On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

MIKAEL RAZOLA

Licentiate Thesis
Stockholm, Sweden 2013
TRITA-AVE 2013-06 KTH School of Engineering Sciences
ISSN 1651-7660 KTH Center of Naval Architecture
ISBN 978-91-7501-650-4 SE-100 44 Stockholm, SWEDEN

Akademisk avhandling som med tillstnd av Kungl Tekniska Hgskolan framlgges till
offentlig granskning fr avlggande av teknologie licentiatexamen i farkostteknik
torsdagen den 21 mars 2013 klockan 11.00 i sal D41. Lindstedtsvgen 17, Kungl
Tekniska hgskolan, Stockholm.

Mikael Razola, Februari 2013

Tryck: Universitetsservice US AB
Abstract
The development in structural design and construction of high-speed craft has
been extensive during the last decades. Environmental and economical issues
have increased the need to develop more optimized structures, using new
material concepts, to reduce weight and increase performance efficiency.
However, both lack of, and limitations in design methodology, makes this a
difficult task.

In this thesis a methodological framework which enables detailed studies of the

slamming loads and associated responses for high-speed planing craft in
irregular waves is established. The slamming loads can either be formulated
based on numerical simulations, or on experimental measurements and pressure
distribution reconstruction. Structure responses are derived in the time-domain
using finite element analysis. Statistical methods are used to determine design
loads and lifetime extreme responses.

The framework is applied to perform phenomenological studies of the

slamming loading conditions for high-speed craft, and used to highlight and
quantify the limitations in the prevailing semi-empirical method for design load
determination with respect to slamming. A number of clarifications regarding
the original derivation and the applicability of the prevailing semi-empirical
method are presented. Finally, several potential improvements to the method
are presented and the associated implications discussed.

The long-term goal of the research project is to establish a method for direct
calculation of loads and response for high-speed planing craft, which can enable
design of truly efficient craft structures. The methodology and the results
presented in this thesis are concluded to be important stepping-stones towards
this goal.

Keywords: slamming, high-speed craft, finite-element analysis, design methods,

experimental analysis, numerical simulations, design loads, statistical analysis.

iii
Preface
The work presented in this thesis was performed at the Center of Naval
Architecture at the Department of Aeronautical and Vehicle Engineering at
KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden. The work was
initiated and supervised by Dr. Anders Rosn. Assoc. Prof. Jakob Kuttenkeuler,
Dr. Karl Garme and Dr. Ivan Stenius supported with valuable comments and
feedback. The research was financially supported by FMV (the Swedish
Defense Material Administration) and the U.S Office of Naval Research Solid
Mechanics Program managed by Dr. Yapa Rajapakse.

I would like to thank all my colleagues at the Center for Naval Architecture for
the inspirational and challenging working environment, and for supporting me
both in professional and private matters. Without the excellent guidance and
motivation from Anders Rosn this thesis would never have been written,
thank you. Jakob I cannot thank you enough. I look forward to the coming
years.

I would also like to thank my wife for her never ending support, and my
daughter for her wonderful smiles that make everything seem worthwhile.

Mikael Razola

Stockholm, February 2013

v
Dissertation
This licentiate thesis is based on an introduction to the area of research and the
following appended papers:

Paper A
Razola M., Rosn A., Garme K., Stenuis I., Antonatos A., On Structural
Design of High-Speed Planing Craft with Respect to Slamming, Presented at
the 8th International Conference on High-Speed Marine Vehicles, Mlheim an
der Ruhr, Germany, 26-28 September, 2012.

Paper B
Razola M., Rosn A., Garme K., Evaluation of Slamming Pressure Models
Used in Structural Design of High-Speed Craft, Submitted for publication in
May 2012.

Paper C
Razola M., Rosn A., Garme K., Allen & Jones Revisited, preprint paper.

vii
Division of work between authors
Paper A
Razola synthesized the presented methods, developed the optimized structural
arrangements, performed the post-processing of experimental data and the
finite-element analysis. The parametric finite-element model was developed in
collaboration with Antonatos. Garme and Rosn performed the experiments.
Razola wrote the paper supervised by Rosn.

Paper B
Razola performed the post-processing and analysis of the experimental data.
Mikael Razola also performed the finite element modeling and analysis. The
experiments were performed by Garme and Rosn. The study was initiated and
supervised by Rosn. Razola and Rosn jointly wrote the paper, with valuable
comments from Garme.

