COLUMNS

a column is an upright pillar or post that carry the loads from the beams and slabs down
to the foundations
these are members that carry loads in compression
the column is essentially a compression member, but the manner in which it tends to fail
and the amount of load which causes failure depend on:
the material of which the column is made
the shape of cross section of the column
the end conditions of the column
REINFORCE CONCRETE
composed of concrete with an embedded steel frame to provide reinforcement
LATERAL REINFORCEMENT
Ties
-effective in restraining the longitudinal bars from buckling out through the
surface of the column, holding the reinforcement cage together during the
construction process, confining the concrete core and when columns are subjected
to horizontal forces, they serve as shear reinforcement.
Spirals
-serve in addition to these benefits in compensating for the strength loss due to
spalling of the outside concrete shell at ultimate column strength.
Bundled Bars
-For isolated situations requiring heavy concentration of reinforcement, bundles
of standard bar sizes can save space and reduce congestion for placement and
compaction of concrete. Bundling of parallel reinforcing bars in contact is
permitted but only if ties enclose such bundles.
- According to ACI Code 7.6.6, groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in
contact to act as one unit are limited to four in any one bundle,

TYPES OF COLUMS
1. Tied Columns
- members reinforced with longitudinal bars and closed ties
 2. Spirally-Reinforced Columns
-Spiral columns are cylindrical columns with a continuous helical bar
wrapping around the column
3. Composite Columns
-members reinforced longitudinally with structural steel shapes, pipe, or
tubing with or without additional longitudinal bars, and various types of lateral
reinforcement.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Minimum Number of Reinforcing Bars
(ACI Code 10.9.2)
a minimum of four bars within rectangular; or one bar in each corner of the cross
section for other shapes and a minimum of six bars in spirally reinforced columns
Clear Distance Between Reinforcing Bars
(ACI Code 7.6.3 and 7.6.4)
- the clear distance between the longitudinal bars should not be less than 1.5 times
the nominal bar diameter nor 1.5 in.
Concrete Protection Cover (ACI Code 7.7.1) -the clear concrete cover should not be less
than 4 cm or 2 in.

Minimum Cross Sectional Dimensions (1971 Code) - minimum sizes for compression
members were eliminated to allow wider utilization of reinforced concrete compression
members in smaller size and lightly loaded structures
FAILURE
The failure of members in compression are due either to the load exceeding the ultimate
strength in compression (crushing) or due to buckling under the load, because the applied
load is larger than the critical buckling load.
BULKING

a sudden large deformation of structure due to a slight increase of an existing load under
which the structure had exhibited little, if any, deformation before the load was increased
since the loads on columns are never perfectly axial and the columns are not perfectly
straight, there may be parts of the cross sectional area where the sum of the compressive
stresses caused by the load on the column could reach values larger than the allowable or
even the ultimate strength of the material
 allowable compressive strength cw is reduced by a factor k, which depends on the
slenderness ratio and the material used
Pbw = k cw A

where: Pbw = allowable load with respect to buckling

k = reduction factor, which depends on the slenderness ratio
cw = allowable compressive stress
A = cross-section area of the column
SLENDERNESS RATIO
the relationship between the length of the column, its lateral dimensions and the end
fixity conditions that will strongly affect the resistance of the column to buckling

where: = slenderness ratio

K = effective length factor whose value depends on how
the ends of the column are fixed
L = length of the column
b = the least lateral width of the column
b = D/4 12 (circular column)
l = effective length of the column (K L)
BEAMS

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by

resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of
the external loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called
a bending moment.
Beams are structural elements carrying external loads that cause bending moments, shear
forces and torsional moments along their length.
Structural member which is long when compared to its lateral dimension, subjected to
transverse forces so applied as to induce bending of the member in an axial plane.
The shapes of the beam can be square, rectangular, flanged or tee (T)

TYPES OF BEAMS
1. Simply supported - a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no
moment resistance.

