrogen-cooled (Fig. 17.24). They are started up like synchronous motors. However, if the system cannot furnish the required starting power, a pony motor is used to bring them up to synchronous Figure 17.24a Three-phase, 16 kV, 900 r/min synchronous capacitor rated —200 Mvar (supplying reactive power) to +300. Mvar (absorbing reactive power). It is used to regulate the voltage of a 735 kV transmission line. Other char- acteristics: mass of rotor: 143 1; rotor diameter: 2670 mm; axial length of stator iron: 3200 mm; air gap length: 39.7 mm. Figure 17.24b ‘Synchronous capacitor enclosed in its steel housing containing hydrogen under pressure (300 kPa, or about 4 Ibf/in®). (Courtesy of Hydro-Québec)A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book398 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS: Industrial application 17-21 17-22 A500 hp, 3-phase, 2200 V, unity power fac- tor synchronous motor has a rated current of 103 A. It can deliver its rated output so long as the air inlet temperature is 40°C or less. The manufacturer states that the output of the motor must be decreased by 1 per- cent for each degree Celsius above 40°C. If the air inlet temperature is 46°C, calculate the maximum allowable motor current. An 8800 kW, 6.0 kV, 1500 r/min, 3-phase, 50 Hz, 0.9 power factor synchronous motor manufactured by Siemens has the follow- ing properties: 1. Rated current: 962 A 2. Rated torque: $6.0 kN-m 3. Pull-out torque: 1.45 pu 4. Locked-rotor current: 4.9 pu 5. Excitation voltage: 160 V 6. Excitation current: 387 A 7. Full-load efficiency, excluding excitation system losses: 97.8% 8 Moment of inertia of rotor: 520 kg-m? 9. Temperature rise of cooling water: 25°C to 32°C 10. Flow of cooling water: 465 L/min 11. Maximum permissible external moment of inertia: 1370 kg:m? 12. Mass of rotor: 6.10 t (t = metric ton) 13, Mass of stator: 7,50 t 14. Mass of enclosure: 3.97 1 Using the above information, calculate the: following: a. The total mass of the motor including its enclosure, in metric tons b. The flow of cooling water in gallons (US, per minute ¢. The maximum total moment of inertia (in lb-ft), which the motor can pull into synchronism d. The total losses of the motor at full-load e. The total efficiency of the motor at full- load f. The reactive power delivered by the motor at full-load g. If the iron losses are equal to the stator copper losses, calculate the approximate resistance between two terminals of the stator hh. Calculate the resistance of the field circuitA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book402. ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Solution The motor has 4 poles, consequently, n, = 120f/p = (120 x 60)/4 1800 r/min The speed n is given by 5 = (n, — n)iny 0.034 = (1800 — 2)/1800 n= 1739 r/min (17.2) 18.3 Torque-speed characteristic Fig. 18.5 is a schematic diagram of the rotor and main winding of a 2-pole, single-phase induction motor. Suppose the rotor is locked. If an ac voltage rotor current ‘ac souree Figure 18.5 Currents in the rotor bars when the rotor is lockad. The resulting forces cancel each other and no torque is produced. % 250 200 3 150 | 100 $0) ° a 20 40 60 BO 100 % = spect Figure 18.6 ‘Typical torque-speed curve of a single-phase motor. is applied to the stator. the resulting current f, pro- duces an ac flux ®,, The flux pulsates back and forth but, unlike the flux in a 3-phase stator, no re~ volving field is produced. The flux induces an ac voltage in the stationary rotor which, in turn, creates large ac rotor currents. In effect, the rotor behaves like the short-circuited secondary of a transformer; consequently, the motor has no tendency to start by itself (see 18.6). However, if we spin the rotor in one direction or the other, it will continue to rotate in the direction of spin. As a matter of fact, the rotor quickly acceler ates until it reaches a speed slightly below synchro- nous speed. The acceleration indicates that the mo- tor develops a positive torque as soon as it begins to tum. Fig. 18.6 shows the typical torque-speed curve when the main winding is excited. Although the starting torque is zero, the motor develops a power- ful torque as it approaches synchronous speed. 18.4 Principle of operation ‘The principle of operation of a single-phase induc- tion motor is quite complex, and may be explained by the cross-field theory.