Archaeological, Cultural and

Linguistic Heritage
Festschrift for Erzsbet Jerem
in Honour of her 70th Birthday

Edited by
Peter Anreiter, Eszter Bnffy, Lszl Bartosiewicz,
Wolfgang Meid & Carola Metzner-Nebelsick

BUDAPEST 2012
 Published in cooperation with
Innsbrucker Beitrge zur Kulturwissenschaft
and with the support of
Bundesministerium fr Wissenschaft und Forschung, Vienna

Cover
Stamp decorated Early La Tne flask from Hidegsg
Eisenstadt, Burgenlndisches Landesmuseum

Volume Editor
WOLFGANG MEID
assisted by
Fruzsina Cseh, Gergely Hs,
Rita Kovcs, Tanja Rasetzki & Judit Solti

ISBN 978-963-9911-28-4
HU-ISSN 1215-9239

The Authors and Archaeolingua Foundation

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any other information storage and
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2012
ARCHAEOLINGUA ALAPTVNY
H-1250 Budapest, ri u. 49
Desktop editing and layout by Rita Kovcs
Printed by AduPrint Kft.
 Contents

Vorwort .................................................................................................................................................. 9

List of Publications by Erzsbet Jerem ................................................................................................. 11

PETER ANREITER
Ein onomastischer Streifzug durch das Burgenland ..................................................................... 21

JESS ALBERTO ARENAS-ESTEBAN

The Celtiberian World: A Long Process of Cultural Hybridization .............................................. 33

BETTINA ARNOLD
Soul Stones: Unmodified Quartz and Other Lithic Material in Early Iron Age Burials ........... 47

ESZTER BNFFY PL SMEGI

The Early Neolithic Agro-Ecological Barrier in the Carpathian Basin:
A Zone for Interaction .................................................................................................................. 57

LSZL BARTOSIEWICZ
Cernunnos in Hungary? ................................................................................................................ 71

MRIA BONDR
A New Late Copper Age Wagon Model from the Carpathian Basin ............................................ 79

STEFAN BURMEISTER PETER RAULWING

Festgefahren. Die Kontroverse um den Ursprung des Streitwagens.
Einige Anmerkungen zu Forschung, Quellen und Methodik ....................................................... 93

PATRIZIA DE BERNARDO STEMPEL FRANCISCO BURILLO MOZOTA

M ESPERANZA SAIZ CARRASCO REINHOLD WEDENIG
Women Potters and Their Names in Celtic-Speaking Areas ................................................. 115

GERHARD DOBESCH
Die Rolle der Redner und der Rednerschulen in der provinzialrmischen Kultur ..................... 135

ALEXANDRINE EIBNER
Mnner in Waffen: Kmpfer oder Tnzer? ................................................................................. 159

CLEMENS EIBNER
Hallstttische Sagen und Mythen ............................................................................................... 195

ERIKA GL
The First Cock Crow: On the Occurrence and Spreading of Domestic Hen
(Gallus domesticus Linnaeus 1758) in Hungary ........................................................................ 207
6

MITJA GUTIN
Die keltische Bauernsiedlung bei Murska Sobota am Sdrand Pannoniens .............................. 215

BERNHARD HNSEL BIBA TERAN KRISTINA MIHOVILI

Beile und ihre Teile. Beobachtungen an Funden aus Monkodonja/Istrien ................................. 225

RALPH HAEUSSLER
Hero Cults between Iron Age and Principate ............................................................................. 249

IVO HAJNAL
Historisch-Vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft, Archologie, Archogenetik und
Glottochronologie: Lassen sich diese Disziplinen sinnvoll vereinen? ....................................... 265

MICHAEL JANDA
Abbilder der Morgenrte: Ungarisch asszony Frau und seine iranische Vorgeschichte ......... 283

RAIMUND KARL KATE WADDINGTON

Ausgrabungen in der doppelten Ringwallanlage von Meillionydd bei Rhiw
auf der Lln-Halbinsel, Nordwest-Wales ................................................................................... 289

KARL KAUS MARGARETE KAUS

Zum Kultgert von Haschendorf ................................................................................................ 303

VIKTRIA KISS
Central European and Southeastern Alpine Influences upon
Western Transdanubias Early and Middle Bronze Age ............................................................ 321

SUSANNE KLEMM
Die Bergbaufolgelandschaft in der Eisenerzer Ramsau, Steiermark (sterreich):
Methoden und Ergebnisse montanarchologischer Forschung .................................................. 337

GABRIELLA KULCSR
Siedlungen entlang des Kapos-Tals (Sd-Transdanubien) zu Beginn der Bronzezeit ............... 349

AMEI LANG
Das Grab der Nerka. Bemerkungen zu Este Ricovero, Grab 23 ................................................ 363

JUTTA LESKOVAR
Eisenzeitliche Argumente im Neodruidentum ............................................................................ 379

FRANCISCO MARCO SIMN

From the Kermaria Stone to the Turibulum of Chartres:
Some Thoughts on Celtic Cosmology ........................................................................................ 393

JOHN VINCENT STANLEY MEGAW MADELINE RUTH MEGAW

Poles apart? Notes from the fringes of the Hungarian sword style ........................................ 401
 7

WOLFGANG MEID
Aspekte keltischer Glaubensvorstellungen: Seelenwanderung und Gestaltenwechsel .............. 415

CAROLA METZNER-NEBELSICK
Social Transition and Spatial Organisation:
The Problem of the Early Iron Age Occupation of the Strongholds in Northeast Hungary ....... 425

LOUIS NEBELSICK
Scythian Eagles with Ionic Honeysuckle. Patterns of Iconographic Acculturation in the
North Pontic Steppes during the 6th and 5th Centuries BC .......................................................... 449

GARRETT OLMSTED
Portrayals of Elephants, Griffins, and Dolphins in Western Celtic Metalwork and
Coinage During the First Century BC ........................................................................................ 475