Paper C
The study was planned and performed by Razola with guidance from Rosn.
The numerical simulations were performed by Garme and the experiments by
Garme and Rosn. The post-processing of both the numerical and
experimental results was performed by Razola, whom also performed the rest
of the analysis contained in the paper. Razola wrote the paper supervised by
Rosn.

ix
Contents
Abstract iii

Preface v

Dissertation vii

Division of work between authors ix

Contents xi

Introduction 1

Structural Design of High-Speed Planing Craft 5

Slamming Loads and Structure Responses 6

Materials and Structures 11

Structural Design Philosophy 15

Modeling and Analysis 17

Summary of Appended Papers 24

Future Work 26

Bibliography 27

Appended Papers

xi
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

Introduction
High-speed on the water has been a major design objective for a long time.
Depending on the application the motivations for high-speed can be very
different. For rescue craft, the ability to quickly respond to life threatening
situations is a major driving force; for patrol craft it may be the ability to cover
large coastal areas or intercept threats; for racing pilots it may be the urge to
win, while for the leisure craft owners it may be the simple joy and excitement
that craves high speed.

Traveling at high-speed in rough seas can, as seen in Figure 1, be dramatic. The

craft frequently launches off waves, completely emerging from the water, and
violently impacts, or slams, into the free surface. The slamming loads, which act
on the craft hull during impact with the water surface, affect the structure both
on a local and a global level. For small highly loaded craft the slamming loads
often governs the craft scantlings (Ferraris et al 2003). It is therefore crucial to
accurately account for these loads in structural design of high-speed vessels.

Figure 1. A high-speed rescue craft at a brief instant before slamming into the water
surface (courtesy of Storebro).

During the last decades a vast amount of research has been focused on
structural design and operation of high-speed craft in waves (e.g. Hayman et al
2000, Ferraris et al 2003 and Cho et al 2012). Craft have become faster and

1
M. Razola

lighter as design methods, materials and production methods have evolved, and
experience has been accumulated. Highly optimized racing craft, such as the
Class 1 powerboat in Figure 2, have for example been developed. This 14-meter
long boat, which weighs 4200 kg, has a speed potential of 110 knots. Such craft
are often developed with very high efficiency requirements, sometimes at the
cost of safety, and are often driving technical development. Larger craft, such as
the Visby class corvette in Figure 2, have also been constructed. The Visby class
corvettes are built entirely out of carbon sandwich composites and their
development was made possible by large research efforts, which resulted in a
major development of structural design and production methodologies (Lnn
2000).

Figure 2. The Formula 1 class racing boat (left, courtesy of Mannerfeldt Design) and
the Swedish Navy Visby Class Corvette (right, courtesy of Kockums).

Due to the continuously increasing focus on environmental, economical and

safety issues, development of more efficient high-speed craft is still important.
Fundamentally, increased efficiency is about reduction of production cost,
operational costs and environmental impact, while maintaining, or improving,
craft performance, reliability and safety.

From a structural design perspective, efficiency is often related to structure

weight. Since high-speed craft are dynamically supported, there is a strong
coupling between weight and propulsive resistance. Weight reduction therefore
enables higher speeds, increased payload, or reduced fuel consumption.
Consequently the operational costs and/or the environmental impact can be
reduced (Stenius et al 2011a). Reduced weight can also be exploited from a
safety and seakeeping perspective, for example by improving the onboard
working environment through strategic weight distribution (Garme et al 2012).

2
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

Besides the important weight issue, structural design of efficient high-speed

craft also requires that attention is focused on production aspects. It is
important to design structures and find solutions that rationalize production in
terms of cost, time and material utilization1.

As trying to reach more efficient and refined planing craft designs there is a lack
of, and limitations in, design methodology with respect to slamming, especially
for small high-speed planing craft (Cho et al 2012, Shenoi et al 2008). Today,
designers usually have to rely on semi-empirical rule formulations expressing
design slamming loads as uniformly distributed, static pressures. The loads
acting on the hull bottom of a high-speed planing craft are however everything
but static and uniform. In reality, the physics of high-speed craft in waves
involves several different stochastic processes and very complex fluid-structure
interaction, which can only be modeled with higher order numerical methods
or very advanced experimental setups. Consequently structural design using
first principles is very challenging, and such procedures are not yet established
for high-speed planing craft. Nevertheless, designing truly efficient high-speed
craft requires development and establishment of a practical method for direct
calculation (Moan 2003).

The semi-empirical design methods are consolidated in the scantling rules of

the classification societies and are widely used within the design community.
However, these design methods are developed based on research carried out
during the 1960s and 1970s on at that time contemporary craft. Since then
there has been a massive development in materials, structure layout and
production techniques for high-speed craft. Therefore, evaluation and further
development of the semi-empirical design methods in relation to modern craft
structures, in parallel with development of direct calculation methods, is
important.

