WAVE MOTION

A) INTRODUCTION:
Consider a particle (any particle for that matter) that
is moving with a velocity v then we know that this particle has a
kinetic energy that is proportional to velocity squared. This
energy is transmitted through space by the movement of the
particle carrying it.
Another such way of transmitting energy through
space is by wave motion in which there is transmission of
energy without the bulk movement of particles. Ex: Sound.
When we talk no one or many particles move from our mouth
to the audiences ears, instead we create a disturbance in space
which is propagated through space by the mediums particles
without their bulk motion. Energy is transferred to the air
particles by either pushing them or pulling them. Each
disturbed layer disturbs the next layer transferring energy while
it then comes to its natural state. In this way the disturbance
travels through space. This type of motion of energy is called
wave motion.
There are a lot of real world examples for wave motion, say you
drop a stone in a pool of water the ripples that travel outward
are disturbances which propagate across the pools surface
without the actual movement of the water molecules.
Waves are of two types Mechanical waves and Non-
Mechanical waves. Mechanical waves require a material
medium for propagation where as non-mechanical waves do
not require a material medium for propagation.

B) WAVE PULSES ON STRINGS:

This class of waves is an example of mechanical one
dimensional waves and we will be concentrating only on such
waves in this module.
Consider a string pulled taut by attaching one end to
a wall and the other end held by us, now if we snap our hand in
an up and down motion we create a pulse that travels along the
length of the string. It is experimentally proven that if the
vertical displacement is small then the disturbance travels
down the string at a constant velocity. Also for a perfectly
elastic and homogenous string the shape of the pulse also
remains unchanged as it travels with a constant velocity.
Observe that no part of the string is actually moving from left to
right (We are holding the string taut). Each part of the string
moves up or down to form the pulse as it moves over it and
regains its original position once it passes.
If we keep producing pulses by snapping our hand we get a
wave packet or a wave train.
a) EQUATION OF A TRAVELLING WAVE:
Say the wave pulse is assumed to start at time t
= 0 and moves towards the right with a constant speed v as
shown above. Now the vertical displacement of the string is a
function of time. It is zero for t < 0 (The pulse hasnt yet been
generated). Also take the left end of the string at which the
pulse starts as our origin, since the pulse moves to the right the
vertical displacement of the string is a function of position (x
from the origin) too. So for a constant x, y = f (t) which is zero
until the pulse reaches the constant x and goes back to zero
after the pulse crosses the constant x. Now since the pulse
travels with a velocity v it reaches a point x after a time t + x/v
where t is the time at which the displacement is produced at
the left end. We are just simply translating the time to the right
of by x/v then we get y(x,t) = f(t-x/v)

Thus the equation represents a wave travelling in

the positive x direction with a velocity v. Such a wave is called a
travelling wave or a progressive wave.

Ex: and ( )
are wave functions.(Just check
for the combo of t x/v.

is not an equation of a wave.

For a wave travelling along negative x axis with a constant

speed v the equation of the wave is

This can also be written as

At t = 0 the displacement of the particles is given by g(x) after a
time t it would have moved a distance of vt to the right thus the
displacement of the particles after a time t is given by g(x vt).
If the wave moves to the left then its equation is given by
Theoretically waves of any shape or can be made to propagate
across the string if it is purely elastic and homogenous and
damping forces are zero.

C) SINE WAVES ON STRINGS:

Here we will study what happens if the person at
the left vibrates the left end x = 0 in a simple harmonic motion.
Then equation of motion of the left end is given by
Where A is the amplitude and is the angular frequency. Time
period of oscillation is given by T = 2 . Such a wave is called
a sine wave or sinusoidal wave.
The displacement of a particle at time t will be

The velocity of a particle at x at a time t is given by

This is partial differentiation i.e. we inspect the change of y

with respect to time at a constant x so when we differentiate
we treat x a constant.
NOTE: This is the velocity of a particle at x which has nothing to
do with the wave velocity v. This velocity changes with time at
the same time different for different particles.
Understand that each particle in a sine wave performs SHM
about its position along the y axis with the same frequency
but with different phase i.e. a particle may reach its mean
position while another may be at its extreme position. Each
particle copies the motion of the particle to its left with a time
delay of x/v, where x is separation between the particles. So for
a separation of the particle copies the motion of the particle

at distance of to its right after a time delay t = , now if
this t = T (Time Period) then the movement of both the
particles will be completely in phase as the motion repeats
after T. This for which the particles are in phase is called the
wavelength of the wave = vT
You can check this with the equation of the wave too.

