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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents some foreign and local

literatures and studies which the researchers deemed

relevant with the present study. Such literatures and

studies cited paved the way in determining the extent of

how far researchers have gone through along the area under

investigation.

Related Literature

Marine Education in International Arena

According to www.norwegianseafarers.com (2012), the

Norwegian Cruise Ships play stellar function in the

international shipping and maritime industry with its

position as the principal supplier of seafarers. The

successful placement of marine officers and seafarers on

various foreign-going marine transportations such as

passenger luxury cruise ships offered lush employment for

thousands of the seamen due to high quality of maritime

education.

According to the study of Smith (2012) states that

maritime education experienced downfalls characterized with

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downgrading quality of marine education and the need to

meet quality standard requirements. These are the result of

poor marine staff and instruction and lack of maritime

facilities for the students to use in their practical

exercises.

Marine Education in the Philippines

The Philippine education system, according to the

study done by De Leon (2012) wherein he states that it is

classified under nine clusters of disciplines for both

undergraduate and graduate degrees and diploma. These nine

clusters of discipline are Agriculture Education, Business

and Management Education, Engineering and Architecture,

Health Profession Education, Humanities, Social Sciences

and Communication, Information Technology, Maritime

Education, Science and Mathematics, and Teacher Education.

Under the Maritime Education, the following fields or

disciplines included are Naval Architecture and Marine

Engineering, Marine Transportation, Marine Engineering, and

Basic Merchant Marine Course.

According to Sebastian (2014), he states that the

maritime education in the country was faced by different

stages of transition from its challenging beginnings up

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to the current state of opulence. Maritime education is the

oldest educational system in the country. This claim is

attributed to the geographic characteristics of the

Philippines. Consisting of 7,107 islands and islets

depending on tides, the country has a long coastline which

is 235,973 square kilometers, longer than the United

States. With this fact, it is historically indicated that

early ancestors already travel from islands to another by

using boats and other water transportation made available

at the early times. Thus, the Filipinos are culturally and

historically innate or accustomed to marine navigation.

According to Bolo (2011), he also claimed that

maritime education also experienced downfalls characterized

with downgrading quality of marine education and the need

to meet quality standard requirements imposed by CHED and

the IMO or the international maritime industry in general.

The CHED, being the immediate institution that evaluates

the quality of instruction in maritime schools, conducts

evaluation procedures to see to it that both national and

international requirements on maritime education are met.

There have been controversies especially in the

classification of marine schools and training centers who

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reached acceptable level of standards. In March-April 2001,

the published an online article specifying on 37

institutions who complied with Standards for Training,

Certification and Watchkeeping as based in a memorandum

circular issued by the CHED on March 2. Based on surveys

conducted by the MTC, there are an estimated 118 schools

offering BS Marine Transportation and BS Marine Engineering

courses today. MTC executive director said the number is

slightly lower than the 127 schools in 1996 and 15 less

than the total 133 in the early 90s. As the condition of

general education in the country complicates, the marine

education is not an exemption.

In the study of Gracia (2011), he reported the 7th

Asia-Pacific Manning and Training Conference at the

Philippine Plaza Hotel, where Maritime Academy of the Asia

and the Pacific (MAAP) president said that maritime

education needs reforms. Such reforms must be centered to

maritime academies all over the nation. The reforms include

the following: inclusion of leadership training in their

curriculum to boost Filipino seamens chances, lowering of

attrition rate of enrollees and mixing out better trained

graduates.
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According to the study of Solemn (2010), he explains

marine engineering as a ship's crew is divided into two

distinct sections: those who navigate the ship and those

who maintain and control the machinery and carry out all

repair functions on-board. The former probably studied and

finished Marine Transportation and the latter is Marine

Engineering. Both work hand in hand in order to maintain

safety of the vessel and its content.

According to the study of Fhinn (2010), in most

maritime academies, the program description of this course

includes ship engine maintenance and overall onboard ship

conduct. A marine student is trained to be worthy seafarers

by instilling values like sense of responsibility,

discipline and competence to become Marine Engine Officer.

The products of this course become the members of a ship's

crew that work on the maintenance of the propulsion and

other systems onboard the vessel. They also deal with the

hotel facilities of the vessel such as the sewage,

lighting, air conditioning and water systems. Marine

engineers deal with massive fuel transfers and require

training in firefighting and first aid. They also work with

the ship's boats and other nautical tasks especially with

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cargo loading/discharging gear and safety systems.

According to the study of Seymour (2013), developing

satisfied students should be a primary goal of higher

education institution. Developing student satisfaction at

university is a matter. If it is achieved, it will

facilitate the strategic objectives of the college more

effectively. Student satisfaction plays a crucial role for

the success of an academic institution.

Marine Transportation

According to wikipedia.com, Marine Transportation, for

most maritime institutions, refers to the study of ship

operations and overall onboard ship conduct. A Marine

Transportation student is armed with the sense of

responsibility, discipline, awareness of safety, and

competence characteristic of a Marine Deck Officer.