KLRA PUSZTAIN FISCHL JNOS PL REBENDA

Early Bronze Age (RB A1A2, about 23001500 cal BC) Settlement Structure at
the Northern Part of the Great Hungarian Plain. A Case Study: Mezcst-Pstidomb .............. 487

PETER C. RAMSL
Two Stone Stelae from the La Tne Cemetery at Mannersdorf/Leithagebirge,
Flur Reinthal Sd ........................................................................................................................ 499

FERENC RED
Reconstruction Model of the Lenyfalu burgus ......................................................................... 509

KARL HORST SCHMIDT

On the Reconstruction of Celtic Prehistory. Towards a New Analysis of
the Change of Position of Celtic among the Indo-European Languages .................................... 525

FRANKA SCHWELLNUS
Funktionsanalyse der spthallstatt- bis frhlatnezeitlichen Siedlungskeramik
aus Sopron-Krautacker ............................................................................................................... 531

DAVID STIFTER
Eine V.I.P. zwischen Pannonien und Tirol .................................................................................. 539

THOMAS STLLNER
The Rise of the Proto-Celts? The Transition from the Early to
the Late Hallstatt-Period in Southern Germany .......................................................................... 551

KARIN STBER
Eine fragmentarische gallische Inschrift aus Augusta Raurica ................................................... 569
8

ROBERTO TARPINI
berlegungen zur Herausbildung hallstattzeitlicher Musterkanone am Ostalpenrand
anhand des Beispiels der Kegelhalsgefverzierung .................................................................. 575

GERHARD TOMEDI ULRIKE TCHTERLE

Der Kupferbergbau als movens fr die
frh- und mittelbronzezeitliche Aufsiedelung Nordtirols ........................................................... 587

RASTKO VASI
Balkan Connections in the Early Iron Age ................................................................................. 601

JRGEN ZEIDLER
A Proto-Indo-European Ancestor God in Celtic Tradition ......................................................... 605

MANUEL ZEILER
Grber: Kein Spiegel des Lebens. Die Laufzeitdatierung jngerlatnezeitlicher Gefkeramik
in Abhngigkeit von Verbreitung und zeitlicher Entwicklung der Beigabensitten ..................... 617

List of Contributors ............................................................................................................................ 629

 Scythian Eagles with Ionic Honeysuckle
Patterns of Iconographic Acculturation in the North Pontic Steppes
during the 6th and 5th Centuries BC1

LOUIS D. NEBELSICK

The iconographic and stylistic integration of Oriental and Mediterranean motifs in the art of Iron Age
Central and Western Europe is universally seen as a positive process of creative enrichment which
resulted in the emergence of the unique masterpieces of early Celtic Art. However, the similar and
indeed contemporary process of syncretism, which saw the integration of Ionian Greek and Near Eastern
imagery in the animal art of the northern Pontic steppes, has evoked a much more guarded response.
While selected syncretistic works have been given grudging approval, scholars have generally dismissed
the mass of Graeco-Scythian Art as lifeless kitsch, which was being produced by provincial Greek
artisans pandering to barbaric whims by mindlessly conflating and thus debasing the vital animal art
of the Eurasian steppes with Ionian and Achaemenid motifs2. In this essay I would like to hold against
this dichotomy by exploring the sophistication of what I feel is the essence of Early Scythian Art in the
west, i.e. the stylistic and iconographic bilingualism which accompanied Lydias, Miletosand Persias
attempt to consolidate a Pontic empire in the 6th and early 5th centuries BC3.
I am happy to dedicate this study to my friend and mentor Erszbet Jerem who was the first
Hungarian archaeologist to question the schism between scholarship devoted to the Celts on one side
and Scythians on the other and pioneered a much profounder holistic approach to Iron Age studies in
the Carpathian Basin.
As a starting point to this essay I have chosen two golden eagle-head plaques from the Ukrainian
steppes. The first (Fig. 1, left), which was plundered from an anonymous Ukrainian kurgan4, will
originally have been mounted on a wooden vessel like the second example (Fig. 1, right). This second
mount is one of seven which decorated the rim of a shallow wooden bowl. It was found together with
four other gold decorated vessels on the edge of the niche of an early 5th century central grave of the
Zavadskaja Mogila 1, which lies on the right bank of the Dnepr/Dnipro River in central Ukraine5.
Both plaques are typical representatives of late 6th early 5th century BC sheet gold metalwork of
the Ukrainian steppes and specifically of gold sheet mounts decorating wooden vessels. The plaques
themselves were simply made by soft hammering or pressing a sheet gold strip into a sunken or raised
matrix made of stone, bronze or wood; a technique favoured by the polycentric and stylistically polyglot
jeweller community operating north of the Black Sea. These goldsmiths were working out of native

1
I am grateful to Mariya Tymofeyeva (Munich) for proofreading the Russian and Ukrainian titles and, as ever,
my wife Carola for her advice and the much necessary correction of the text.
2
BOROVKA 1928, 68; ROSTOWZEW 1931, 304; SCHEFOLD 1938, 52; SCHLITZ 1994, 164; JACOBSON 1995, 260.
3
For Miletos imperial pretentions: BADIAN 2007; for the Lydian role in colonisation: GEORGES 1994, 3335; for
Miletos as a Persian ally: GEORGES 2000. Perhaps Boresthenes was founded in order to access Carpathian ore
(DOMANSKIJ MARCENKO 2003; 2007).
4
MHTU-Kiev inv: 6305, REEDER (ed.) 1999, 164165, no. 52.
5
Zavadska, Mohyla kurgan 1; Ordonikidze-Pervaya, Ordonikidze rajon, Dnipropetrovska oblast, Ukraine:
REEDER 1999, 166167 no. 54; JACOBSON 1995, 194, no. VI.B2; MOZOLEVSKIJ 1980; ROLLE 1979, 153 no. 69;
SAENKO 2004, fig. 1/1.
450 Louis D. Nebelsick

