Electrical Testers

Electrical Testers My Notes and Calculations
Chapter 6
Electrical Testers
Objective
Technology is changing the way things work.
Electronic controls and electronic circuits seem to
be everywhere. Today, theyre in the cars, trucks,
equipment, and machinery that in years past were
mostly mechanical, pneumatic or hydraulic, and
used electricity in more simple ways.
Technology has become more complicated by
electronics. However, the development of digital
testers has greatly advanced the ability to measure
and work with electronics and electricity.
Thats why the digital multimeter is like the tape
measure of the twenty-first century.
In this module, you will learn how a digital
multimeter operates, and what you can measure
with a digital multimeter. You will also be
introduced to other kinds of electrical testers for
special applications.
Figure 6.1
Perhaps most important though, is that you Digital multimeter
learn safety precautions to follow when testing
electricity.
Overview
A visual inspection of an electrical system can reveal the causes of some problems
within the system.
However, since electricity itself is invisible, it takes instruments and electrical test
equipment to give you a vision into that invisible world of electricity. They are the
tools that allow you to measure electrical components and systems.
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Figure 6.2 A frayed cord to an electric motor
In this module, you will learn about digital multimeters and their various parts
and functions. Youll learn how to use a digital multimeter to test voltage, current,
resistance, continuity, capacitance, and diodes. And youll also learn procedures to
keep you safe when you use a digital multimeter to work with electricity.
Analog Meters
An analog meter is an electromechanical tester. It uses magnets and springs to
move a needle in reaction to the electricity being tested.
Because they have moving parts, analog meters are more delicate than digital meters
and they must be calibrated frequently.
Figure 6.3 Analog meter showing several scales
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The electrical value tested by an analog meter is measured against a scale. Analog
displays use either a linear scale, or a non-linear scale. A linear scale is divided into
equal segments, the same way a tape measure is divided into equal segments. A
non-linear scale is divided into unequally spaced segments.
A linear scale is divided into primary divisions, secondary divisions, and subdivisions.
An analog reading is taken by determining the primary division, then adding any
appropriate secondary division, and subdivision. If the reading is unclear, round
the reading up to the closest subdivision. The needle of an analog meter fluctuates
as the measured signal fluctuates. A precise analog meter is generally accurate
within two or three percent of the measured reading.
Digital Meters
What is a digital multimeter?
A digital multimeter uses solid state
microprocessors to make electrical measurements.
Digital multimeters are much more accurate than
analog meters. A typical digital multimeter can
be accurate within one one-tenth of one percent
of the measured reading. Digital multimeters are
generally much more compact than analog meters.
Digital multimeters are more rugged than analog
meters. Digital multimeters are more versatile than
analog meters. For example, digital multimeters can
capture near instantaneous information, record
trends, or download information to a computer.
Display
A digital multimeter has either an LED, or a liquid
crystal display. The display shows exact numerical
values. The digital numbers on the display are easy
to read.
Analog displays, on the other hand, require some Figure 6.4
interpretation and are more likely to be misread. Digital multimeter
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The numbers on a digital display are updated from one to four times per second.
If the numbers were continually updated, they would be unreadable in some
measurements.
Sometimes, however, this slower updating of the numbers can be limiting, especially
when youre measuring a faster signal. Therefore, some digital multimeter displays
also show measurements on analog bars, graphs, or even simulated needles. The
display usually uses pertinent symbols, as well as warnings.
Figure 6.5 LED and LCD displays for digital multimeters
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Dial
On some digital multimeters, you push buttons to
input information or choose a function. On other
digital multimeters, you turn a dial to select the
function you want to measure.
You also use the dial to determine the range of
the measurement. The range determines where
the decimal point will appear in the number. The
position of the decimal point determines how
refined, or precise, the reading will be. Using the
dial, you will be able to work down from a higher
range to the lowest possible range for the reading.
The lowest possible range for the reading will
provide the highest resolution for the number.
Port Panel
The port panel is the area on your meter where
you plug in your test leads. Some meters have
only two connection ports.
Other meters have more than two connection Figure 6.6
ports, and the ports will be labeled for the Multimeter with dial;
function for which they should be used. port panel with four
plug-in jacks
Consult the instruction manual of the meter for
the specific use of the ports.
Calculating RMS
A digital multimeter is powered by a battery, which of course, is direct current.
Therefore, an alternating current signal must be translated into a direct current
equivalent on a digital multimeter reading.
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Direct current digital multimeters use root mean square calculations to determine
AC measurements. A root mean square, or RMS, calculation is based on the
measurement of the sine wave being tested.
Digital multimeters generally use one of three methods to calculate RMS. The
peak method measures the peak of the signal and divides the result by 1.414, or
the square root of two, to get the RMS value. The averaging method makes a
calculation of 63.7 % of the value of the positive peak of the sine wave.
The true RMS method takes the square root of samplings averaged of a period of
time. The peak method and the averaging method give an accurate measurement
only for a pure sine wave.
Figure 6.8 Digital multimeter showing the

three types of RMS calculation methods
In working with alternating current in most industrial settings, the electrical

equipment cause harmonics that distort the sine waves. In such environments,
only a meter that measures true RMS will give accurate readings.
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Meter Ratings
The International Electrotechnical Commission, or IEC, has set standards for low-
voltage test equipment. IEC defines low voltage as one thousand volts or fewer.
You should not use a meter to test voltage higher than that for which it is rated.
The four categories are CAT I, CAT II, CAT III and CAT IV. The category and
voltage rating of a meter should be marked on the front of the meter.
A higher category number on a meter means it has been tested for use in electrical
systems where there is greater danger possible from more powerful transients.
A CAT I meter is adequate for telecommunications and protected electronic
equipment. A CAT II meter can safely measure appliances, portable tools, and
other household loads of 120 volts or 240 volts. A CAT III meter can be used with
three-phase electrical distribution and single-phase commercial lighting. A CAT IV
meter is needed to measure three-phase at the utility connection or any outdoor
conductors.
Consider both the voltage rating and the category when you select a meter for a
job. A higher category meter has been tested to withstand transients with more
energy than a lower category meter.
Figure 6.9 Digital multimeter labeled CAT IV

to 600 V and CAT III up to 1000 V
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Probes & Accessories