The work contained in this thesis is in many aspects a continuation of the

extensive and successful research performed at the KTH Center of Naval
Architecture in relation to hydromechanical and structuremechanical modeling
of high-speed craft in waves (Garme 2004, Rosn 2004 and Stenius 2009). The

1 Private communications with Kockums and Swedship

3
M. Razola

aim is to contribute further to increased understanding of the loading and

response mechanisms for high-speed planing craft in waves, and to the
development and establishment of practical design methods with respect to
slamming. The work consists of three interlinked tracks: method development
for detailed studies of loads and responses due to slamming of small high-speed
craft; evaluation and development of the prevailing semi-empirical structural
design methods; and finally development and establishment of direct
calculation methods. In Razola et al (2012a)/Paper A a methodological
framework that enables detailed studies of loads and responses for high-speed
craft is presented, and calculations are demonstrated on a typical high-speed
craft. The methodology represents a synthesis of many years of research
performed at the KTH Center of Naval Architecture. In Razola et al
(2012b)/Paper B experimental measurements in model-scale on a high-speed
planing craft are used to evaluate detailed aspects of the slamming pressure
modeling technique used in the methodology presented in Paper A.
Phenomenological studies of the structure loads due to slamming are also
presented, for example highlighting limitations in the prevailing semi-empirical
design methods. In Razola et al (2013)/Paper C the methodological framework
is applied to perform an in-depth evaluation and development of the prevailing
semi-empirical design methods.

In the following chapters an introduction to the research area is presented. The

primary focus is on structural design of smaller high-speed planing craft with
respect to slamming. First the fundamentals of structural design of high-speed
craft are outlined, including aspects of loads and responses; materials and
structures; design philosophies; and modeling techniques. Next a summary of
the appended research papers, and the contributions to the research field, is
presented. Finally future work is discussed.

4
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

Structural Design of High-Speed Planing Craft

The structure in a craft fills a number of different important functions.
Fundamentally it is intended to preserve the designed hull shape and prevent
water ingress as it is subjected to a variety of external and internal loads. Each
part of the hull structure, or the structure as a whole, can also have specialized
functions such as providing insulation from noise and/or fire, act as support
for machinery or other equipment installments, or simply to compartmentalize
the craft. Design of craft structures is ultimately about making sure that these
functions can be fulfilled while the craft is operated in its intended
environment.

The variety of loads that high-speed craft are subjected to is vast. As illustrated
in Figure 3, the loads may be related to equipment and cargo; static and
dynamic sea pressures; vibrations, for example due to propulsive machinery; or
to localized phenomena such as collision with floating objects, impacts when
berthing, or objects dropped on the deck (Stenius et al 2011b). The structure
must be designed to have adequate strength, stiffness and stability to resist the
loads that will act on it, while minimizing structure weight and maximizing
material utilization.

Weather loads Vibration

Hull grider loads

Cargo/equipment Cargo Equipment

handling
Berthing

Ice
Propulsion loads Wave pressure Floating objects Slamming

Figure 3. A schematic illustration of the loads that can act on high-speed vessels.

Attention must also be focused on fabrication aspects. The structure must be

designed in such a way that the manufacturing time and cost can be justified,
and that the structure can be produced with high quality. Weld accessibility and
equipment installation accessibility are for example important aspects.

5
M. Razola

Slamming Loads and Structure Responses

The ocean waves are highly irregular and random, and constantly changing for
example due to the wind, the currents and the tide. For practical reasons, it is
often assumed that the conditions are constant during a shorter period of time,
which implies that the wave environment can be considered as a stationary
stochastic process, and that it can be described by statistics such as significant
wave height and mean period. As high-speed craft travel in this wave
environment, the interaction between the craft and water induce large motions
and accelerations. The craft leaves the water surface, partially or completely,
and violently impacts the free surface during re-entry. The high-speed entry into
the water generates a dynamic pressure, or slamming pressure, acting on the
hull bottom. Due to the random character of the waves, the distribution,
magnitude and propagation of this slamming pressure during impact with the
wave surface, is unique for each slamming event. It depends on the relative
position, relative geometry and relative velocity between the wave surface and
craft bottom. In Figure 4 an example of the momentary slamming pressure
distribution on a craft hull bottom is displayed for four different time instants
during water entry. The example pressure distributions are derived from
numerical simulations in irregular waves, characterized by the ITTC78 wave
energy spectrum with a significant wave height of Hs=1 m and a mean period
of T2=3.8 s, using the methodology described in Razola et al (2012a)/Paper A.
As seen the pressure distribution is highly non-uniform and peaked where the
chines are dry, and more uniformly distributed for sections where the chines are
wetted. It can also be observed that the pressure distribution typically
propagates from the keel towards the chine during the water entry. This
particular slamming event has a duration of approximately 230 ms.