Also, is called the wave number and is denoted by the letter

k.
The part of the wave where y is positive is called a crest and the
part where y is negative is called a trough. The separation
between consecutive crests or troughs is equal to the
wavelength.

a) ALTERNATE FORMS OF THE WAVE

EQUATION:
The wave equation can be written in several
different ways,

These waves are written assuming y = 0 at t = 0. Say that is not

the case and there is some initial displacement at t = 0.
Say at t = 0 the left end of the string reaches it extreme position
i.e. y = A then which makes the equation
 D) WAVE VELOCITY:
The velocity of a wave on the string is a property
of the inertia and elasticity of the string. Say a part of a taut
string is disturbed then it exerts a force on the part next to it
making it move. Now the response of this next part depends on
its inertia. Say the Tension in the string is F and is the mass
per unit length of the string.
Consider a small element AB of length , and say it is an arc of
radius R. This part has a velocity of v towards to the right.
Assuming the displacements are small so that we can assume
that the tension in the string is constant at F. The resultant
force on it is downwards as the horizontal components cancel
out thus

As is small this is small so So the force on

becomes .

Mass of AB is , applying Newtons law on AB we get

acceleration . This element is moving along a
circle of radius R with a constant velocity v so its acceleration is

. Thus the velocity of the wave is given by .

Note this is valid only for small displacements or otherwise F is
not constant along the string.

At the extreme point both

the angles will be equal.

E) POWER TRANSMITTED:
Energy is transmitted along the direction of the
wave in a string. Consider a sine wave
The string to the left of an x exerts a force on it making it move.
Say this force is F. Its direction is given by the tangent to the
string at x. The component of this force along the Y axis is

Where is the angle made by the force F on the X axis.

The Power delivered to the right of x is

Substituting values we get

The average power transmitted across one wavelength is

 F) INTERFERENCE AND SUPERPOSITION:

Say two pulses are headed towards each other;

they overlap and recede from each other. The shape of the
pulses after overlap is same as the shape of the pulses before
overlap. This is a unique property of waves called interference.
To determine the displacement of a particle at x when two or
more waves are undergoing interference we just add up the
displacements the waves would have individually produced.
This is called the principle of superposition.

Say the two waves are

The net displacement on overlap is given by

The magnitude of the resulting displacement may be lesser
than the magnitude of the individual displacements (They can
be of opposite sign)
If the two pulses are completely identical except that one is
inverted and are travelling towards each other with the same
constant velocity then at one point net displacement of all
particles will be zero. This does not mean the energy
transmitted in the two pulses just fizzled out. The velocities of
the particles will not be zero (This is where the energy goes)
and the waves emerge from either side and continue on.
In general the principle of superposition is applicable only if the
displacements are small. Such waves that obey this principle
are called linear waves.

a) INTERFERENCE OF WAVES TRAVELLING IN

THE SAME DIRECTION:
Say two waves given by the following equations
are generated and travel to the left with velocity v (same for
both waves) and angular velocity .

Where is the phase difference between the two waves.

By the principle of superposition

Taking

We get

Also

b) CONSTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE

INTERFERENCE:
Resultant A is maximum if cos and
minimum when it is -1. In the first case A = and this is
called constructive interference and the second case A
= and

G) REFLECTION OF WAVES:
Say a wave generated at the left end of the
string reaches the right end of the string that is attached to the
wall by a clamp. Now the point of the string attached to the
wall is constrained not to move because of the clamp. The
element to the right exerts a force on the clamp and the clamp
exerts an equal and opposite force on it keeping it in place. The
forward force exerted by the elements to the right made the
wave move to the right and so now the equal and opposite
force exerted by the clamp makes the wave travel back along
the string towards the left but the pulse is inverted. The pulse is
inverted because the original pulse tries to pull the element at
the clamp while the clamp tries to pull it down so the clamp
exerts a force that is directed downwards and to the left and is
of the same magnitude of the original force that made the
pulse translate so the pulse upon reflection from a fixed end
becomes inverted.
Say the left end of the string is instead
attached to a massless, frictionless ring which can move freely
over a frictionless vertical rod. When the wave reaches the end
the element at the end is acted on by a force by the left
element to go up. But there is nothing that can exert an equal
and opposite force to keep it in place. Since it is a massless ring
net force on it should be zero and this can be achieved only
when a wave which is identical to the original is supposed to
move from the right to the left and these two waves on
superposition make sure that the force on the ring in the
upward direction is zero. So a pulse upon reflection from a free
end is unchanged.
 Usually end points are neither completely
free nor fixed. Ex: A heavier string attached to a lighter one. Say
a wave is generated on the lighter string at it moves towards
the junction upon reflection part of the wave is transmitted and
part of the wave is reflected which is inverted with respect to
the original pulse. If the pulse was generated on the heavier
string then the reflected pulse would have been unchanged
(not inverted).