Probes and accessories can expand the usefulness of your digital multimeter.
Examples include: large and small alligator clips; long probes for hard-to-reach
places; sharp probes to go through insulation, or dirt and corrosion; temperature
probes; infrared sensor probes; air probes; immersion probes; surface probes; and
current probes.
Many digital multimeters can also interface with a computer through the proper
connections and software. Meter manufacturers are continually developing
accessories to enable you to make the tests that will eliminate most of the guesswork
in installing, maintaining, and troubleshooting your electrical systems.
Figure 6.10 Probes and accessories used with digital multimeters
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Safety in Electrical Testing

Electricity is one of the most intense forces in nature, and it is unforgiving. Even
the electricity man has tamed for our electrical systems must be respected at all
times. Any voltage of twelve volts or more, should be treated as potentially lethal.
A transient is a sudden spike of electricity that can happen in an instant without
warning. A transient may last only a millisecond, but it can be extremely dangerous
because it could reach hundreds or thousands of volts.
Figure 6.11 Transient caused by lightning
Transients may be caused by nature, or they can be caused by equipment within a

system. However, the great majority of electrical accidents involve human error or
equipment failure.
A combination of safe work practices and the proper tools will help protect
you from the danger of transients, and promote your safety in other electrical
situations.
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Personal Safety
Keep safe when working with electricity by turning safe procedures into personal
habits. Always respect potentially hazardous energy situations, and consider these
precautions to help you avoid human errors that could lead to injury or death.
Use extreme caution when measuring a voltage of twelve volts or greater, measuring
current of ten milliamperes or greater, on an AC power line with inductive loads,
on an AC power line during an electrical storm, and when working on CRT
equipment.
Figure 6.12 Personal safety warnings
When working around high voltage, avoid working alone. There should be a person
close by who can render aid if necessary. Both of you should know electrical safety
procedures as well as CPR and first aid.
Always measure current with the load, and never measure current across the voltage
source. Make certain no body parts contact a live circuit. Do not touch the probe
tips when they are connected to a component or system. Use insulated tools.
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If you must work on a live circuit, always hook the ground clip first, then make
contact with the hot lead; remove the hot lead first, and remove the ground clip
last.
Hang or rest the multimeter if possible. Avoid holding the meter in your hands.
This will reduce your exposure to possible transients.
Never wear metal jewelry when working on electricity. Use safety goggles and
rubber insulated gloves. Wear flame retardant clothing. Use insulated mats. Never
operate a multimeter in explosive situations. Avoid taking measurements in humid
or damp conditions. Make sure your hands, feet, and work areas are dry.
Also, remember the one-hand rule. Use only one hand to attach the probes to the
circuit or component, and keep the other hand in your pocket. This greatly reduces
the chance of engaging a closed circuit through your chest and heart.
Equipment Safety
You can reduce your possibility of being injured by making sure you use the proper
equipment and that the equipment is in good working condition.
Figure 6.13 Use only one hand to attach the probes to a circuit
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Know the safety standards of your multimeter. Whenever you have any doubt
about using your equipment for a situation, read the manual or call the multimeter
manufacturer before doing the test.
Some digital multimeters have built-in safety features. When shopping for a digital
multimeter, you should consider the safety features as well as the practical functions
and price.
For example, some multimeters emit a tone when they are put in a potentially
dangerous configuration.
Figure 6.14 Digital multimeter ratings are