2. Fixed - a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.

3. Over hanging - a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.
 4. Double overhanging - a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on
both ends.

5. Continuous - a beam extending over more than two supports.

6. Cantilever - a projecting beam fixed only at one end.

7. Trussed - a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss.

TYPES OF LOADS IN
BEAMS

DIMENSIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND LIMITATIONS

 (a) effective span of beams

(b) deep beams

(c) slender beams

(d) main reinforcement areas

(e) minimum spacing of reinforcement

(f) maximum spacing of reinforcement.

EFFECTIVE SPAN OF BEAMS

The effective span or length of a simply supported beam may be taken as the lesser of:
the distance between the centers of bearing
the clear distance between supports plus the effective depth d.
The effective length of a cantilever should be taken as its length to the face of the support
plus half its effective depth d.

DEEP BEAMS

Deep beams are structural elements loaded as simple beams in which a significant
amount of the load is carried to the supports by a compression force combining the load and the
reaction. As a result, the strain distribution is no longer considered linear, and the shear
deformations become significant when compared to pure flexure.

Two-Dimensional Action, because of the dimension of deep beam they behave as two-
dimensional action rather than one-dimensional action.
Plane Section Do Not Remain Plane, the assumption of plane section remain plane cannot
be used in the deep beam design. The strain distribution is not longer linear.
Shear Deformation, the shear deformation cannot be neglected as in the ordinary beam.
The stress distribution is not linear even in the elastic stage. At the ultimate limit state the
shape of concrete compressive stress block is not parabolic shape again

SLENDER BEAMS

The Slender beam can be defined as the beams in which the spacing of the lateral support
to the compression flange or face is more than 50 times the least width of the flange or face.

Since lateral support equal to a minimum of 2 percent of the total (internal) compression
in the compression flange is usually considered adequate, and may often be satisfied by simple
friction of separate floor materials transmitting the load to the beam, the beam slenderness
problem will be encountered only rarely in routine design. It may arise in design of long span
upturned roof beams or in the design of thin deep panels used as spandrel beams. Such spandrels
are often precast and added to the frame as simply supported beams with a span equal to the
column spacing and width of the compression flange as little as 4 inch.

When a slender beam condition arises, the simple solution is to provide lateral bracing
within the spacing limits, thus eliminating the condition. Where lateral bracing is impracticable,
the load capacity must be reduced.

MINIMUM SPACING OF REINFORCEMENTS

The distance among reinforcement bars must be such to allow the concretes gravel to
pass between them. In order to have properly anchored reinforcement, it is mandatory for rebars
to be surrounded by concrete.

The minimum spacing between two reinforcement bars should be at least equal to the
maximum aggregate grain dimension with a margin of 5 mm. For Greece, the maximum
aggregate grains dimension for usual concrete, is 32 mm and for self compacting concrete is 16
mm.

MAXIMUM SPACING OF REINFORCMENTS

For beams, these distances are 300 mm, 180 mm and 150 mm for grades of main
reinforcement of Fe 250, Fe 415 and Fe 500, respectively.

BEAM WIDTHS

To permit satisfactory placing of concrete and to protect bars from corrosion, the engineer
must provide for adequate clear distance between parallel bars and between bars and forms. The
engineer must specify the required concrete protection for the reinforcement.

The engineer must also specify the distance between bars for bond development and
concrete placing. For buildings, the clear space is at least one bar diameter, 113 times the
maximum size of coarse aggregate to be used, but not less than 1 in.

ANALYSIS OF BEAMS
ADVANTAGES OF REINFORCE CONCRETE BEAM

Reinforced Cement Concrete has good comressive stress (because of concrete).

RCC also has high tensile stress (because of steel).
It has good resistance to damage by fire and weathering (because of concrete).
It protects steel bars from buckling and twisting at the high temperature.
RCC prevents steel from rusting.
It is durable.
The monolithic character of reinforced concrete gives it more rigidity.
Maintenance cost of RCC is practically nil.