6
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

Time: 12.375 [s]

Y [m]
0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
X [m]
Time: 12.39 [s]

1
Y [m]

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
CEHIPAR, Time=12 [s]
X [m]
Time: 12.42 [s]
2

Z [m]
1
Y [m]

0.5 0
0 CEHIPAR, Time=13 [s]
0 2 4 6 8 10
X [m] 2
Time: 12.515 [s] 15 20 25
2
1
X [m]
Z [m]
Y [m]

0.5
0
[m/s2]

0
0 2 4 20 6 8 10
X [m]
2
Acceleration [m/sAcceleration

Figure 4. An example of 10 the simulated momentary slamming pressure distribution at

35 40 45
four different time instants during hull-water impact (left) where Xred [m]isobars indicate
0 isobars low pressure. Also displayed is the craft position
high pressure and the blue
(right) and the momentary section drafts, indicated with the red lines.
2
]

10
20 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5
Time [s]
For high-speed craft10the structure-loading situation is often characterized in
terms of the vertical 0acceleration. The vertical acceleration is related to the
slamming pressure distribution, magnitude and propagation. Since the
slamming pressure 10
distribution
12.5 is transient
13 and rapidly
13.5 propagating
14 across 14.5
the 15 15.5
hull bottom, the acceleration process is also of a transient character with large
Time [s]
gradient peaks related to the slamming impacts, as shown in Figure 5. Further,
the large variations in wetted hull area and hull shape, together with the
uniqueness of each slamming event, infers that for high-speed craft in irregular
waves, the acceleration process is non-linear and stochastic.

7
 2

Z [m]
0

M. Razola 2
5 0 5 10
X [m]

Acceleration [m/s2]
40
30
20
10
0
10
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Time [s]
Figure 5. An example of vertical acceleration at the center of gravity for a 10-meter
high-speed craft in irregular waves based on simulations with the method described in
Razola et al (2012a)/Paper A.

For conventional ships in a moderate seaway, where the pressure distribution

and vertical acceleration are related to the wave pressure, the external loads can
often be considered as harmonically varying and rather uniform. For structure
members such as plates and beams the boundary conditions, which depends on
the structure stiffness and the load distribution, are typically well defined and
the structure loads principally develop as a function of pressure magnitude.

For high-speed craft, the situation is more complicated, due to the non-uniform
and propagating slamming pressure distribution. As the craft impacts the wave
surface, the structure is gradually wetted and loaded. Locally, for structure
members such as panels and beams, the structure loads develop as functions
not only of the load distribution on the member it self and the boundary
stiffness, but also as a function of the loading on adjacent structure. Since the
structure loads are related to the slamming pressure, which is transient, dynamic
effects can also be important. If the slamming loading frequency is in the order
of the first natural frequency of the craft structure and the structure is relatively
flexible, hydroelastic interaction between the external loads and the structure
responses may be important (Stenius et al 2011c). In such cases the external
loads and the structure deformation must be analyzed simultaneously, requiring
highly sophisticated coupled analysis methods and large computational
resources.

In Figure 12 an example of the development of structure responses due to the

slamming pressure distribution for a typical aluminum hull section of a high-
speed craft is displayed. The applied pressure distribution is derived from
experimental measurements on a 1:10 scale model of the craft illustrated in
Figure 4, travelling at 14.2 m/s in head seas in an irregular seastate

8
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

characterized by a significant wave height of Hs=1 m and a mean period of

T2=3.8 s. More details are found in Razola et al (2012a)/Paper A. The
slamming pressure distribution is applied on the structure quasi-statically in
each time-step. The loading frequency is for this particular slamming event is
15-36 Hz, while the lowest natural frequency of the dry structure is 105 Hz.
The ratio between the natural frequency and the loading frequency is for this
case between 3 and 7, which according to Stenius et al (2011c) implies that
hydroelastic effects are of minor importance and that separate modeling of the
external and the internal loads is reasonable. As seen in Figure 6 the
deformations develop from keel to chine together with the pressure pulse
propagation, inferring large twisting moments on the longitudinal stiffeners and
girders. For this particular slamming event the peak vertical acceleration is ~3g
and the peak pressure is 224 kPa.

Figure 6. Example of the momentary slamming pressure distribution at two time-

instants, viewed from above (top), and the corresponding deformations, in isometric-
view (bottom), for a typical aluminum hull section derived using finite-element analysis.