generally labeled in easy to see locations
If a test lead is plugged into the current jack and the range switch is set to measure
a different function, the alert tone sounds, because, even if the tester has fast-acting
fuses, if a tester is connected to a voltage source in this configuration, dangerous
current could result.
Never try to measure voltage if the leads are plugged into the amp input jacks!
Make sure to use multimeters rated for the work. Multimeters are rated according to
IEC standards. CAT I meters are for telecommunications and electronic equipment.
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CAT II meters are rated for residential and household current. CAT III meters are
rated for industrial use with items such as three-phase motors, motor controls,
distribution panel boards, variable speed drives, and commercial lighting. CAT IV
meters are rated for three-phase utility connections, and outdoor conductors.
You may see the NIST logo associated with an electrical tester. This is the logo
of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, a federal agency which
develops standards for technology and measurement. The logo means the tester
complies with the NIST standards.
It is also a good idea to use only meters that have been independently tested by
certified testing labs such as Underwriters Laboratories, the Canadian Standards
Association, the European Union directives, the European Association for
Electrical, Electronics and Information Technologies, and Global TUV.
Recessed input jacks are safer than input jacks that are not recessed.
Figure 6.15 Symbols used by different testing laboratories
Test leads may seem simple, but good test leads are a critical part of safety in
testing. Finger guards and shrouded terminals can help prevent injury. Inspect the
leads before each use. Consider replacing your leads after theyve been used for a
year. Fatigued and worn leads may fail or have high voltage leakage.
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Do not use damaged parts. Test your leads by first setting the dial to continuity. Then
touch your lead tips together. If you show continuity, your leads are working.
You can also test your leads with a resistance test in the low ohms range. When you
test the resistance on your leads, you should typically get a resistance between 0.2
and 0.5. If you get a reading greater than 1.0, the leads need to be replaced.
Make sure the voltage rating of the fuses on your multimeter are greater than the
maximum voltage you expect to measure. A meter with a 20 amp, 250 volt fuse
should not be used for measurements in a 480 volt circuit. For a 480 volt circuit,
you should use a meter with at least a 20 amp, 600 volt fuse. Never replace a fuse
with a fuse of a different rating. Keep spare leads and fuses handy so that no one
will consider using inappropriate leads or fuses.
Replace the battery immediately when the low battery indicator comes on. A low
battery can cause faulty readings, and in some cases a low battery can cause safety
problems.
Consider using cases or holsters to protect your equipment.
Safe Work Policies
Some principles of safety apply to all work situations involving electricity. General
safety standards have been developed from those principles.
Figure 6.16 Employee suggestion box and safety reminder
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Specific safety standards have also been developed for more specific electrical
environments. Organizations generating electrical safety standards include: ANSI,
ASTM, IEC, IEEE, NFPA, and OSHA.
Make sure your company is on the mailing lists of organizations setting safety
standards for your work environment. Get to know all of the safety standards
that may apply to your work environment. Make sure everyone who works with
electricity is familiar with the National Electric Code.
Every employee should be concerned about safety. Employees should be involved
in making sure their companys safety procedures cover all the potential hazards
of their work environment. A program to train new employees in the safety
procedures is essential.
Periodic review and retraining of employees will heighten safety awareness and
reduce risks from complacency. This will help prevent accidents, injuries, and
electrical fatalities.
Multimeter Basics
Know Your Equipment
A variety of test equipment has been developed to provide almost any imaginable
electrical test. There is even a wide diversity of functions, ranges, accuracies,
and abilities among digital
multimeters.
It is important to study the
instruction manual of your
digital multimeter to understand
its specifications, operating
features, ranges, and limitations.
Use the manual to learn specific
procedures, warnings, and safety
issues for your meter.
Know the limits of your meter.
Is it rated for CAT I, CAT II,
CAT III, or CAT IV? What are
Figure 6.17 Various electrical testers
its voltage limits in different
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categories? Know the accuracy limits of your meter. Readings taken can vary within
those accuracy limits. When accuracy is critical in a test, take several readings. That
will reduce the effect of stray alternating fields on some meters.
Resolution
Resolution refers to the smallest value your meter can measure. If you have one
tape measure that is marked off only in inches and second tape measure that is
marked off down to one-sixteenth of an inch, the second tape will measure smaller
or more precise values. It has more precise resolution. The same is true with
electrical testers. Some digital multimeters are more sensitive than others. With one
meter you may be able to see readings in volts, but with a second meter with more
resolution, you may be able to see changes and readings in millivolts.
Figure 6.18 Two digital multimeters with different resolutions
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In the next section, you will learn about digits and counts. Digits and counts are
used to describe the resolution of a meter.
Digits & Counts
Digital multimeters are classified by the number of digits and counts they display.
A digital multimeter with a higher number of digits and counts is capable of more
precise resolution in what it measures. Three-and-one-half and four-and-one-half
digit meters are common for hand-held digital multimeters.
Figure 6.19 Comparison of digital multimeters with 3 1/2 and 4 1/2 digits
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A three-and-one-half digit meter can display three full digits, with any of those
digits registering from zero to nine. The half digit will display either a one, or it will
represent zero and remain blank. A four-and-one-half digit meter can display four
full digits ranging from zero to nine, and the half digit will display one or remain
blank. A three-and-one-half digit meter can display readings up to 1,999 counts
of resolution. A four-and-one-half digit meter can display readings up to 19,999
counts of resolution.
However, some digital multimeters now have enhanced resolution for the number
of digits. For example, an enhanced three-and-one-half digit meter may have 3,200
counts of resolution, 4,000 counts of resolution, or 6,000 counts of resolution.
A standard three-and-one-half digit, 1999 meter cannot measure a tenth of a volt
if you are measuring 200 or more volts. But, a three-and-one-half digit, 3200-count
meter can display a tenth of a volt up to 320 volts, or a hundredth of a volt up to
32 volts, or a thousandth of a volt up to 3.2 volts.
Likewise, a 4000-count meter can display a tenth of a volt up to 400 volts; or a
hundredth of a volt up to 40 volts, or a thousandth of a volt up to 4 volts.
After you determine how precise your measurements must be, you must then
choose a meter based on both the digits and the counts of resolution in order to
have the best resolution for your readings.
Range & Resolution
The range to which a meter is set can effect the resolution of the reading.
In our example, well use a standard 3 1/2 digit, 1,999 count meter. If the range
is set to 200 volts, the highest possible reading with resolution to one-tenth is
one-hundred ninety-nine and nine-tenths volts. If the range is set to 20 volts, the
highest possible reading with resolution to hundredths is nineteen and ninety-nine
hundredths volts. Therefore, there is a higher resolution possible in the 20 volt
range because it can measure hundredths of a volt, while in the 200 volt range, the
meter can only measure tenths of a volt for some readings. However, if you set the
range to 20 volts and you are measuring more than twenty volts, the display will
show OL for overload or over-range. You must then reset your meter to a higher
range and take a new reading.
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To get the most precise reading, your meter must be set to the lowest range possible
without overloading. Therefore, set your meter to the range just higher than the
expected reading.
Figure 6.20 The highest values read by 3 1/2 digit