Fig. 1. Left: Chased gold eagle-head-mount presumably from the rim of a wooden bowl, Ukraine, find spot
unknown (height 6,1 cm, MHTU-Kiev inv: 6305, after REEDER 1999, 164165, no. 52).
Right: One of seven chased gold eagle-head mounts from the rim of wooden bowl no. 3 from the
central grave of Zavadskaja Mogila 1, Pervaja ray., Odonikidze, obl. Dnipropetrovsk
(height 9,2 cm MHTU-Kiev inv: AZS 2809, after REEDER 1999, 164165, no. 52).
 Scythian Eagles with Ionic Honeysuckle 451

settlements and strongholds6 as well as the Greek colonies and their chora, producing animal art for the
indigenous elite7. However the uneven outline of these and many other gold plaques as well as the coarse
and erratic riveting, which was employed to arrest them onto the wooden vessels (see Fig. 1), in some
cases needlessly damaging the matrixes precisely executed design (for instance Fig. 6.1), would seem to
speak against high quality workmanship. An explanation for this could be that exquisite matrices were
passing into the hands of ham fisted local smiths. However, it is more likely that the burial ritual dictated
that sheet gold artefacts needed to be fashioned in a hurry on site and that their hasty manufacture was
probably embedded in rituals enabling and celebrating the apotheosis of the deceased8. This is supported
by evidence for on-site metalworking not only in other grave sites in the eastern European steppes9, but
also in the broadly contemporary Hallstatt princely graves in Central Europe10 or in Lydian tumuli11
where metal working tools and scrap polluted through contact with death and the holy sphere were
deposited in or near the sepulchre12.
Be this as it may, the quality of the matrices themselves was high and both mounts are typical for
the pinnacle works of Archaic and early Classical animal art which was being fashioned for, and used
by an exclusive segment of the north Pontic elite. Typically, both eagle heads show an extreme degree
of formalisation dictated by a radical reduction of the features of an animal to a few clearly defined
segmented planes, which miraculously manage to not only capture the essence of the beast but also
convey the dynamics and inner tensions generated by interaction between savage hunters and their
terrified prey.
The two eagle heads in question are abstracted to three segments. The nape, which in living raptors
is thick and fluff with feathers, is portrayed as a thin band enlivened by the inscription of two further
interlocking eagle heads. This serves to emphasize the unnaturally large empty disk shaped eye which
surmounts the nape. The eye, in turn, cuts into the neighbouring clearly delineated cere (see Fig. 2).
This cuticle covers the base of an eagles maxilla (upper beak). It is ubiquitously portrayed and indeed
emphasized on 7th5th century BC raptor heads across the breadth of the Eurasian steppes and in many
cases is accentuated further through ribbing or hatching (see Fig. 6). This not only sets the iconography
of the raptors head apart from its mythological hybrid, the griffon, whose parrot beak generally has none,
but also helps to narrow down the raptor species, these images will have evoked. Eagles, particularly
Eurasias mighty white tailed (sea) and golden eagles, have a puffy mottled cere, which is clearly
6
For the use of figurated punches matrices and/or moulds by jewellers and finesmiths in the circum-Pontic region
TREISTER 2001; KULL STNG 1997; KOKWNA 1979; 1980. North Pontic sites include the Gorodie at
Belsk with metalworking debries including a mould of a matrix fragment for a stag with eagle tined stack
(RAMKO 1987, fig. 57) or a figurated punch from Kamenskoe Gorodie (RAMKO 1970).
7
For moulds/matrices from Boresthenes/Berezan Olbia including animal art see: KAPOINA 1956;
OSTROVERCHOV 2005; SOLOVYOV 1999; VINOGRADOV KRYICKIJ 1995; for metal working in Olbias chora:
KRYICKI BUJSKICH BURAKOV OTREENKO 1989. Early metalworking is also attested in Nymphaeum:
FEDOSSEV 1997 and Pantikapaeon TREISTER 2007.
8
For apotheosis and heroization in antiquity: GESCHE 1968; BURASELIS et al. 2004. For apotheosis as the goal of
ostentatious funerary rites in first millennium BC. Europe KULL 1997; for analogous customs in Anatolia: IIK
2003.
9
Metal working tools/debries in funerary or ritual contexts in the north Pontic steppes include punches and
dies at Uljap Kurgan 4 in the Kuban Basin: LESKOV 1990, 9293; metalworking remains from the Melitopol
Kurgan: TERENOKIN MOZOLEVSKIJ 1973, 121 123; as well as Pasterskoe/Adigol (Maritzin), Grave 1U:
EBERT 1913, 5 fig. 6; OSTROVERCHOV 2005, fig. 1,3 and Ryanovka, Hgel 1: SAMOKVASOV 1908, fig. 38.
10
Scrap gold, punches and chissels buried next to the mound of the princely tomb of Hochdorf in southwest
Germany: PLANK 1985, 143 f. cat. No. 20.
11
ZGEN ZTRK 1996, cat nos. 188219.
12
For fear of pollution due to contact with the dead in ancient Greece: PARKER 1983, 3245; in Zoroastrism:
CHOKSY 1989.
452 Louis D. Nebelsick

Fig. 2. Left: Head of a golden eagle (Aquila Chrysaetos after a photo by Richard Bartz, creative commons).
1. cere; 2. nare; 3. maxilla; 4. chin; 5. mandible. Right: Ionic capital, detail of the Greek Revival Reformed
Church in Bathwick, England (Thomas Baldwin 1789 after http://bathdailyphoto.files.wordpress.com/2006/11).
Volute: 1. fillet; 2. canalis; 3. oculus or eye; 4. spandrel palmette.