In Figure 7 the development of bending moments in the bottom plating for a

transverse section of the structure in Figure 6 is presented. The bending
moment distribution is asymmetric due to the slamming pressure distribution

9
M. Razola

and propagation. For this particular slamming event, the largest moments occur
at the keel during the initial stages of the impact.

Chine
Keel

Figure 7. Bending moment distribution in the bottom plating at a transverse cross-

section of the structure displayed in Figure 6.

As stated each slamming event is unique in terms of pressure distribution,

propagation and magnitude. In Figure 8 a simulated time-series of the average
pressure acting on a panel in the hull bottom of the craft illustrated in Figure 4
is displayed. Clearly the pressure load is stochastic where the short duration
peaks related to the high-speed water entries can be observed.
Average pressure [kPa]

60

40

20

0
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Time [s]
Figure 8. Example of a simulated time-series of average pressure, corresponding to the
acceleration time-series in Figure 5, on a typical bottom panel.

Due to the complexities of the physics involved in slamming, exemplified

above, the loading and response conditions for high-speed planing craft in
waves is not yet fully understood (Cho et al 2009). Efficient methods, that
enable detailed representation of the hydromechanic and structure mechanic
phenomena related to slamming, must therefore be established and used to
evaluate and develop structural design methodologies for high-speed planing
craft.

10
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

Materials and Structures

A large variety of factors drive the material selection for high-speed craft
structures. Since high-speed craft are weight critical, materials with a high
specific stiffness and strength are predominantly used in structural design.
There are however several other factors that affect material selection, such as
fire-resistance, sound and vibration insulation, fatigue properties, and
robustness. Besides the mechanical properties of the material, the related
manufacturing costs and life-cycle costs, for example in terms of required
maintenance, are also factors that need careful consideration in the selection of
appropriate material systems. Further, the experience and traditions of the yards
and craft designers often influence the choice of material (Russel 2005).

The most common material systems used in design of high-speed craft are
different types of aluminum and fiber reinforced composites. These material
concepts have relatively high specific strength compared to traditional
shipbuilding materials, such as steel. Both material systems may be used to
design similar craft, as shown in Figure 9 which displays a Norwegian search
and rescue vessel built in aluminum, and a similar Swedish search and rescue
vessel built in composites. Both of these craft operate in similar environments
and with similar operational requirements.
Petter C.G. Sundt Class
17m Fast Rescue Craft

Figure 9. A 17.5-meter Search and Rescue Vessel, Petter C.G. Sundt Class, built in
aluminum (left, courtesy of Swedship Marine) and a similar 20-meter vessel, SSRS
Rausing Class, built entirely out of composites (right, courtesy of Dan Boman, Scania).

Traditionally aluminum has been, and in many cases still is, the preferred
material system in design of commercial and military high-speed craft. For hull
structures the 5XXX-series and 6XXX-series of aluminum alloys are commonly
High speed multi-role rescue craft

DNV classed and equipped with the latest

search technology and extensive rescue
equipment.

Fully redundant propulsion-, manoeuvering-,

navigation- and communication systems and
a flexible mounted super silent wheelhouse.

11
M. Razola

used (Sielski 2007). The 5XXX-series offers excellent corrosive properties and
is used for structural parts that are in direct contact with water. Aluminum can
be used both to produce plating sheets, typically through cold working, and to
extrude beams of varying cross-sections (Figure 10), which makes production
cost effective. Joining of aluminum is typically performed through welding, but
alternative adhesive bonding techniques have also been introduced (Moan
2003). The material is however subjected to metal softening at the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) during welding. This can reduce the material strength by as much
as 30-50 percent (Sielski 2007). Modern welding techniques such as stir-friction
welding have however largely overcome this problem, and can also be used to
prefabricate stiffened panels. Other issues are related to the large distortions
and shrinking during welding, which for example limits minimum plating
thickness (Noury 2002). Aluminum also offers good impact resistance (Moan
2003). The melting point of aluminum is fairly low compared to steel. This
means that insulation is required for fire safety. The resistance to fatigue of
aluminum is also generally poor.

Figure 10. Typical aluminum structure members, plating (left) and extruded T-section,
L-section, rounded T-section and bulb flat section (right).