multimeter at two range settings
Accuracy
The accuracy of a meter is based on how close the reading is to the actual value of
the signal being tested. Accuracy is stated as a percent of the reading. If your meter
reads 100 volts on a measurement and the accuracy is plus or minus one percent,
then you would know that the actual voltage is between 99 volts and 101 volts.
Some meter specifications also add a digit range to the accuracy percentage. This
digit is the digit at the far right of the display. For example, the accuracy of a meter
could be stated as plus or minus one percent plus two digits. With this accuracy, a
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reading of 100 volts would mean that the actual voltage was no lower than one-
percent less, or ninety-nine volts, minus two counts, or ninety-eight point eight
volts. It also means that the actual voltage was no higher than one-percent more, or
one-hundred-one volts, plus two counts, or one-hundred-one point two volts.
Figure 6.21 The typical accuracy values for analog and digital multimeters
The typical accuracy for analog meters is between plus or minus two or three
percent. The typical accuracy of digital multimeters is far superior to analog
accuracies. It is not uncommon for a digital multimeter to have an accuracy of plus
or minus one-tenth of one percent plus one digit.
Verifying Your Tester
Before you start any testing, it is important to make sure your multimeter is in good
working condition. Do a visual check of your multimeter. Are there any broken or
loose parts? Any breakage could mean that your test results may not be accurate.
Even worse, bad parts could cause a safety hazard.
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A multimeter with broken parts should be repaired or replaced. Also inspect the
test leads or other accessories that work with your multimeter. Is the insulation
frayed or cracked? Repair or replace any questionable parts.
Figure 6.22 Always check for frayed leads before using test equipment
One common test to verify that your multimeter is working is called the three-
point test. This test is especially important if you are using your multimeter to test
whether or not a circuit is working. The first step in a three-point test is to use your
multimeter to test a circuit you know to be live. The second step is to measure
the questionable circuit that is the target of your test. The third step is to again
measure the known live circuit you tested in step one. This three-point test verifies
that your multimeter was working before and after you tested the target circuit in
question.
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OL Warning
An OL reading on the display
of your digital multimeter is a
warning. It means overload or
over range.
If you are testing voltage or
current and OL shows on the
display, immediately adjust your
range upward until you get a
reading. If the highest range
does not eliminate the OL
reading, stop the measurement
and disconnect your multimeter.
Make sure the multimeter you are
using has a high enough range to
test the circuit on which you are
working. If it does, then identify Figure 6.23 Overload warning
and correct the problem before on a digital multimeter
you resume the test.
An OL indication is not always a warning of a problem. An OL reading on the
display can be normal for some functions, such as testing continuity. When you set
the dial to test resistance, the display will read OL when the resistance is too high to
be measured. In this case, the air between the probe tips is too high a resistance to
measure. When you measure a diode, an OL reading means that the diode is open
or you have a reverse bias.
Advanced Functions
Capture & Hold
Many digital multimeters have the ability to hold a measurement. Usually the hold
function is activated with a separate button. Once a measurement is captured and
the hold button is pushed, the measurement is frozen on the display. The reading
will be held in the display even after the leads have been removed from the circuit
or component being tested.
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Holding the measurement in the display can be especially useful when you are
working in a cramped area where it is difficult to read the display or in very dim
lighting.
Min/Max
The min/max function can capture and hold either the minimum or maximum
reading on a fluctuating measurement. Usually this function is activated with a
separate button on the multimeter. Pressing the button once activates either the
minimum or maximum measurement. Pressing the button again activates the other
measurement. Pressing the button for a longer time deactivates the min/max
function.
Figure 6.24 Capture and hold feature
The min/max function can be helpful for both troubleshooting and maintenance
concerns. For example, a vehicles engine draws a large in-rush current at start-
up. You can use the min/max function on your digital multimeter to capture the
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maximum in-rush measurement. Analyzing the in-rush measurement will help you
determine the condition of the equipment.
Auto Ranging & Auto Polarity
Auto ranging and auto
polarity are convenient
features on a digital
multimeter.
Auto ranging automatically
selects the range that will
yield the best resolution
of the measurement.
Occasionally, however,
you may need to switch
to manual ranging, for Figure 6.25 Min/max feature
example, when you need
an instantaneous reading,
or when you are taking
repetitive measurements
within a specific range.
Auto polarity will protect
your digital multimeter
from being damaged when
the leads connections are
reversed. Auto polarity
shows negative readings
with a minus sign.
Figure 6.26 Auto ranging feature
Trend Mode
The trend mode function gives you the ability to record data over a period of time.
This will allow you to monitor trends such as AC frequency changes, intermittent
continuity breaks, surges, sags, and battery charging or discharging cycles.
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You can collect sampled, average, or high and low data. Sampled data gives the
measured value at the end of each time interval. Average data is the average value
of the measurements since the previous average measurement. A high and low
measurement is usually shown with bars representing the highest value and the
lowest value at the end of the time interval.
Figure 6.27 Common trend mode feature capabilities
Most multimeters with the trend function allow you to save the data to memory.
Then later, you can download the data to a computer for a more in-depth analysis,
report, or printout.
Computer Interface
Some digital multimeters have the ability to be connected to a computer. For
certain tests, you may want to transfer data from the memory of the multimeter to
the computer. Then you can use more sophisticated software to analyze the data,
putting it into charts, graphs, or other forms.
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With the right software, you can also produce electronic reports or printable reports.
With a computer connection, you can set up your digital multimeter and computer
to monitor a system over an extended period of time without any supervision.
If you are troubleshooting electronics, and you have unknown components in
the system, you can collect the electronic signatures of the unknown components
and identify them by comparing their signatures with the data in an electronic
component library on your computer.
Graphing Multimeter
A graphing multimeter can perform all of the functions of a standard digital
multimeter in measuring voltage, current, resistance, and so on. However, the
graphing multimeter has a more sophisticated display that shows you measurements
over time.
Figure 6.28 Computer interface used to record voltage at set time increments
The display shows digital numbers, but it also shows a two-dimensional graph of
the measurements. The changes from left to right represent time, and the changes
from top to bottom represent the measurement values.
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A graphing multimeter can be especially useful in finding electrical glitches, which