delineated from the beak through an in-swung line, a detail that is faithfully copied by Eurasian gold
workers. Other raptors cere are much less prominent13. Strangely, the nare, the eagles nostril, while
occasionally shown in the art of the eastern steppes and characteristic for Aegean and Near Eastern
eagle portraits in the first half of the first millennium BC14, is almost never illustrated by the artisans of
the western steppes. Perhaps this fussy detail would have detracted from the emblematic character of
the eagle-head motif. Finally the last element, the beak itself, is reduced to an impossibly large upper
mandible scrolled one and a half times into a volute which is wrapped around a second eye-like disk.
Scrolled beaks, which are a recurrent feature of early Scythian raptor imagery, may have evoked more
complex associations then the obvious menace signalized by the geometric amplification of the birds
aquiline mandibles. They recall Aristotles (History of Animals IX,4) outrageous tale about the eagles
hooked beak becoming increasingly curved with age before finally becoming dysfunctional and starving
the bird to death. This story, which must reflect fables or myths about scrolled raptor beaks circulating
in the eastern Mediterranean in the 4th century BC, may either have been inspired by north Pontic art or
reflect lost traditions about the physiognomy of mythological raptors. Yet, whatever associations isolated
aspects of these eagle-head mounts may have evoked, the tensions triggered by the inner dynamic of the
composition will have transported the most compulsive imagery to its viewer.
The thin neck, the eye looming from it into the exaggerated cere, which in turn lunges over the
massive swirling beak, thrusts the head forward, underscoring the savage agency, which is the eagles
essence. This celebration of the physiognomy of savage power is not simply an abstract evocation of
an apex predators implacable force but also lies imbedded in the function of the bowls that these heads
decorated. Wooden bowls fitted with gold sheet mounts have accompanied elite burials in Eurasia since
the Late Bronze Age15. When raptor heads are suggested by the silhouette of undecorated or point boss
13
FERGUSON-LEES CHRISTIE 2001, 66 fig. 19.
14
KANKELEIT 1988; ibid. 2010; BRKER-KLHN 1971.
15
CIMIDANOV 2000; KUROKIN 1993; PJATYCH 1984. Eagle shaped gold foil mounts of the Iron Age have been
studied intensively by KANTOROVI 1997; MANCEVI 1966; 1973; 1987, MELJUKOVA 1989 and RJABOVA 1984;
1987; 1991; synthetic summaries also include KOROLKOVA 2003 and KOVPANENKO BESSONOVA SKORYJ
1994; supplemented by recent discovories for instance from the Berdjansk Kurgans on the Asov Sea (BOLTRYK
 Scythian Eagles with Ionic Honeysuckle 453

decorated gold foil plates in the early 1st millennium, they are mounted on the rims of bowls with their
beaks pointing downwards. This is a pattern that persists until the custom of depositing gilded rustic
wooden vessels is abandoned in the north Pontic steppes with the onset of Hellenism. These bowls are
deposited in the Grave chambers separately from Mediterranean inspired and imported symposial sets
and must have played a specific role in Scythian burial rituals linked to traditional libation rituals, the
characteristic honour bestowed on chthonic and ancestral powers.
A typical feature of disembodied golden eagle-head mounts on wooden vessels in the Pontic steppes
is their inscription with at least one much smaller head, made up of beak and sometimes cere which
shares the same eye but hangs downward at a 90-degree angle. This unusual stylisation may reflect
mythological creations such as Old-Norse Verflnir, a sage falcon, who perches between the eyes of
that nameless giant eagle who stands guard on top of Yggdrasil, the world tree16.
In the case of our plaques, a second inscribed head augments the first, and it is within the choreography
of libation, that this motif is energized and reveals its true purpose. The upward twist and sweep of the
supplicants hand, which frees the fluid from its confines, evokes the deity in its downward sparkle and
in the case of burnt sacrifice signalizes godly epiphany through the explosive steaming hiss and azure
flash when alcohol hits embers. The upended position of eagle-head mounts in general and particularly
the position of inscribed eagle heads on the two Ukrainian mounts allow us to reconstruct these eagles
heads in action (Fig. 3). When the bowl is full and held between finger and thumb, a small eagle head
looks skywards. It doubles in size as the fluid begins to spill over the rim and in that crucial moment of
epiphany, when the cup is fully turned and its contents splashes on the ground or explodes in the fire,
the full-blown glittering eagles head soars upwards to the sky bonding heaven to earth. This notion of
antithetic reciprocity of the soaring bird and plunging liquid is also made visible by a inscribed flask
from Sairche, prov. Imereti, Georgia (Fig. 4.1), showing that such notions were by no means confined
to Scythia. The eagle heads role as a connector or, perhaps better formulated, as the guardian of the
interface, the protector of joints and strengthener of bonds, is amply documented in the animal art of the
steppes during the 6th and 5th centuries BC, and can be seen clearly on the Garinovo matrix17 (Fig. 4.2),
a northeast Pontic work piece which was deposited in north-western Bulgaria. Eagle heads shield the
shoulder joints of predators and herbivores and guard the point where hoofs, paws and talons touch
the soil and horns rake the air. Wooden vessel plaques decorated with the motif of this guardian raptor
include a massive eagle head, which smothers the shoulder of a deer from a kurgan near Dubovaja18.
Eagle heads are particularly prolific on scrolled carnivore rein and strap mounts. They cover joints and
joins of examples which have been recovered between the Dnepr river and the Aral Sea, i.e. Simferopol

FIALKO EREDNITENKO 2010; EREDNIENKO MURZIN 1996); Fillipovka Kurgans in the southern Urals
(ARUZ et al. 2000; JABLONSKY MEERJAKOV 2008; RUKAVINIKOVA 2009; RUKAVINIKOVA JABLONSKIJ
2009) and Rogaik Kurgans (BOLTRYK FIALKO 2010).
16
Chapter 16 of Snorri Sturlessons Prose Edda: BYOCK 2005, LINDOW 2001, 312.
17
Garinovo, okr. Razgrad Bulgaria is a single find, found on the edge of a valley: FETTICH 1934; FILOW 1934;
VENEDIKOV GERASSIMOV 1976, 343 no. 152.
18
Late 6thearly 5th century BC kurgan around Dubovaja near Verchnodneprovsk Dnipropetrovsk,Ukraine: gold
bowl mount together with eagle head and point-boss decorated golden plaques: BOROVKA 1928, 91, pl. 3;
MANCEVI 1966, 30, fig. 4,19A; RJABOVA 1984, 34 fig. 1/5.
454 Louis D. Nebelsick

Fig. 3. Right: Reconstructed wooden bowl from the central grave of Zavadskaja Mogila 1 (see Fig. 1).
Left: Youth libating at an altar, tondo of an attic red figure cup from Vulci attributed to Makron, ca. 480 BC
(Louvre G 149 after Marie-Lan Nguyen 2011, open access).