Composites used in marine structures usually consist of fibers which are

consolidated in a polymer matrix. The matrices, typically polyester, vinylester or
epoxy, stabilize and transfer the load between the fibers. It also acts as a
protection against environmental loads such as moisture and UV light. The
finished composite can for example come in the form of laminated panels with
several layers of fibers aligned in different directions. Such laminated panels,
can be combined with low-density core materials, which separate two face
sheets. The resulting sandwich structures can offer very high specific stiffness
compared to other types of materials and structures. There is a vast variety of
different fibers, however the main categories used in the marine industry are
glass-fibers, carbon fibers and aramid-fibers. Carbon fibers offer very high

12
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

performance with respect to specific strength and stiffness, but also infer high
cost compared to for example glass fibers. The fiber forms are very important
to the finished product. The most common fiber forms for marine applications
are chopped strand mats (glass-fibers), woven rovings, unidirectional tows of
fiber, and non-crimp fabrics, where unidirectional fibers are stitched together
(Figure 11).

Figure 11. Examples of different types of fabrics: chopped strand mat (left), woven mat
(middle) and stitched mat (right) (Stenius et al 2011b).

The benefit of using composites is the ability to tailor the material and the
material properties to specific requirements, which allow for innovative design
solutions, and a larger flexibility in design (Ferraris et al 2003). Structure
members can often serve several functions, for example as integrated tank
walls, seating, equipment support, etc. Complex geometries can be
manufactured with a limited number of joints, which give competitive
manufacturing costs if properly designed. Composites also offer good fatigue
properties, and low maintenance costs. There are however challenges when
using composites. Fire resistance is a major obstacle, and often a significant
amount of insulation is required to comply with the governing safety codes
(IMO 2000). Sandwich structures often imply large unstiffened panels, as seen
in Figure 12, which can cause vibration and noise problems if not carefully
considered.

There are several studies that compare steel, aluminum and composites in high-
speed craft structures in terms of weight, cost and environmental impact. In
Burman et al (2008) a life-cycle cost analysis is performed for a 128-meters
high-speed ferry. It is shown that the total energy consumption can be reduced
significantly by using either aluminum or composites. Garala (2011)
demonstrated that the structural weight for the U.S. Navy T-Craft could be
reduced by 43% by using composites instead of aluminum. More noticeably it is

13
M. Razola

also shown that the structural labor and material costs for the composite
version was 24% less than for the aluminum version. In Stenius et al (2011a)
several different material concepts for a 24-meters patrol craft are analyzed with
respect to structural weight and energy consumption. For this craft it is shown
that composites enable significant weight reductions and associated reductions
in energy consumption. In Burman & Kuttenkeuler (2011) a comparative life
cycle assessment is performed for the same craft. In the development of the
Swedish Navy Visby class corvettes, it was for example shown that even though
the acquirement cost of advanced carbon fiber and core materials were
significantly higher than the equivalent glass fiber solution, the total production
costs were comparable (Lnn 2000).

Material selection has a large impact on the structural layout and on structural
design methodology. As exemplified in Figure 12, efficient aluminum structures
are typically densely stiffened, with small panels to reduce the plating thickness
(Boote et al 2012). Loads are usually transferred from plating to longitudinal
stiffeners and then to transverse frames and primary girders. Composite
structures are not as easily generalized since the choice of structural layout
largely depends on which type of composite system that is chosen. For single
skin solutions, the structural arrangements are typically similar to equivalent
aluminum solutions. Sandwich structures are however different in that the
secondary stiffening is integrated in the sandwich panels. Therefore, the
structure layout usually consists of large unstiffened panels that transfer loads
to a set of primary transverse frames or girders, as seen in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Typical structure layouts for an aluminum craft, Swedish Coastguard KBV
312 (left, Courtesy of the Swedish Coastguard) and a carbon sandwich craft, U.S. Navy
Mark V Special Operations Craft (right, Courtesy of Hodgdon Defense Composites).

14
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

The prevailing methods for design slamming load prediction, such as Allen &
Jones (1978), which is implemented in the scantlings rules of for example DNV
(2011), are derived based on research carried out on densely stiffened metal
structures, such as shown in Figure 12. Consequently the validity of such
methods for modern sandwich structures with large unstiffened panels and
shear critical cores can be questioned. It is for example shown in Rosn et al
(2007) that the design loads predicted according to DNV (2011) are to low
compared to experimental measurements made on the Visby Class Corvettes
shown in Figure 2. It is therefore important to evaluate these design methods
using modern methods applied on modern craft structures.