If a wave enters a region where its velocity is smaller,

then the reflected wave is inverted and vice versa.
NOTE: Transmitted wave is never inverted.
F) STANDING WAVES:
Suppose two sine waves of same velocity,
frequency and amplitude are travelling on the same string in
opposite directions. The equations of the waves are,

Consider then on superposition we get resultant wave to

be,
This means that each particle on the string vibrates in a SHM
with amplitude . The amplitude changes from
particle to particle but the frequency of oscillation is same for
all the particles. The particles where the amplitude is zero are
called nodes. Amplitude is zero when coskx = 0

i.e. Where n is an integer.

The displacement of these nodes is zero for all time t.

The particles whose amplitudes are
maximum are known as anti-nodes.
i.e.
Also note that when sin = 0 all the particles are at their mean
positions and when sin = 1 all the particles whose coskx is
positive reach their positive maxima while those for whom
coskx is negative reach their negative maxima.
Such a wave is called a standing wave or a stationary wave.

The separation between consecutive nodes or anti-nodes is

and as the particles at the nodes do not move energy cannot be
transmitted across them. So energy of one region between two
consecutive nodes is confined to that region between them.

H) STANDING WAVES ON A STRING FIXED AT

BOTH ENDS:
Consider a string of length L fixed to one
end of a wall and the other to a tuning fork. This tuning fork
produces sine waves of amplitude A which travel along the
string get reflected and travel back inverted in shape. These
waves are once again reflected this time from the tuning fork
which because of its heaviness acts as a fixed end. This again
produces an inverted reflected wave. This twice reflected wave
has the same shape as that of the original wave after travelling
a distance of 2L.

Say the length of the string L = . Then the two waves interfere
constructively and the resultant wave has amplitude 2A. This
wave upon reflecting twice interferes constructively with a
wave of amplitude A, just produces by the tuning fork to give a
wave of amplitude 3A and this goes on. This happens for all
cases L = , where n is an integer.

But in actual practice damping forces due to air viscosity or due

to lack of flexibility of string end up sapping the energy until the
string vibrates at a constant amplitude A. The incoming extra
energy is exactly equal to the energy stripped away by the
damping forces. In steady state, waves of constant amplitude
are set up on the string from the left to the right with formation
of nodes and anti-nodes. That is a standing wave is formed and
the only criteria required is L = .

Substituting,

We get

The lowest frequency for which a standing wave can be

generated on a string of length L is,
This is called the fundamental frequency of the string. The
string also produces standing waves at higher frequencies
which are integral multiples of this fundamental frequency.
Also note that the fixed ends of the string are constrained to be
nodes.
We can also determine this analytically by assuming the
equations of the waves and applying the boundary conditions
i.e. at x = 0 and x= L the displacement is zero.
The other natural frequencies at which the string vibrates is
given by substituting n = 2,3,4 in the equation. We get,

First overtone or second harmonic

Second overtone or third harmonic

These higher frequencies are called overtones and integral

multiples of the fundamental frequency are called harmonics.
Assuming the waves that interfere to be

And finding the net displacement and applying boundary

conditions we get and and so the equation of the
( )
standing wave comes out to be
(
For the fundamental frequency n = 1,

The amplitude of vibration is maximum at x = L/2 where the

sine term goes to 1. Thus we will have nodes at the ends and an
anti-node at the middle of the string when the string vibrates in
its fundamental mode.
For the first overtone i.e. the second harmonic
Amplitude is zero at x = 0, L, L/2 and is maximum at x = L/4 and
3L/4.
The shape of the string is shown in the figure above.
So for the nth overtone or the (n+1)th harmonic there will n
nodes and n+1 anti-nodes midway between the nodes.

I) STANDING WAVES ON A STRING FIXED AT

ONE END AND FREE AT THE OTHER:
As usual assuming the equations of the
interfering waves we can get the superimposed wave equation.
Assuming x = 0 as the fixed end we know that the fixed end is
constrained to be a node so putting y = 0 at x = 0 we get

Also since x = L is a free end it is constrained to be an anti-node

applying boundary conditions we get

Or

The fundamental frequency is given by n = 0

Overtone frequencies,

All the harmonics in this case are odd harmonics.

 J) LAWS OF TRANSVERSEVIBRATIONS ON A
STRING FIXED AT BOTH ENDS:
a) LAW OF LENGTH:
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a
string is inversely proportional to the length of the string
provided the tension and its mass per unit length remain the
same.

b) LAW OF TENSION:
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a
string is proportional to the square root of the Tension
provided the length and mass per unit length are kept constant.

c) LAW OF MASS:
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a
string is proportional to the square root of the linear mass
density provided that the length and the tension are kept
constant.
 K) SONOMETER:
Sonometer is a device used to verify the
above three laws.
By keeping two of the quantities constant the dependency of
the fundamental frequency on the third quantity is observed.

L) LONGITUDINAL WAVES:
Till now the waves we studied are
transverse waves. In these waves the displacements are in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave. In longitudinal waves the displacements are along the
direction of propagation of the wave.
An example to longitudinal waves are sound waves which will
be studied separately.
This concludes Wave motion.