Kulakowskis Kurgan 219, Koralevka20, Komsomolskij Krasnojarskogo grave 2321 and Kyryk-Oba22,
showing the wide geographic range in which this motif had potency. The fact that beasts, which are
depicted on late 5th and 4th century BC sword sheaths23, still sport eagle-head bandages on their shoulders
attests to the tenacity of this iconography. The fact that the eagle-head motifs protective function existed
outside of the mythical-zoology of the Scythian otherworld is demonstrated by the highly realistic
sculptured grave marker of a warrior found near Krasnodar shown with eagle-head plaques on the front
and back shoulders of his composite armour vest24.
Yet, despite the fact that so much of both the style and iconography of these two mounts can be
explained within the context of the animal art of the Eurasian steppes, one important detail defies such
explanation. That is the fan of fleshy petals sprouting from a tear drop sepal which is tucked in the corner

19
The late 6th early 5th century kurgan between the Alma and Kaa River southwest of Simferopol, Crimea, was
excavated by J. A. Kulakovski in 1885. This plaque and that of a second scrolled predator was found near the
right hand of a warrior. For a description and older Literature: ARTAMANOV FORMAN 1970, 32; 99 fig. 24. pl.
78 and JACOBSON 1995, 263 no. X.C.5, fig. 133.
20
Kovalevka II, Kurgan 2: KOVPANENKO BUNJATJAN GAVRILJUK 1975, fig. 31.
21
Komsomolskij Krasnojarskogo (DVORNIENKO PLACHOV OIR-GORJAEVA 1997, fig. 7).
22
Kyryk-Oba II cemetery in western Kazakhstan (GUTSALOV 2010, Abb. 6,1).
23
KANTOROVI 2002, fig. 3,2 (Elisavetskaja Stanica); fig. 4, 34 (Kul Oba) and fig. 4,7 (Solocha).
24
The origin and find circumstances of this monumental sculpture are opaque. It may once have marked a grave
near Stanica Pregradnaja, raj. Karaajevo-erkesija, east of Soi (GORELIK 1973; OLCHOVSKIJ 2005, fig. 81.
 Scythian Eagles with Ionic Honeysuckle 455

Fig. 4. 1. Sairche, prov. Imereti, Georgia Sabaduris Gora, grave 13: pilgrim flask with engraved eagle
head, late 6th early 5th century BC (after BILL 2003, pl. 137,4);
2. Garinovo, okr. Razgrad, Bulgaria, bronze matrix (after MICHEL 1996, fig. 26).

or spandrel between the base of the eagles mandible and the beaks terminal scroll. This motif has a clear
eastern Mediterranean floral pedigree25. It was aptly termed honeysuckle by Anglo-American classicists
who saw the anthemions sprays mirroring the colourful sweet smelling blooming bursts of the wild
vine26. Sadly, the misleading term palmette has won the day in our descriptive terminology, although
this neither does justice to the motifs venerable floral ancestors, nor the perception of the ancient
Greeks themselves. They, like a stylish late 6th century BC lady sniffing at a highly stylized spandrel
palmette painted by Andokides on a seminal red figure belly amphora27, knew a flower when they saw
one. Moreover they will have appreciated the metaphoric field of fecundity and purity28 evoked by the

25
KANTOR 1945; RIEGL 1893, 48191.
26
WARD 1890, 2640; compare this enthusiasm for the flower with Americas revolutionary bard Philip Morin
Freneaus The wild honeysuckle written in rural New Jersey in 1786 (RICHARDSON 1951, 296).
27
Berlin F 2159 (DEPPERT-LIPPITZ 1985, fig. 78).
28
SCHDLER 1990, 371.
456 Louis D. Nebelsick

blossom and may have even been aware of the narcotic potency of the water lilies that inspired the motif29.
Eastern Greeks, responding to the lavish floral dcor of Near Eastern and Anatolian finery, garlanded
their vessels with carpets of painted anthema. Particularly Fikellura vases, which were being produced
in Miletus from the mid 6th century up to the Persian destruction in 494 BC, but also in Miletuscolony
Istros/Histria and perhaps Olbia30, gloried in relaxed elegant foliage which combined lazy spirals with
fleshy palmettes. Fikellura was exported to the Black Sea coast and into its hinterland31 as was a trickle
of Archaic Laconian, East Greek and even Etruscan bronze vessels with volute dcor32. This clearly
indicates a willingness on the part of the indigenous population to integrate Greek symposial customs
and attendant ideologies into their ritual and communicative behaviour patterns. It would seem logical to
expect that the vibrant imagery on Mediterranean symposial vessels would have been translated by local
craftsmen onto local drinking sets. Yet, this is palpably not the case. While the fleshy honeysuckle fans,
which emerge from the spandrels of our golden plaques, have clear parallels in the black glaze foliage of
later 6th century pottery (Fig. 5.1), the thin stems and loosely wrapped volutes, from which they sprout,
are radically different. Not only does the symmetrical out curved spandrel shape of the painted foliage,
which is mainly composed of a pair of scrolls, set them apart from our gold mounts, but also the lack
of a central eye or oculus, which is a salient feature of the scrolled eagle beaks. The same holds true for
Archaic bronze table ware where volute attachment dcor, though sometimes emerging from a base line
like our palmettes, always lacks an oculus.
Remarcably, however, a comparison between these small plaques with the floral dcor of eastern
Greek monumental religious structures, i.e. the bolsters of Ionic standard columns, anthemions from
temple roofs and altar volutes is immediate and compelling (Fig. 5). Moreover, it is possible to date
the most apposite parallels closely and characterize the geographical and ideological context in which
this remarkable iconographic transfer took place with surprising precision. In the case of Archaic Ionic
capitals the progressive development of the petals of the honeysuckle bloom sees puffy succulents in
the mid 6th century morphing to elongated ribbed and pointed forms by the centuries close and finally
drooping and shrivelling by mid 5th century BC33. While this sequence would suggest a mid 6th century
BC date for the transfer of the honeysuckle motif to the iconography of our eagle-head mounts, the
prominent eye is a feature of latest Archaic and Classical architectural volutes. Capitals with both
fleshy palmettes and volute eyes are rare in the Archaic Period and mainly found on temples and votive
columns in the Cyclades and the north Aegean, which date to the second half of the 6th century BC34.
Whether they were in use in the Pontic colonies themselves is unclear. Locally made provincial capitals
from Odessos and Histria35, which may have been fashioned before the turn of the 5th century BC,