* As soon as the rotor begins to tum, a speed emf E is induced in the rotor conductors as, they cut the stator flux @, (Fig. 18.7). This voltage increases as rotation mo current f, Figure 18.7 Currents induced in the rator bars due te rotation, ‘They produce a flux , that acts at right angles to the stator flux @,. * The double revolving field theory (discussed in Section 18.18) is also used to explain the behavior of the singke- phase motor.A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Calculate a. The phase angle between /, and J, b. The locked-rotor current drawn from the line at 5 V Solution We first calculate the phase angle &, between /, and E of the main winding. a, The apparent power is S, = El, =23x4=92VA The power factor is cos d, = PJS, = 60/92 = 0.65 thus, , = 49.6° J, lags 49.6° behind the voltage E. We now calculate the phase angle ®, between d, and E of the auxiliary winding. The apparent power is S, = El, = 23 x 1.5 = 34.5 VA The power factor is cos , = Py/S, = 30/34.5 = 0.87 thus, $, = 29.6° J, lags 29.6° behind the voltage. ‘The phase angle between f, and J, is a =o, — by = 49.6" — 29.6° = 20.0° s . To determine the total line current, we first calculate the total value of P and Q drawn by both windings and then deduce the total apparent power S. The total active power absorbed is P=P,+P, = 60 + 30 =90W The reactive powers Q, and Q, of the main and auxiliary windings are Q.= VS— PE = V92? — 60? = 69.7 var a= VE=F = V34.5? — 30? = 17.0 var The total reactive power absorbed by the motor is Q=0,+0, = 69.7 + 17.0 = 86.7 var ‘The total apparent power absorbed is S=VP+@ = Voor + 867? = 125 VA ‘The locked-rotor current at 23. V is 1 = SIE = 12523 = 544A The locked-rotor current drawn at 115 V is 1, = 5.44 (11523) = 27.2.4 Duc to their low cost, resistance split-phase induc- tion motors are the most popular single-phase motors. They are used where a moderate starting torque is re- quired and where the starting periods are infrequent. They drive fans, pumps, washing machines, oil burn- ers, small machine tools, and other devices too nu- merous to mention. The power rating usually lies be- tween. 60 W and 250 W (1/12 hp to 1/3 hp). 18.7 Capacitor-start motor The capacitor-start motor is identical toa split-phase motor, except that the auxiliary winding has about as many tums as the main winding has. Furthermore, a capacitor and a centrifugal switch are connected in series with the auxiliary winding (Fig, 18.12a). The capacitor is chosen so that /, leads I, by about 80°, which is considerably more than the 25° found in a split-phase motor. Consequently, for equal starting torques, the current in the auxiliary winding is only about half that in a split-phase mo- tor. It follows that during the starting period the auxiliary winding of a capacitor motor heats up less quickly. Furthermore, the locked-rotor line currentA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book410 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Figure 18.15 Single-phase capacitor-start motor supported in a resilient-mount cradle to reduce the vibration and noise transmitted to the mounting surface. Motor rated at 1/3 hp, 1725 r/min, 230 V, 60 Hz has a full-load eur- tent of 3.0 A, efficiency of 60 percent, and power fac- tor of 60 percent. Other characteristics: no-load cur- rent: 2.6 A; locked-rotor current: 13 A; locked-rotor torque: 3.6 pu; breakdown torque: 3.0 pu; service fac- tor: 1.35; total weight: 10 kg; overall length including shaft: 278 mm; overall height: 232 mm. (Courtesy of Baldor Electric Company) Figure 18.16 placed between the shaft and the mechanical load, particularly when the load is a fan. ‘Two-phase and 3-phase motors do not vibrate because the total instantaneous power they receive from all the phases is constant (see Section 8.7). 