Structural Design Philosophy

In IMO (2000), which is the only international document that govern design
and operation of high-speed craft, it is stated that The [hull] structure shall be
capable of withstanding the static and dynamic loads which can act on the craft
under all operation conditions in which the craft is permitted to operate. All
craft should of course be designed according to their intended use. However,
for design of efficient and competitive high-speed craft, which are weight
sensitive, refinement with respect to the intended use is particularly important
(Stenius et al 2011a). Consequently high-speed craft can frequently operate in
conditions that may load the craft and crew above their limits. Therefore IMO
introduced the concept of operational restrictions. This approach is different
from the IMO principles of self-sufficiency which is applied to conventional
ships (IMO 2000). It implies that design and operation of high-speed craft is
based on active management and reduction of risk, rather than passive
protection. It should however be noted that for larger high-speed craft,
application of a self-sufficiency thinking, may still be required. The following
discussion is however primarily aimed at design of smaller high-speed craft.

The operational restrictions essentially dictate how high-speed craft are to be

operated both with respect to the weather conditions and the geographical
location. The operational restrictions are often enforced through speed
reduction due to comfort reasons, typically well below the actual structural or
equipment functionality limits of the craft. In practice the restrictions are
related to vertical acceleration and are expressed in terms of allowable speed as

15
M. Razola

a function of significant wave height. The restrictions are usually visualized in

speed/sea state curves, such as shown in Figure 13.

The operational limits of a certain craft may refer to crew endurance,

equipment functionality or structural capacity, as illustrated in Figure 13. Limits
are also imposed by the available propulsive power in relation to added
resistance in waves. Efficient high-speed craft designs imply that these different
limiting criteria are well balanced. In Koelbel (2000, 2001) it is even suggested
that structural design of high-speed craft should be solely based on the
endurance limits of the crew. However, due to developments related to the
working environment onboard, such as more efficient seats, and the progress in
design of Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) it is not obvious that human
endurance can be directly related to structural requirements.

Figure 13. An example of a speed/sea state restriction curve (Gupta et al 2010).

In IMO (2000) the structural requirements are very general, and no explicit
design criteria are presented. Instead, structural design of high-speed craft is
often governed by the scantlings rules of the classifications societies such as
ABS (2012), DNV (2011), or for small craft the International Organization for
Standardization ISO (2008). These rules have adopted the IMO philosophy and
clearly stipulate that craft are to be operated in accordance with a speed/sea
state restriction curve, or in the case of ISO more generally that the craft is to
be operated at a speed appropriate to the prevailing seastate. Active
monitoring of vertical acceleration levels can also be stipulated, as in DNV
(2011). Common for these scantling rules are that structural design is
performed with reference to the vertical acceleration.

16
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

Due to the operational restrictions enforced on high-speed craft, it is

appropriate to use short-term statistics when establishing design values
(Petterson & Wiklund 1999). Short-term usually refer to a stationary seastate
during a time-period of between 30 minutes to several hours (Ochi 1981). The
resulting design loads and responses in the short-term seastate should
correspond to the largest loads the craft will encounter during its operational
lifetime. The determined lifetime extreme response values, such as deflection,
stress or strain are then compared with relevant acceptance criteria to assess the
structure. Acceptance criteria are often based on the yield stress, the maximum
strain, and the elastic buckling limits of the material in question.

Establishing these design loads is not trivial and requires identification of the
limiting conditions, within the operational envelope of the craft, which result in
the largest loads. In the prevailing semi-empirical scantling rules the limiting
conditions, regarding structural capacity, is expressed based on a statistical
measure of the vertical acceleration, typically the average of the largest 1/10th or
1/100th peak acceleration values. This implies that the local design slamming
loads are directly coupled to the vertical acceleration, and that the design
methods contain a scale factor to produce design loads on an extreme level. For
structural design using direct calculations determination of limiting conditions
and design loads require statistical treatment of the stochastic acceleration and
response processes, and calculation of extreme values. This for example
involves peak value identification in stochastic processes. Such methods are for
example presented in Zseleczky & McKee (1989), Allen et al (2008) and Riley et
al (2010). Given that the peak values are identified, determination of the
extreme responses either requires very long simulation times, or statistical
extrapolation based on a shorter simulation times. For high-speed planing craft
there are however still no such established procedures.

Modeling and Analysis

Structural design of high-speed planing craft requires modeling of both the
hydromechanic loads and the resulting structure responses. Such modeling can
be performed on different levels of complexity, with associated accuracy
regarding the representation of the physical phenomena of slamming, as shown
in Figure 14.