29
IGNATIADOU 2008, 329330.
30
Fikellura first defined by Robert Manual Cook in 1934 (COOK DUPONT 1998, 7789) was once thought to be
Rhodian, but finds of potters stores (WASCHEK 2008), chemical (DUPONT 1983, 34 f., SCHAUS 1986, 270283)
and neutron activation analyses (AKURGAL et al. 2002) have shown it to be solidly Milesian.
31
BOUZEK 1990, 36; BOUZEK 2005; BOUZEK 2007, 1226; for Pontic imitations: POSAMENTIR 2010; ALEXANDRESCU
1997.
32
For imported metal vessels in the Pontic steppes: ONAJKO 1970, BILIMOVI 1982.
33
For an analegous sequence in contemporary bronze vessel decor: STIBBE 2006.
34
Examples include Halikarnassos (BAKKER 1999, cat. no. Ion 55); Izmir-Halkapinar (ibid, 26, cat. no. Ion 12);
Delos (possibly Naxian) (ibid, 29); Thasos (votive capital) (ibid, 29. no. Ion 20 and 23) and Chios (ibid, 30 f.,
cat. no. Ion 26) can be stylisticly dated mid to the late 6th century BC; moreover, with few exceptions the spirals
of eagles beaks turn one and a half times befor their canalis merge with the eye two to two and a half turns is
the norm for Ionic capitals volutes.
35
For the two atypical capitals from Odessa (MINCHEV 2003); a larger volute fragment and two further fragments,
perhaps of the same structure, were recovered from the sanctuary zone of Istros/Histria. All were hewn from
limestone from the neighboring Babadag hills (THEODORESCU 1964; MRGINEANU-CRSTOIU 1993, 3952). A
 Scythian Eagles with Ionic Honeysuckle 457

Fig. 5. 1. Shoulder dcor of a Fikellura amphora in the Louvre after COOK DUPONT 1998 , 85 fig 10,8;
2. Thasos, Geece: Marble Ionic votive capital from the acropolis mid 6th century (Thasos Mus. item. 217
after BAKKER 1999, 29, cat. no. Ion-23); 3 and 8. mirrored beak of the golden eagle-head-mount plundered from an
unknown kurgan in the Ukraine (see Fig. 1); 4. Kato Phana, Chios Greece: marble Ionic capital from the Apollo
Phanaios temple, last quarter of the 6th century (after BAKKER 1999, 30, cat. no. Ion-26); 5. reconstruction of the
early classical Delphinium in Miletos (after KNIGS 1989, fig. 11); 6. Olbia, glazed terracotta altar (?) anthemion
after KRYITSKY 1997; 7. Miletos Kabalatepe painted akroterion after RUSJAEVA 1988; 9. Pantikapaion, altar
volute fragment after BUJSKICH 2005, pl. 124,8; 10. Olbia, altar volute fragment after BUJSKICH 2005, pl 16.

have jaggedly modelled rosette eyes setting them apart from our mounts. There is no evidence for the
existence of Ionic stone capitals in the more northern Pontic colonies before the second quarter of the
5th century BC. This is hardly surprising as their inhabitants had just begun to replace the ephemeral
domestic housing and sunken outbuildings they had been living in during the pioneering phase of the
colonies with sizable mud brick buildings at the close of the 6th century BC. Interestingly, however,
there is slight evidence for column bases and ample evidence for volute mouldings of what must have
been substantial altars, including ante capitals and anthemions made of imported marble, local limestone
and terracotta well before the turn of the 5th century BC36. This indicates that even at an early state
of their formation these precarious communities preformed their vital sacrifices, which were crucial
to maintaining internal cohesion and reinforcing outward ties, in an appropriately lavish architectural
framework marking the interface between unconsecrated and sacred space37. Moreover, a simplified
more carefully sculpted limestone Ionic capital from the Histrian sacred precinct (THEODORESCU 1968, fig. 34)
has lancet-shaped early 5th century sepals and petals which clearly set them apart from the eagles honeysuckle
considered here.
36
For the presence of a large ante capital: BUJSKICH 2010, 151.
37
For the architectural iconography of holy space: LAVAS 1974; for the function of Ionic foliage to denote the
sacred see BAKKER 1999, 82 and for the function of oriental inspired foliage: KYRIELEIS 1969, 9197.
458 Louis D. Nebelsick