Generally, Maritime Transportation students learn the

process of manning and navigating vessels. They also deal

with specific cargo discharge function particularly deck

officers and deck workers. In this program, the students

are trained to be knowledgeable in ship operations

including ship handling, navigation, meteorology, cargo

handling and stowage, and communications. Aside from the

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mentioned position, the Marine Transportation graduate can

work as Deck Cadet, Master Mariner (or Marine Deck

Officer), Port Captain, Shipping Executive, Harbor Pilots,

Marine Consultant, and Teacher of Marine Transportation

subjects among others.

Philippine Merchant Marine Academy (PMMA)

The PMMAs history could be accessible through their

website. Meanwhile, provided a comprehensive history and

was adapted in this research study.

In January 1, 1820, Spanish Colonials

institutionalized formal maritime education with

establishment of Escuela Nautica Manila and

inaugurated on April 5, 1820 in its initial location, at

Calle Cabildo in Intramuros, Manila. In 1863, the school

was relocated to Calle San Juan de Letran, then to Calle de

Palacio in 1884 and then to Binondo, Manila in 1898. It was

closed during the Philippine Revolution and eventually

reopened after the American Occupation on December 15, 1899

as the Nautical School of the Philippine Islands. It was

moved again into the U.S. Navy Warehouse at Calle Sta.

Elena in San Nicolas with Spanish as the medium of

instruction.
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Later on, it was converted into the Philippine

Nautical School. In 1913, it was reopened upon

representations of progressive firms and was placed under

the Philippine School for Arts and Trades located at

Aroceros St., Manila, then later moved to Roberts St.,

Pasay City. During the Second World War, classes were

suspended but these were reopened by the Japanese. In 1963,

R.A. 3680 converted the Philippine Nautical School into the

Philippine Merchant Marine Academy and changed its course

offerings into B.S. degrees. It was relocated at Fort

Bonifacio, Makati City in 1968. From then on, it was placed

under the Department of Transportation and Communications.

In 1996, it was placed directly under the supervision of

the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). On February 2,

1998 PMMA was transferred to San Narciso, Zambales. Today,

the PMMA is a premier maritime institution in the

Philippines and operated by the Philippine Government under

the supervision of the CHED. Students are called

"midshipmen" but are often also referred to as "cadets".

The academy offers courses for Bachelor of Science

degrees in Marine Transportation and Marine Engineering.

Both are four-year residency courses consisting of a three-

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year period of academic studies (1st, 2nd and 4th year) and

one year apprentice training (3rd year) on board commercial

vessels plying the international sea lanes as deck or

engine cadets. For those who wish to reach the upper

echelons of the maritime industry, the academy also offers

Master's degree courses in Shipping Business Management and

Maritime Education. Aside from addressing the academic

requirements of the midshipmen, the curriculum also

provides training for their leadership and discipline. The

leadership and discipline training scheme is military

oriented. Such approach is deemed necessary considering the

uniqueness of the marine profession which requires the

highest degree of leadership, discipline and integrity. As

a result, graduates of PMMA are automatically commissioned

as Ensign in the Philippine Navy and the Philippine Coast

Guard.

Related Studies

According to the study done by Alridge and Rowley

(2011) an expectation that cannot be fulfilled on the

institution is the key factor for students' withdrawal.

This would lead to the premise that satisfaction with

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services may make the difference. In order to survive in

this highly competitive market, quality and satisfaction

have long been recognized to play a crucial role.

Considerable studies have been done on these two concepts.

According to the study done by Berry (2012), service

is one of the important factors enhancing value, and can

positively influence a colleges success. The student

perception about satisfaction can act as an essential tool

to enhance the colleges service quality.

Maritime education in the Philippines is among the

best in the Asia-Pacific region and even the world. This is

evident on the study sponsored by Philippine APEC Study

Center Network (2010) which performed a benchmarking action

on the countrys maritime and nursing education

particularly in its best practices (, 2001). In the said

study, Ramirez identified the outstanding qualities of the

Philippine maritime education such as the composition of

maritime bachelor degree, which consists of general

education, specialization courses and one-year

apprenticeship; English as the medium of instruction; and

the emphasis on character and values necessary for students

who serve locally and internationally. Such values and

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attitudes are reflected on the culture of discipline, hard

work and team work are essential characteristics of

Filipino servicemen. This research study was used by PIDS

in the press release to build on the promising reputation

of the maritime education system in the country.

On the results of the Seafarers International Research

Centre (SIRC) survey in 2010, it reveals that of the total

number of Filipino seafarers manning various ships across

the globe. For the record, a measly 8.5% were senior

officers, 21.5% were junior officers, and most or 70% were

ratings. On the same survey, it was noted a marked decline

from 11% in the share of senior officers and from 24% in

the share of junior officers from its 2000 survey. Its

significant share, however, in the overall market has

undoubtedly remained a key to the supply-demand equation of

maritime labor.