are intermittent changes in voltage. In glitch capture mode, it can record both the
magnitude and time of the glitch. In this way, you can identify and isolate spikes,
surges, or sags in the line.
You can also use a graphing multimeter in troubleshooting electronics, when you
have unknown components in the system. The graphing multimeter can determine
the electrical signature of a component to help you identify it.
Figure 6.29 Graphing multimeter
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes

A digital storage oscilloscope measures the
voltage in a circuit and displays a picture
of the voltage as a waveform in its display.
The changes from left to right represent
time.
The changes from top to bottom represent
the measurement values.
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A graphing multimeter gives you a two-dimensional picture of an electrical

waveform, but a digital storage oscilloscope gives you more control over both the
voltage resolution, and the time resolution of the waveform. This way you can look
at more complex signals with greater detail. The digital storage oscilloscope lets
you actually see what is going on inside a device or a circuit.
Some digital storage oscilloscopes offer multiple channels, which allow you to
analyze the relationships between many signals.
Using Electrical Testers
Testing DC Voltage
To test voltage, you must first determine whether you are testing DC voltage or
AC voltage.
In this case, well test DC voltage. On the multimeter, select DC voltage. Set the
range to just higher than the expected range of the circuit. If the range is unknown,
set the dial to the highest possible range. Some multimeters have an autoranging
feature that will automatically select the appropriate range during the test.
Plug the test leads into the proper port holes. The black lead goes into the common
jack, usually abbreviated to COM. Plug the red lead into the voltage terminal. If
your multimeter has more than one voltage terminal, consult your manual. If the
meter you are using has an autopolarity feature, then your leads can be connected
through either jack.
Figure 6.31 Testing DC voltage with a multimeter
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CAUTION: Never try a voltage measurement with a test probe connected to a