version of the volute anthemion finals with two to one and a half turns and a fleshy palmette seems to be
typical for embellishments on late 6th century BC altars in Miletoss Black Sea colonies38. This makes it
highly likely it was the dcor of altar volutes that was seminal in inspiring both the in turned beak of our
mounts and their spandrels foliage.
The fact that iconographic transfer should have taken place between object groups of such radically
different size and function as carved stone architecture and miniscule golden plaques may seem jarring
at first glance. However, when context of the manufacture of late Archaic floral embellishments is
considered more closely, it is hardly surprising. The recent renaissance of the Victorian interest in
antique polychromy which has accompanied the abandonment of what were essentially neoclassistic
visions of modernist purity39 not only celebrates the omnipresence of multi-coloured ornaments of
sacred architecture but also the ubiquity of metal mounts and metal coverings40. The manufacture of
these filigree mounts and particularly the wide-spread use of gilding would have required the attention
of jewellers and finesmiths. Thus, artisans producing jewellery costume accessories and decorative
mounts would not only have been exposed to religiously denoted floral motifs, but also could also have
been involved in their manufacture. This is all the more likely to have happened during the peak period
of polychrome temple dcor between 600 and 480 BC.
Before considering the cultural and ideological implications of this unlikely marriage between the
eagle-head heraldry of the steppes and the foliage of Ionic sacred architecture it is worth considering the
temporal and geographic range of the eagle-head/honeysuckle motif. The best parallels for our plaques
were all found on the right bank of the Dnepr/Dnipro within 50 kilometres of the Kamenskoe gorodie.
This impressive stronghold, which lies on the edge of the Dneprs rapids at the most southern point
that the river is fordable, is seen as the most likely contender for Herodotus royal Scythian capital
Gherros41. Early gold eagle head plaques from Jablonovka Tumulus 142 and 2 (Fig. 6.3) and were
found with Greek pottery dating to the last quarter of the 6th century and the turn of the 5th century BC
respectively. The matrix for the plaques from tum. 2 was far cruder than those discussed above: Multiple
ribbing deliniates the cere, just one inscribed eagles head dangles beneath the eye and the broad canalis
is emphasized by crude beading. The floral motifs include not only a spandrel palmette reduced to a
stunted fork but also a rosette eye which is foreign to the animal art repertory and reflects Mediterranean
and Near Eastern architectural decoration schemes. Related eagle-head mounts have been recovered
from Kurgan 4 (Fig. 6.1) near the village of Berestnjahi43 15 km west of the bend of the Dniepr near
Kanev. They decorated a wooden bowl and were found lying with other gold mounts or jewelry in the
centre of the burial chamber of a rich double burial which was fitted out with gold regalia and is dated
by an Attic pottery drinking set to the second quarter to mid 5th century BC. The rough hewn modeling
of the matrix for these plaques show the typical prominent cross-hatched cere which is characteristic
for late 5th to 4th century BC eagle-head mounts. A set of golden mounts from neighboring Berestnjahi
Kurgan 5 (Fig. 6.2), a chambered tomb with a single warrior burial which is dated by a Lesbian transport
38
OHNESORG 2005; BUJSKICH 2010, 2429, 6262.
39
For the discovery and Victorian celebration of classical polychromy: SEMPER 1834; TREU 1884; SCHWEDES
2009; for the (re)discovery: BRINKMANN 2008; BRINKMANN PRIMAVESI 2003.
40
BAKKER 1999, 102 f.; for metal embellishments on Archaic stone sculpture and entablitures: RIDGWAY 1990;
for gold and bronze coverings and mounts decorating and supplementing Ionic architectural volutes: DRERUP
1952; HERRMANN 1984; KORRS 1997; STERN 1985.
41
MOZOLEVSKIJ POLIN 2005.
42
Jablunivka (Jablonovka), kurgan 1 Ostraja Mogila, ray. Korsun-evenkiwskij, obl. erkassy, Ukraine, dating
to the 6th century (ROLLE 1968, II 9294 with older references); for the mounts: FETTICH 1928; GRAKOV 1999,
17 fig. 4,16.
43
Berestnjahi, ray. Kaniv obl. erkassy Kurgan 4 (ROLLE 1968, II 23 f. with older references; MELJUKOVA 1989,
pl. 39,36).
 Scythian Eagles with Ionic Honeysuckle 459

Fig. 6. 1. Berestnjahi, Kanivskji ray., erkassy obl., kurgan 4 after REEDER 1999; 2. Berestenjahi kurgan 5,
after MOHYLOV DIDENKO 2008; 3. Jablonivka kurgan 2, after GRAKOV 1999; 4. Osytniaka after REEDER 1999.

amphora Monachov type IIIA to the 3rd quarter of the 5th century44, were modeled on the same matrix
as grave 4, however, in abbreviated form. Presumably in order to save material, the craftsman layed the
sheet gold strip on the top of the matrix at a right angle reducing the original three eagle heads to two.
The same abbreviation clearly using the same or a very similar matrix can be seen in the case of two
further mounts which are said to come from the Kaniv region and thus perhaps from the cemetery of
Berestnjahi itself45. Perhaps the most ingenious adaptation of this raptor-foliage conflation is found on
sheet gold bands which were once mounted on a wooden vessel or cone from a kurgan near Osytniaka
in the central Ukraine46. The bands are decorated with a guilloche band made of diagonally mirrored
eagle heads devouring rosettes with three petalled spandrel palmettes packed in between the beaks and
napes (Fig. 6.4).

44
For the gold mount: MANCEVI 1966, fig. 4,8; for the Amphora: TELEAGA ZIRRA 2003, 62 no. 2. MOHILOV
DIDENKO 2008.
45
MANCEVI 1966, fig. 4,16 sees an unspecified site of Velikie Budkie as the findspot. According to Rjabova
(1984) the Kaniv region is the correct findspot.
46
Osytniaka, Novomyrhorodskyi ray., Kirovohradska obl., Ukraine (CHVOJKA 1905; FIALKO 1993; MICHEL
1995, 213, fig. 43; REEDER 1999, 246 no. 117).
460 Louis D. Nebelsick

