ME477 Fall 2004

MATERIAL REMOVAL Introduction

PROCESSES
Everyday Experience: Scraping
Theory of Metal the ice from your windshield
Edge angle of the ice scraper
Force required depending on the

Machining characteristics of ice

Incentives: Making a ceramic
1. Overview vase out of clay
Shaping
2. Theory of Chip Formation Removal of excess materials -
machining
3. Force Relationships Powder Metal or Cast
Exact dimension
4. Power and Energy Relationship Tolerance & Surface Finish

5. Cutting Temperature
1 2

Classification Turning and

Material Removal Processes
Related Operations
Drilling and Related
Conventional Operations
A family of shaping operations through which
Machining
Milling undesired excess material is removed from a
Other Machining starting workpart so the remaining part
Operations
become closer to the desired shape
Material Removal Grinding
Processes Abrasive Processes Categories:
Processes Other Abrasive
Processes Machining material removal by a sharp cutting
Mechanical Energy tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
Processes
Abrasive processes material removal by hard,
Electrochemical
Nontraditional Processes abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
machining Thermal Energy Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
Processes
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material
Chemical
Machining
3 4

Machining 1. Overview
Work New Surface
Types
A shearing process in which excess Turning - Lathe
Feed Motion
(tool)
Speed motion
(work)

materials is removed by cutting tools. Drilling Drill press Cutting tool

Speed motion
(Tool)
A variety of work materials
Milling Milling Machine
Repeatable regular geometries Peripheral
Feed Motion
(tool)
Drill bit

Close tolerance (<0.025mm) Face

Smooth surface finish (0.4mm)
Cutting Tool
Waste, Expensive: Cost and Time Work
Speed motion
Speed motion
Other processes such as casting, forging, and bar Milling Cutter Milling Cutter
New Surface
drawing create the general shape New Surface

Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, Feed Motion (work)

Feed Motion (work)
finish, and special geometric details
Work material
Work
5 Peripheral (End) Milling Face (Slab) Milling 6

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Cutting condition Machine Tools

Relative motion between tool and work A power-driven machine that performs a
Cutting conditions machining operation
Cutting speed, v (m/s) Surface speed
Holds workpart
Feed f (m): the lateral distance traveled by the tool
during one revolution. Positions tool relative to work
Depth of cut d (m) Provides power and controls speed, feed, and
Material Removal Rate: MRR = v f d depth.
Roughing - removes large amounts of material, at Pumps a Cutting fluid v
high feeds and depths, low speeds
Finishing - Achieves final dimensions, tolerances,
and finish, Low feeds and depths, high cutting d
speeds
7
f 8

2. Theory of Chip Formation Shear

Strain in chip
Orthogonal Cutting Model
B
Rake angle: A

Shear angle: D
C
Using sin ( ) = sin cos cos sin
Shear tc Chip thickness ratio:
Plane Tool ls sin
r=
to
= cos( ) = cos cos m sin sin
tc ls cos( ) B
A
to By rearranging
AC DC + AD
r cos = = = tan ( ) + cot
ls Work tan = BD BD
1 r sin
sin ( ) cos cos D
= + =
r is always less than 1.0. cos( ) sin sin cos( ) C
9
As (from 10 to 35) increase, (from 5 to 2) decreases. 10

Velocity Actual Chip Formation

Vc Vs (a) Discontinuous chip
90-+ Brittle materials at low cutting speed
- Tool High tool-chip friction and large feed and Secondary
depth Shear Zone
90-
(b) Continuous chip
Vc
V Ductile materials with high speeds and
V small feed and depth of cut
Vs
V Vs V Work (c) Continuous chip with built-up edge
= = c
sin Ductile material at low to medium speeds
sin + sin V cos V (d) Serrated chip
2 2 & = s = Tool
y cos( ) y Difficult-to-machine metals at high cutting
V Vs Vc speeds
= = where y is the finite thickness of
cos( ) cos sin Effective
the shear plane, typically 0.03mm.
Shear Strain rate is around 103-105sec-1 Primary Shear Zone
11
Work12

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The Real Cutting Force 3. Force Relationships

Cutting Forces are measured with Dynamometer.

Tool Tool
F
Normal
R
Ft Fs
Fc
Shear Fr
Fn Area: A=bh
R N
where b=chip width Work Ft Work
Ft Fn R
h=chip thickness
Temperature (500-1000oC)
R F: Friction Force Fs: Shear Force Fc: Cutting Force
Pressure (1000-3000 MPa)
Sticking Zone Sliding Zone N: Normal Force Fn: Normal Force Ft: Thrust Force
13 14

Force Diagram Cutting Force

Fs
cos( )
Fc F = Fc sin + Ft cos Cutting Force: Fc = bh s

= K c bh [
K c N / mm 2 ]
sin cos( + )
N = Fc cos Ft sin
cos( )
Fs = Fc cos Ft sin Thrust Force: Ft = bh s sin = K t bh

Fn sin cos( + )
,R

Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
R

Ft s bh
Fs = R cos( + ) = Fc cos Ft sin = Fc = R cos( )
R,

F Fs sin Ft = R sin( )
R=
sin cos( + ) Fn = R sin ( + ) = Fc sin + Ft cos

=
s to w Kc and Kt must be calibrated
sin cos( + ) through machining experiments.
Fs cos( )
tc b
N Fc = Tool
d
sin cos( + )
Fs sin ( ) to h
Ft = f
sin cos( + ) Fc F Work
15 R Top View
16
t