current jack! You could damage your meter and injure yourself.
Now, shut off the power in the circuit. In many industrial or commercial situations,
this would be a lockout/tagout procedure.
You are about to apply the leads to the circuit, so run through your safety checklist.
Remember to remove metal jewelry, wear safety glasses, and use an insulated mat
where appropriate. Also remember the one hand rule mentioned in the section on
safety.
Connect the black test lead to a negative polarity point or ground. Connect the
red test lead to a positive polarity point. The leads must be set in parallel with the
load.
Turn on the power to the equipment. Adjust the range on the dial if needed. When
you are satisfied that you have an accurate reading, press the hold button if you
want to save the reading.
Turn off the power. Disconnect the leads from the circuit. Remove the red lead
first. Then disconnect the black lead.
Testing AC Voltage
Now well test AC voltage. On the multimeter, select AC voltage. Set the range to
just higher than the expected range of the circuit. If the range is unknown, set the
dial to the highest possible range. Some multimeters have an autoranging feature
that will automatically select the appropriate range during the test.
Plug the test leads into the proper port holes. The black lead goes into the common
jack, usually, abbreviated to COM. Plug the red lead into the voltage terminal. If
your multimeter has more than one voltage terminal, consult your manual. If the
meter you are using has an autopolarity feature, then your leads can be connected
through either jack.
CAUTION: Never try a voltage measurement with a test probe connected to a
current jack! You could damage your meter and injure yourself.
Now, shut off the power in the circuit. In many industrial or commercial situations,
this would be a lockout/tagout procedure.
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Figure 6.32 Testing AC voltage with a digital multimeter
You are about to apply the leads to the circuit, so run through your safety checklist,
remembering things like removing metal jewelry, wearing safety glasses, and using
an insulated mat where appropriate. Consider the weather, because dangerous
transients can be caused by lightning. And remember the one hand rule mentioned
in the section on safety.
Connect the black test lead to a common test point. In AC testing, polarity has no
meaning. Connect the red test lead to a point across the component being tested.
Turn on the power to the equipment. Adjust the range on the dial, if needed, to
show greater accuracy. When you are satisfied that you have the most accurate
reading, press the hold button if you want to save the reading.
If you are using a digital multimeter that makes true rms readings, then your
measurement will be accurate in all situations. However, many digital multimeters
use averaging for RMS. Readings with an averaged rms are accurate only when
measuring a pure sine wave, as found in most residential settings. Commercial and
industrial settings have equipment producing harmonics that distort the sine wave.
In these settings, only voltage readings given in true rms can be relied on.
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Turn off the power. Disconnect the leads from the circuit. Remove the red lead
first. Then disconnect the black lead.
Testing Current
Current is the movement of electrons through a conductor. It is measured in
amperes or amps. You can only measure current in a live circuit, therefore extreme
caution is needed.
There are several ways to measure current. Current can be measured with test
probes, and this is the most common method for measuring current of one amp
or less. Current can also be measured with a clamp-on meter or a digital multimeter
with a current probe. This is the simplest, safest, and most common method for
measuring current greater than one amp because the current can be measured
without breaking into the circuit. Not only is this safer than breaking into the
circuit, but it eliminates costly equipment down time.
Figure 6.33 Three common current measuring devices
To test for current, first determine whether you are testing AC or DC current. Set
the selector switch to either AC or DC. Then set the appropriate expected range on
the dial. If the range is uncertain, set the dial to the highest range and work down.
Some multimeters have an autoranging feature that will automatically select the
appropriate range during the test.
We will now move to specific examples of current testing using a clamp-on digital
multimeter, a digital multimeter with a current probe, and a digital multimeter with
standard probes.
242
Clamp-on Meter
To measure current using a clamp-on meter, first determine whether you will
be measuring AC or DC current. Then make sure you have the correct meter to
measure that current.
If your meter will measure both AC and DC, select the correct setting for the AC
or DC current being tested.
Select the highest setting range for the expected current. If you are not certain
of the expected range, set the meter to the highest range and work down.
Some multimeters have an autoranging feature that will automatically select the
appropriate range during the test.
Figure 6.34 Clamp-on meters for measuring current
Open the clamp head by pressing the lever. Circle the jaws of the head around a
single conductor. Release the lever. Make sure the jaws of the clamp have closed all
the way around the single conductor.
Take the measurement. Remove the clamp by pressing the lever to again open the
jaws.
244
Current Probe
Current can be measured using a current probe with a digital multimeter. Current
probes are transformers that scale down the current. Typically a digital multimeter
with a current probe will show one milliamp on the display for every amp of
current being measured.
A current probe may be specific to alternating current or it may be used for either
DC or AC. Most DC current probes will also measure AC current.
A current probe may also be restricted in the upper limit of current it can test.
Most current probes have their greatest accuracy in the upper end of their range.
To measure current with a digital multimeter and a current probe, first connect the
leads from the probe to the appropriate terminals of the multimeter. Plug the black
lead into the common terminal.
Plug the red lead into the appropriate terminal.
Current probes convert the current measurement to voltage. A typical current
probe will measure the current flowing between its jaws, then transform each amp
of current into one millivolt on the multimeter.
Figure 6.35 Current probes used to measure current in a wire
246
If your current probe converts current to voltage, set the dial to the AC voltage
function and the millivolt range. If your current probe has a switch to measure
different ranges, set the switch to the appropriate range to be tested. If the expected
range is unknown, set the probe to the highest range and work down.
Open the current probe by pressing the lever. Close the jaws of the current probe
around a single wire. Make sure the jaws are completely closed.
Take your reading.
Open the jaws of the current probe and remove it from around the wire. Unplug
the leads.
Standard Probes
If you are testing current using standard test probes instead of a current probe,
you will need to connect into the circuit. That is why standard test probes are
generally used to measure current only in low current circuits. Turn off power to
the circuit before connecting the probes of your meter to the circuit.
Plug the test leads into the appropriate terminals on the meter. Plug the black
lead into the common plug labeled COM. Plug the red lead into the appropriate
terminal.
Figure 6.36 Measuring current with standard probes
248
Set the selector dial to AC or DC depending on the type of current you are
measuring. Set the range to just higher than the expected range of the circuit. If
the range is unknown, set the dial to the highest range. Some multimeters have an
autoranging feature that will automatically select the appropriate range during the
test.
Open the circuit at an appropriate measurement point. Connect the test probes in
series with the load. Turn on the power to the circuit being measured.
Read the display. If you get an overload reading, adjust the range on your meter to a
higher range until you get an accurate reading. If the reading is not precise enough,
you may need to adjust the range down until you get a more precise number.
After you get your most accurate reading, turn off the power to the circuit. Remove
your probes from the circuit. Then reconnect the circuit.
Testing Resistance
In testing resistance, first turn off the power in the circuit or to the component
you will be testing. You should never measure resistance on a powered circuit or
across a voltage source.
Set the dial on the multimeter to resistance mode.
Figure 6.37 Testing electrical resistance
250
Set the dial to the upper limit of the appropriate range to be tested. If the resistance
is unknown, select the highest range, and work down. In this example, we know the
range will be less than 200 ohms. On the circuit, discharge any capacitors that could
influence the reading. Use caution when discharging a capacitor since a capacitor
may hold enough charge to injure or kill.
Connect the test leads into the proper ports of the multimeter. The black lead goes
into the common jack. The red lead connects into the resistance jack.
At this point, you can run a test of your multimeter and probes. Touch the tip of
one probe with the tip of the other probe. You are now measuring the resistance
of the probe wires. Typical test lead resistance is between 0.2 and 0.5. If your test
leads show a resistance of more than one, they should be replaced.
Now, isolate the component to be tested. Connect the test probes on each side of
the isolated component. Make sure you have good contact with the wires to the
resistor. Beware of any grease, oil, dirt, or corrosion between the wires and the test
probesthey can create a false reading.
Read the display. If you are testing at the highest range and OL shows on the display,
then the resistance is too high to be read by your meter. After taking your reading,
turn the dial to off and detach the leads. If the component is good, reconnect it to
the circuit. You may now return power to the circuit.
Testing Continuity
In testing continuity, first make certain that the circuit being tested is continuous
and complete. Good fuses and closed switches have good continuity, but blown
fuses and open switches have no continuity.
Turn off the power. Set the dial on the multimeter to continuity. Usually, the
continuity test produces a beep or tone when continuity is present.
Discharge any capacitors that could influence the reading.
Use caution when discharging a capacitor since a capacitor may hold enough charge
to injure or kill.
Connect the test leads into the ports of the multimeter. The black lead goes into
the common jack. The red lead connects into the continuity jack. In many models,
this jack is also used for testing voltage and resistance. Connect the test probes to
252
the two ends of the circuit being tested for continuity. Listen for the sound from
the multimeter that indicates continuity.
Figure 6.38 Continuity testing
Test for continuity in a situation where you want to ensure that the circuit has a
complete path. When you have detached the leads, you may turn the power back
on.
Testing Diodes
To test a diode, first turn off the power in the circuit or component you will be
testing.
Set the dial to diode. Connect the test leads into the ports of the multimeter. The
black lead goes into the common jack. The red lead connects into the continuity
or diode jack. In many models, this jack is also used for testing voltage and
resistance.
Free at least one end of the diode from the circuit. Many diodes will have color
bands or markings close to the cathode end of the diode.
Connect the black probe to the cathode end of the diode. Connect the red probe
to the anode end of the diode. Read the display and record the measurement.
Reverse the test leads and record the measurement.
254
A good silicon diode will have a forward voltage drop of between 0.5 and 0.8 volts.
A good germanium diode will have a voltage drop between 0.2 and 0.3 volts. A
reversed bias diode or an open diode will read OL for overload when tested in both
directions. A shorted diode will measure a voltage drop of about 0.4 volts when
tested in both directions.
Figure 6.39 Testing a diode
If no adjustments need to be made, reconnect the good diode. Adjust or replace