Related mounts which have been found outside this core area and can be dated include a gold
specimen for a wing handle of a wooden vessel decorated with three stag plaques from the Ak-Meet
kurgan47 (Fig. 7). It probably dates to the later 5th century BC and interstingly shows the circular whirl
of eagles heads on the handle mirrored in the stags antler tines. Other late 5th century variants with
a spandrel palmette but without the eye in the centre of the rolled up beak include three plaques from
Elizsvetskaja on the Don (kurgan 8/1911)48 and a series of plaques assigned to the Maikop (Fig. 8)
treasure which were probably collected from either a single tumulus or closely interrelated grave
inventories from the southern edge of the Kuban basin49.
Further permutations of the eagle-head/honeysuckle coupling, dating to the later 6th and early 5th
centuries BC, include palmette tufts, which emerge from antithetic eagle-head spandrels crowning elk
head rein mounts (Fig. 9)50. Spandrel palmettes in the later 5th century also emerge from a series of
animals and animal limbs all either with eagle attributes and/or associated with libation and symposial
vessels51. The range of such permutations can be illustrated with reference to the Maikop treasure,
which sees eagle heads with spandrel palmettes tucked into crevasses and spandrels of a wide range
of animal limbs (Fig. 8). The surprising tenacity of the eagle/honeysuckle motif can be seen in the
form of archaic looking antithetic eagle heads nudging small bouquets of fleshy petals on the throats of
otherwise thoroughly Hellenized golden scabbard mounts from royal Bosphoran tombs52.
Thus, it is possible to trace the emergence of the eagle-head/honeysuckle motif as an emblematic
component of gold incrusted indigenous wooden libation bowls during the later 6th century BC. This is on
the one hand the pinnacle period of Milesian colonization of the northern Pontos which saw ramshackle
emporia transformed to substantial planned apoikiai53. On the other hand, it coincides with the adoption
of ostentatious grave customs by indigenous elites who settled the prairie, which stretched between the
forest steppes and the Pontic coast. Clearly these two developments are interlinked and took place within
the context of intensive interaction between the inhabitants of the Pontic colonies, interested agents of
the colonizing powers both Greek and Persian54 and of course an emerging indigenous elite who was
using a new iconography which in turn had its roots in the eastern steppes. It is within this context of
intensive contact and rapid social transformation that the iconographic and ideological transfer, which
resulted in the adoption of this motif by elites on the Dnepr rapids, took place. Clearly, this would
have led to personal bonding between inhabitants of the colonies and the steppes, which formed the
basis of diplomacy in the Archaic period. Bonding involved oath ceremonies, which mandated sacrifice

47
Rozdolnnskyi ray., Crimea; for the context: ROSTOVCEV 1931, 354355; ERNENKO 2006, 68 no. 279; for
the plaque: ARTAMATOV FORMAN 1970, nos. 92, 97.
48
Elizavetovskaja Stanica, barrow 7, obl. Rostov-na-Donu barrow cemetery belonging to a large protourban
settlement: ITNIKOV 1989; MANCEVIC 1966 fig. 6,7.
49
LESKOV 2008.
50
KANTOROVI 1997, 102103, fig. 3.
51
Mounts and plaques from late fifth century grave inventories from the Seven Brothers Kurgans near
Varennikovskaja, on the Taman peninsula show the wide range of motifs which were were being augmented
with spandrel palmettes after the turn of the fifth century In Seven Brothers Kurgan 2 spandrel palmettes sprout
from the back of an eagles head rein mount (ARTAMONOV-FORMANN 1970, pl. 115) and nestles in the feathers
of a winged boar copied from Klazomenaean coinage (ibid. 112, fig. 49). In Kurgan 4 golden plaques decorating
drinking horns whose honeysuckle tucked under the wing of a hare hunting eagle (ibid. pl. 118), between wing
and belly of a winged panther (ibid pl. 112) and a gigantic eagle head making up the body of a senmurv has a
rosette eyes (ibid. pl, 121).
52
JACOBSON 1995, 239246, figs 105110.
53
See footnote 2 also EBERHARDT 1983, 3148; TSETSKHLADZE 2003; VONSOVI 2001.
54
For diplomatic activities of Black Sea colonists in the Pontic hinterland: TSETSKHLADZE 2009.
 Scythian Eagles with Ionic Honeysuckle 461

Fig. 7. Ak-Mecek Kurgan, Crimea, golden wing handle mount and one of three golden plaques
with a recumbant stag with eagle tipped antlers probably from the same wooden vessel.
After ARTAMONOV FORMAN 1970 pl. 70 and 72.

and libation exposing both sides to each others ritual performances55. The inclusion of Greek altar
foliage on indigenous libation bowls would make sense within the context of adoption of Greek libation
customs, as combining libation and burnt offerings on the altar were a uniquely Greek custom56. This

55
BURKERT 1974, 350354; SIMON 2004, 238.
56
BURKERT 1979, 4043.
462 Louis D. Nebelsick

Fig. 8. Plaques and mounts for wooden vessels from the Maikop treasure after SCHLITZ 1994.
The flower, mid left, is from the Apadana of Persepolis.

would demand a new iconography in order to create a valid visual environment to accommodate the
entrance into new ritual sphere.
In Vedic ritual narratives, the eagle swoops into the sky stealing the plant from which soma, the liquid
of immortality and fluid of libation, was won for the god Indra and humanity, in Germanic Scandinavia
Odin shifts to an eagle shape when escaping the giants lair with poets mead, and in ancient Greece the
eagle steals Ganymede, cup bearer of nectar to the gods. The fluid of rejuvenation, which Persians call
hoama, plays a vital role in ancient Iranian libation ritual, and it is highly likely that the Iranian speaking
Scythians shared libation rituals and mythology with their southern neighbours 57. With the iconographic
extension of the eagle-head motif by the addition of honeysuckle the eagle could also perform his

57
MACDONELL 1897, 104112; TAILLIEU BOYCE 2003; LITVINSKIJ 1968.
 Scythian Eagles with Ionic Honeysuckle 463

Fig. 9. Elk head mounts with spandrel palmettes: 1. Novorozanivka, obl. Nikolaev; 2. Akta, Crimea;
3. from the Small Seven Brothers Kurgans, Taman; 4. ovnino, obl. erkassy;
5. urovka, obl. Kirovohrad, kurgan 401; 6. Turja Kirovohrad
(after REEDER 1999 and ARTAMONOV FORMAN 1970; KANTOROVI 1997; ERNENKO 1981).

mission of bonding heaven and earth in the context of Greek sacrificial ceremony. Through the retention
of the Scythian eagle-head motif the performer of funeral libation evoked the liquid of immortality and
thus could initiate the apotheosis of the deceaseds soul; the addition of Greek honeysuckle guaranteed
that this would be done within the context of communication between mortals and the gods.
464 Louis D. Nebelsick

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