18.10 Capacitor-run motor The capacitor-run motor is essentially a 2-phase motor that receives its power from a single-phase source. It has two windings, one of which is directly connected to the source. The other winding is also connected to the source, but in series with a paper capacitor (Fig. 18.16). The capacitor-fed winding has a large number of tums of relatively small wire, compared to the directly connected winding. This particularly quiet motor is used to drive fixed loads in hospitals, studios, and other places where si- lence is important. It has a high power factor on ac- count of the capacitor and no centrifugal switch is re- quired. However, the starting torque is low. The motor acts as a true 2-phase motor only when it operates at full-load (Fig. 18.16b). Under these conditions, fluxes ®, and ®, created by the a. Capacitor-run motor having a NEMA rating of 30 milihorsepower. b. Corresponding phasor diagram at full-load.A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book412 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Figure 18.18b Shaded-pole motor rated at 5 millinorsepower, 115 V, 60 Hz, 2900 r/min. (Courtesy of Gould) Although the starting torque, efficiency, and power factor are very low, the simple construction and absence of a centrifugal switch gives this motor amarked advantage in low-power applications. The direction of rotation cannot be changed, because it is fixed by the position of the copper rings. Table 18B gives the typical properties of a 2-pole, shaded- pole motor having a rated output of 6 W. Example 18-3 Calculate the full-load efficiency and slip of the shaded-pole motor whose properties are listed in Table 18B. Solution The efficiency is n= (P,/P;) x 100 = (6/21) x 100 = 28.6% s=(n,— n)/n = (3600 — 2900)/3600 = 0.194 = 19.4% (3.6) TABLE 188 Properties of a Shaded-Pole Motor, Having 2 poles, Rated 6 W, 115 V, 60 Hz. No-load current 0.26 A input power 1s W speed 3550. r/min Locked rotor current 035 A input power 24Ww torque 10 mNm Full-load current 0.33 A input power 21 W speed 2900 r/min torque 19 mNm mechanical power 6Ww breakdown speed 2600 r/min breakdown torque 21 mNm 18.13 Universal motor The single-phase universal motor is very similar to a dc series motor (Section 5.8). The basic construction of a small universal motor is shown in Fig. 18.19. The entire magnetic circuit is laminated to reduce Figure 18.19 Alternating-current series motor, also called universal motor.A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book416 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS rotor is to lock with the revolving field, it must do so in the time it takes for one stator pole to sweep past a rotor pole. If pull-in is not achieved during this interval (Af), it will never be achieved. The problem is that in going from speed m, to synchro- nous speed n,, the kinetic energy of the revolving parts must increase by an amount given by Eq. 3.8: AE, = 5.48 x 107° Jin? — m2) (18.3) where J is the moment of inertia. Furthermore, the time: interval is given by Ar = 60/(n, — 2,)p (18.4) Consequently, to reach synchronous speed, the mo- tor must develop an accelerating power P, of at least P= AR/At (18.5) = 18 X 10 nla, — m) Jp (approx.) Furthermore, the motor must continue to supply the power P, demanded by the load. If the sum of P, + P, exceeds the power capacity of the motor, it will never pull into step. In essence, a reluctance motor can only synchronize when the slip speed is small and the moment of inertia J is low. Despite this drawback, the reluctance motor is cheaper than any other type of synchronous motor. It is particularly well adapted to variable-frequency electronic speed control. Inertia is then no problem because the speed of the revolving field always tracks with the speed of the rotor. Three-phase re- luctance motors of several hundred horsepower have been built, using this approach. 18.16 Synchro drive In some remote-control systems we may have to move the position of a small rheostat that is one or two meters away. This problem is easily solved by using a flexible shaft. But if the rheostat is 100 m away, the flexible-shaft solution becomes impracti- cal. We then employ an electrical shaft to tie the knob and rheastat together. How does such a shaft work? Consider two conventional wound-rotor induc- tion motors whose 3-phase stators are connected in parallel (Fig. 18.25). Two phases of the respective rotors are also connected in parallel and energized froma single-phase source. The remarkable feature about this arrangement is that the rotor on one ma- chine will automatically track with the rotor on the other. Thus, if we slowly tum rotor A clockwise through 17°, rotor B will move clockwise through 17°. Obviously, such a system enables us to control a rheostat from a remote location. —4 Figure 18.25 Components and connections of a synchro system.A You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this bookA You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing 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