any bad diodes. Turn the power back on to the circuit or the components.
Testing Capacitance
To test a capacitor, first turn off the power to the circuit or component being
tested. Set the dial on the multimeter to the capacitance function. Plug the test
leads into the proper ports. The black lead goes into the common jack. Plug the
red lead into the terminal marked capacitance.
Discharge the capacitor. Use caution because some capacitors may hold enough
charge to injure or kill.
Connect the black probe end to the positive end of the capacitor. Connect the red
probe end to the negative end of the capacitor.
256
Electrical Testers Electrical Testers
Read the display and wait for the measurement to stabilize. Make sure you have a A digital multimeter with a higher number of digits and counts is capable of
fresh battery in your multimeter because it is the battery that is now recharging the more precise resolution in what it measures.
capacitor. A weak battery will result in a faulty test. To get the most precise reading, your meter must be set to the lowest range
possible without overloading.
The accuracy of a meter is based on how close the reading is to the actual value
of the signal being tested.
An OL (overload) reading on the display of your digital multimeter is a warning.
It means overload or over range.
Digital multimeters can have many advanced functions including: capture and
hold, min/max, auto ranging, auto polarity, trend mode and computer interfacing.
Graphing multimeters, and digital storage oscilloscopes are advanced testers.
Many common tests performed with a digital multimeter are covered in the
chapter including: DC and AC voltage, current, resistance, continuity, diodes, and
capacitance.
QUESTIONS
Figure 6.40 Testing capacitance
Analog and Digital Meters b. They are generally more accurate
If the measurement is similar to the rating listed on the capacitor, the capacitor is than analog multimeters.
1. Which statement is NOT true about
c. They display readings in
good. If the reading rises too close to its rating and then drops, it means that the analog multimeters?
numbers.
capacitor is leaking and should be replaced. If the reading stabilizes at a significantly a. They use magnets and springs to
d. They are not as rugged as analog
different number than its rating, the capacitor needs to be replaced. measure electricity.
meters.
b. They use solid state
Replace any bad capacitors. Turn the power back on to the circuit. microprocessors to measure
3. The highest possible range for a reading
electricity.
SUMMARY c. They are generally not as
will provide the highest resolution for
the number.
accurate as digital multimeters.
a. True
An analog meter is an electromechanical tester that uses magnets and springs to d. They provide readings on scales.
b. False
move a needle in reaction to the electricity being tested.
2. Which statement is NOT true about
A digital multimeter uses solid state microprocessors to make electrical 4. What does RMS stand for?
digital multimeters?
measurements. a. root mean square
a. They use solid state
b. real multimeter sequence
A combination of safe work practices and the proper tools will help protect you microprocessors to measure
c. real meaning solution
from the danger of transients, and promote your safety in electrical situations. electricity.
d. resistance measuring sequence
Resolution refers to the smallest value your meter can measure.
258 259
5. Which is NOT a method for calculating 10. CAT II meters should NOT be used Multimeter Basics 17. Which of these would be the only
RMS? for testing in which situation? possible reading on a 3 1/2 digit, non-
14. What is the resolution on a digital
a. wave method a. telecommunications equipment enhanced, multimeter?
multimeter display?
b. averaging method b. household current a. 1987
a. It is the number of digits that
c. peak method c. electronic equipment b. 2999
can be shown.
d. true method d. three-phase utility connections c. 9999
b. It is the answer to the test being
d. 9000
conducted.
6. The averaging method cannot give an 11. How should the voltage ratings of
c. It is the smallest value that can
accurate RMS reading. the multimeter fuses compare to the 18. For the most precise reading, a digital
be measured.
a. True voltages tested? multimeter should be set to the lowest
d. It is how close the reading is to
b. False a. The fuses should be rated equal range possible without showing OL.
the value being tested.
to the tested voltages. a. True
7. In which situation would you not get an b. The fuses should be rated higher b. False
15. What does the phrase digits and
accurate reading with a digital multimeter than the tested voltages.
counts mean when used to describe a
that calculates RMS with the peak or c. The fuses should be rated lower 19. If a digital multimeter is rated with an
digital multimeter?
averaging method? than the tested voltages. accuracy of 1%, and the reading on
a. working with a pure sine wave d. It doesnt matter. the display is 100, what would be the
can be shown.
b. working with household current range of the actual value being tested?
b. It is the answer to the test being
c. working with a three-phase 12. In which situation should you use a. between 99.9 and 100.1
conducted.
current extreme caution? b. between 98.9 and 101.1
c. It is the smallest value that can
d. working with a rectified signal a. When you measure current of c. between 99.99 and 100.01
be measured.
ten milliamperes or greater. d. between 99.0 and 101.0
d. It is how close the reading is to
8. Which category of digital multimeter is b. When you test an AC power line
the value being tested.
rated to work with telecommunications with inductive loads. 20. What are the steps in a three-point test?
equipment? c. When you measure voltage of a. turn on the meter, select the test,
16. What does the word accuracy
a. CAT I twelve volts or greater. test the range
mean when used to describe a digital
b. CAT II d. All of the above. b. test a known live circuit, test the
multimeter?
c. CAT III e. None of the above. suspect circuit, retest the first
d. CAT IV circuit
can be shown.
c. attach the negative lead, attach
13. You should NOT measure voltage if b. It is the answer to the test being
the positive lead, remove the
Safety in Electrical Testing the positive lead is connected to an amp conducted.
negative lead
input. c. It is the smallest value that can
9. Current should always be measured with d. open the circuit, attach the leads,
a. True be measured.
the load. close the circuit
b. False d. It is how close the reading is to
a. True
b. False the value being tested.
260 261
21. When the leads are plugged into 25. What does the average data from the Using Electrical Testers 34. Which measurement needs be taken
a digital multimeter but are NOT Trend Mode show? when the circuit is live?
29. You should never take a voltage test
attached to any circuit and the reading a. The average value of the a. capacitance
with a lead connected into what?
on the display is OL, what is the measurements since the previous b. diode
a. a common jack
probable test setting? average measurement. c. continuity
b. a voltage jack
a. voltage b. The measured value at the end d. current
c. a current jack
b. resistance of each time interval. e. resistance
d. a recessed jack
c. AC current c. The average value of the
d. DC current measurements in the current
30. Most current probes have their best
time interval.
accuracy in which part of their range?
Advanced Functions 26. A graphing multimeter can perform all
a. upper end
22. When using the HOLD feature on a b. lower end
of the functions of a standard digital
multimeter, the reading on the display c. middle range
multimeter.
will disappear when the leads are d. It doesnt matter.
a. True
removed from the tested circuit. b. False
a. True 31. Which RMS calculation is accurate
b. False when testing AC voltage where the
27. Which type of meter allows you to look
harmonics can be distorted?
at complex signals with the greatest
23. The MIN/MAX function can be a. true RMS
detail?
useful for both maintenance and b. averaged RMS
a. digital multimeter
troubleshooting procedures. c. peak RMS
b. analog multimeter
a. True d. All of the above.
c. graphing multimeter
b. False d. digital storage oscilloscope
32. A capacitor can store enough electrical
24. What is AUTORANGING? charge to kill or injure a person.
28. With a graphing multimeter, you can
a. It is a function in which the a. True
use the glitch capture mode to record
multimeter automatically selects b. False
both the ________ and the _________
the range that will yield the best _ of an electrical glitch.
resolution for the measurement. 33. Which combination provides continuity
a. voltage, speed
b. It is a function to protect your in a circuit?
b. current, frequency
multimeter when the leads are a. good fuses and an open switch
c. magnitude, time
connected in reverse. b. blown fuses and a closed switch
d. resistance, continuity
c. It is a function to show a minus c. blown fuses and an open switch
sign with negative readings. d. good fuses and a closed switch
d. It is a function which translates
AC into DC readings.
262 263