The Merchant Equation Implication of Merchants

Eq.
= 45 +
Fs 2 2
Shear stress: = An increase in rake angle causes the shear plane angle
As to increase.
to w
Shear Plane Area: As = A decrease in friction angle cause the shear plane angle
sin to increase.
F cos Ft sin
Shear stress: = c The analysis from orthogonal cutting can be used in a
to w sin typical turning if the feed is small relative to depth of cut.
Merchants Assumption: Shear plane angle will Effect of shear plane angle :
form to minimize energy (a) higher with a resulting Tool
After differentiating w.r.t , Merchants lower shear plane area; Tool
Equation: (a) smaller with a resulting
larger shear plane area.
= 45 +
2 2
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Turning vs. Orthogonal 4. Power & Energy Relation

Feed f Uncut Chip thickness to
Pc = FcV
Depth d Width of cut w Power (energy per unit time)
FcV
HPc =
Cutting speed v Cutting speed v 33,000
P
Cutting force Fc Cutting force Fc hpc =
Feed force Ff Thrust force Ft
33,000 P in ft-lb/min
Pc hpc
Horse power Pg = or hp g =
E E

d with mechanical efficiency E=90%
tc
Tool Unit Power Pu = Pc
MRR
to Pc Fv F
f
Fc Ft Work Specific energy U = Pu = = c = c
MRR vt o w t o w
19 20

Specific Energy for various work

Size Effect & Energy Distribution materials (to=0.25mm)
0.01 0.04 (in) Materials Brinell Specific Energy (U)
1.6 Hardness Nm/mm3 In-lb/in3 Hp/in3/min
100
1.4 Tool Carbon Steel 150-200 1.6 240,000 0.6
Correction Factor

200-250 2.2 320,000 0.8

Proportion of Energy

1.2
Work 251-300 2.8 400,000 1.0
1.0 Alloy Steels 200-250 2.2 320,000 0.8
50 251-300 2.8 400,000 1.0
0.8
301-350 3.6 520,000 1.3
0.6 351-400 4.2 640,000 1.6
Chip
Cast iron 125-175 1.1 160,000 0.4
0.4
175-250 1.6 240,000 0.6
0
Stainless steel 150-200 2.8 400,000 1.0
0.125 0.25 0.5 1.0 1 2 3
Chip thickness before cut (mm) Aluminum 50-100 0.7 100,000 0.25
Cutting Speed (m/s)
Aluminum Alloys 100-150 0.8 120,000 0.3
Magnesium Alloys 50-100 0.4 60,000 0.15
21 22

Problem 21.30 5. Cutting Temperature

A lathe performs a turning operation on a work piece of 6in diameter. The shear strength of the
work=40,000lb/in2. The rake angle of the tool =10o. The machine settings are: rotational
speed=500rev/min, feed=0.0075in/rev. and depth=0.075in. The chip thickness after the cut Cooks dimensional analysis
is 0.015in. Determine: (a) the horsepower required (b) the unit horsepower for this material,
0.333
(c) the unit horsepower with the correction factor (1 for to=0.01in.) Use the orthogonal model. U vto
(a) To get HP, Fc and v are needed T = 0.4
t o 0.0075 C K
r= = = 0.5
t 0.015

tan =
r cos
;
0.5 cos10
= arctan = 28.3
o
Experimental Measurement
1 r sin 1 0.5 sin 10
10 (b) HPu
Tool-chip thermocouple
= 45 + ; = 2 45 + 28.3 = 43.4 o
2 2 2 MRR = vfd = 785(0.0075)(0.075) = 5.3 in 3 min Triggers results T = Kv m
t o w 0.0075 0.075 HP 2
As = = = 0.00119in 2 HPu = = = 0.375hp/(in 3 /min) RC-130B Ti (T=479v0.162)
sin sin 28.3 MRR 5.3
Fs = SAs = 40,000(0.00119) = 47.5lb
(c) HPu with the correction factor Fig. 21.14 18-8 Stainless steel (T=135v0.361)
Fc = s
F cos ( )
=
47.5 cos(43.3 10)
= 83.6lb B113 Free machining steel (T=86.2v0.348)
cos( + ) cos(28.3 + 43.4 10)
HPu 0.375
HPu = = = 0.326hp/(in 3 /min)
f 1.15
v = r = 500rev / min( 6 / 12)ft / rev = 785ft/ min
Fc v 83.6(785)
HP = = = 2hp 23 24
33,000 33,000

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Chatter Analysis
Mechanical vibration
k c
Free Vibration: m&x& + cx& + kx = 0
Forced Vibration: m&x& + cx& + kx = Fo sin t
Assume x(t ) = X sin (wt + ) c&x
F kx
Or using complex harmonic functions
j jt
m&x& + cx& + kx = Fo e e
(w) F
Assume x(t ) = Xe j (t + ) x(t )

(k m + jc )Xe
2
2 j
e jt = F (t ) = Fo e j e jt
1
Magnitude ratio: (w) =
X 1 1
=
Fo k
(1 r )
2 2
+ (2r )2
1 r
2r
Phase: = tan 1 + 0
1 r 2
where r = = c 2 km -90
n
k 25
and n = -180 r
m

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