Yet, the history and development of maritime education

in the country is documented by nationwide newspapers.

Issues, problems, solutions, and all matters of the

maritime education and maritime industry are publicized

through daily news and correspondence. An article

from Manila Chronicle (2010) reported that maritime

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education is the oldest educational system in the country

as based on the geographic characteristics of the

Philippines.

Similarly, the Lee (2013) documented the training of

merchant ship officers in order to equip them for effective

maritime services to be rendered. It has been identified

that the country is the number one supplier of able

seafarers for international shipping fleet. In the earlier

decades, the problem of Philippine educational system

specifically maritime education emerged and became

complicated.

A news report from in June 1993 stated the problem of

downgrading of maritime education blamed on Department of

Education, Culture and Sports (DECS), now Department of

Education (DepEd). Meanwhile, a report published in in

July 1997 claims that schools for sailors are substandard

as according to CHED (2010) affirmed the statement of CHED

by quoting Maritime League that the value of maritime

education is deteriorating.

With the identified problems in the maritime education

of the country, the DECS revises the curricula. This is to

address the emerging issues that affect the overall

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condition of the maritime education in the country. In

November 1997, the published a report on the participation

of the country and its selected delegates on a 3-day

general meeting of the Association of Maritime Education

and Training Institute in Asia Pacific (AMETIAP) in

Singapore. This could be among the states solution to the

budding problems facing the maritime education system and

maritime industry as well as way to accumulate body of

knowledge that are useful to the general condition of

maritime industry in the Asia-Pacific and the world

(AMETIAP, 2010).

An editorial from published last November 26, 2010

discusses the issue of maritime education in keeping its

standards for quality professionalism. This is to emphasize

the need of creating quality standards towards Filipino

students who will become seafarers in the future. Due to

the conditions of the maritime schools and institutions in

the country and the problems that affect maritime education

system, the Malacaang warned school administration to go

to sea or sink. This prompts schools to upgrade their

teaching strategies and all related factors on the maritime

education system. As the condition of the maritime

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education worsens, it was claimed that RP may no longer be

major source of world's seamen.

According to Alonzo (2011), he reported that the poor

schooling of the maritime students threatens jobs for

Filipino seamen. It is indicated that with the budding need

of maritime services worldwide, it requires more qualified

Filipino seamen. To attain this vision, the enhancement of

maritime education and training seamen effectively would

help.

As the government implements quality assurance

strategies to address the problem, CHED conducted

evaluation of maritime school standards and identified

names of schools that passed according to the IMO

requirements. CHED authorities continued to monitor

maritime school standards. Two years later, these

evaluation activities created controversy. To further

enhance maritime education and training, the Asian Maritime

University cited a new education concept. This includes the

improvement on curriculum and integration of latest

technological innovations in the maritime education and

training of student.

The CHED and the National Association of Maritime

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Schools and Training Institutes (2010), recognized that the

inclusion of the country to the IMO White List endangers

maritime schools. Because of the requirement of achieving

IMO standards, maritime schools are faced with the

challenge of improving instructional techniques and

materials or let the CHED recommend or impose closure to

educational institutions who fails to ameliorate into

acceptable standards. The CHED phased out maritime programs

of schools who failed in quality standards evaluation.

After reviewing their curricula and with the objectives to

maintain excellence in maritime education, maritime degree

in 32 identified schools is barred due to their inability

to comply with prescribed standards.

Similarly, Bautista (2011) in his column reported 44

maritime courses were phased out by CHED. The newspaper

acknowledged specific schools while the newspaper is on

maritime courses. Aside from constant evaluation of

maritime school standards and with the need to restructure

and enhance maritime schools and their standards, reports

that the CHED sets review to the countrys maritime

programs offered in various maritime schools.

According to Simon (2012), he reported the

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Philippines' state-funded maritime education and training

institutions to listen to the appeal of President Gloria

Macapagal-Arroyo for cost reduction, savings, job

generation and global competitiveness in maritime education

and maritime industry. This is according to Secretary,

Presidential Assistant for Education. Again, the history of

maritime education in the Philippines may happen again.

With this, Simon (2012) suggests that the government and

the industry must be aware of the potential problems that

may arise. The deficiencies must be identified and

standards are also revised. He said that shortcuts must be

stopped now and given concentration on education rather

than the revenue generation must be instituted.

Synthesis

The reviewed related studies on maritime education are

limited to academic reference materials including textbooks

and course materials. Research studies are more or less

tackled by selected individuals and institutions. There had

been little research conducted and published in relation to

maritime education and related aspects. The conduction of

this study is then right and timely especially in providing

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useful body of knowledge to the chosen area of study and

specialization.

The above-cited studies were cited because of its

bearing to the present study. As argued by Berry (2011),

service is one of the important factors enhancing value,

and can positively influence a colleges success. The

student perception about satisfaction can act as an

essential tool to enhance the colleges service quality. It

is related to the study because it sought to assess the

level of satisfaction on maritime education. However, they

differ on the setting and locale of the study.