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Electrical Testers My Notes and Calculations

Figure 6.2 A frayed cord to an electric motor

Figure 6.3 Analog meter showing several scales

Figure 6.5 LED and LCD displays for digital multimeters

Figure 6.8 Digital multimeter showing the

In working with alternating current in most industrial settings, the electrical

Figure 6.9 Digital multimeter labeled CAT IV

Probes & Accessories

Figure 6.10 Probes and accessories used with digital multimeters

Safety in Electrical Testing

Figure 6.11 Transient caused by lightning

Transients may be caused by nature, or they can be caused by equipment within a

Figure 6.12 Personal safety warnings

Figure 6.14 Digital multimeter ratings are

Figure 6.15 Symbols used by different testing laboratories

Figure 6.16 Employee suggestion box and safety reminder

Figure 6.18 Two digital multimeters with different resolutions

Figure 6.20 The highest values read by 3 1/2 digit

Figure 6.24 Capture and hold feature

Figure 6.27 Common trend mode feature capabilities

A graphing multimeter can be especially useful in finding electrical glitches, which

Figure 6.29 Graphing multimeter

Digital Storage Oscilloscopes

A graphing multimeter gives you a two-dimensional picture of an electrical

Figure 6.31 Testing DC voltage with a multimeter

CAUTION: Never try a voltage measurement with a test probe connected to a

Figure 6.32 Testing AC voltage with a digital multimeter

Figure 6.33 Three common current measuring devices

Figure 6.34 Clamp-on meters for measuring current

Figure 6.35 Current probes used to measure current in a wire

Figure 6.36 Measuring current with standard probes

Figure 6.37 Testing electrical resistance

Figure 6.38 Continuity testing

Figure 6.39 Testing a diode

If no adjustments need to be made, reconnect the good diode. Adjust or replace

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