17
M. Razola

The prevailing analysis method, and the only method that is well established for
structural design, is the semi-empirical approach schematically illustrated in
Figure 14/H1-P1-S1. The first published semi-empirical design method was
that of Heller & Jasper (1960). Heller & Jasper introduced many of the
concepts and ideas that are still being used in todays design methods and
scantling rules. The fundamental idea of Heller & Jasper was that the local and
global design loads could be characterized by a statistical measure of the vertical
acceleration at the craft center of gravity. Using experimental measurements on
a 75-feet torpedo boat Heller & Jasper developed formulas that enabled linking
of the global loads to local design pressures for structural members such as
beams and plates. A drastic idealization, introduced already by Heller & Jasper,
is that the transient and non-uniform slamming pressure distribution can be
modeled as static and uniform. Hereby, standard handbook type formulas can
be used to calculate deflection and stresses in plates and beams for
determination of scantling requirements.

Hydromechanics Pressure modeling Structure

mechanics

H1 Semi-empirical Average uniform

methods pressure p(x,y)
Handbook formulas S1
P1

Pressure
Stochastic wave environment

H2 CFD methods averaging and FEA S2

statistics

Extreme resposnes
H3 2D+t strip Slamming Quasi-dynamic
methods pressure p(x,y,t) FEA S3
P2

H4 Non-linear strip
methods

H5 Hydroelastic methods

Pressure
Experimental Experimental
H6 measurments
distribution
measurments
reconstruction

Figure 14. Schematic outline of different approaches for analysis of loads and
responses for high-speed craft in waves.

18
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

During the following decades, the method of Heller & Jasper was refined, and a
number of other methods related to design of high-speed planing craft evolved.
The hydromechanic problem was for example studied in Savitsky (1964) and
Savitsky & Brown (1976), where a semi-empirical method to determine craft
motions and accelerations, based on the research of Fridsma (1971), is
presented. The method of Savitsky & Brown (1976) is particularly important
since it is still used for calculation of the vertical acceleration for planing craft in
waves, which governs the design slamming pressure level in the prevailing
design methods. Structure design methods following the same principles as
Heller & Jasper are also presented in Spencer (1975), Henrickson & Spencer
(1982) and most importantly in Allen & Jones (1978). The Allen & Jones
design method has largely superseded the Heller & Jasper approach and is
today the most widely used design method, also implemented in most of the
classification societies scantling rules (e.g. DNV 2011 and ABS 2013).

Due to the rather drastic simplifications of the hydromechanic and structure

mechanic problems that the semi-empirical design methods imply, they offer
limited resolution and these methods have been questioned (e.g. Koelbel 2000,
2001 and Rosn et al 2007). For example, the different relation between
bending moments and shear forces for a uniform pressure and a peaked
slamming pressure makes it impossible to formulate a uniform pressure which
is equivalent to the real pressure regarding the in-plane stresses (bending
moments) as well as to the shear stresses (shear forces) and deformations. In
Wang et al (2008) and in Razola et al (2012b)/Paper B the effects on the
structure loads of modeling the slamming pressure as uniform are analyzed. As
shown in Figure 15, underestimations of the shear forces by as much as 10-20%
can be seen when applying a uniform pressure that is equivalent to the real
slamming pressure in terms the maximum bending moments. For traditional
metal structures this under prediction may be of little importance, but for
modern sandwich structures, with shear critical cores, it is significant.
Characterization of the acceleration process and selection of the corresponding
global load factor, which is directly related to the design pressure level, is also a
complex problem as for example discussed in Koelbel (1995), Riley & Coats
(2012) and Zseleczky (2012). In Razola et al (2013)/Paper C, where a detailed
evaluation of the prevailing semi-empirical design methods is presented,
characterization of the acceleration process and selection of the global load

19
M. Razola

factor are discussed in relation to the formulation of design slamming

pressures.

1
Tnorm/Mnorm [] 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Slamming events []

Figure 15. The normalized ratio between bending moments and shear forces
developed in a transverse beam in the bottom structure of a high-speed craft due to
bending moment equivalent representations of the real slamming pressure distribution.
Each point represents a single slamming event. Results from Razola et al (2012b)/Paper
B.

The alternatives to the semi-empirical design methods are more sophisticated

approaches where the hydromechanic and the structural mechanic problems are
modeled based on first principles. In its full complexity, a ship in waves is a
hydroelastic problem, which in general would require elastically coupled
modeling of the hydrodynamics and the structural mechanics as schematically
outlined in Figure 14/H5. Solving the fully coupled problem is difficult and
requires large resources. Such analysis is for example presented in Stenius et al
(2011c), where the importance of considering hydroelasticity is studied using
finite-element simulations, and methods for hydroelastic characterization are
presented. In many cases the hydroelastic effects can however be neglected and
the hydromechanic problem can be solved considering the hull as rigid. For
displacing ships several different direct calculation approaches exist for un-
coupled as well as coupled modeling (e.g. Hermundstad&Moan 2007, Chen et
al 2006). For planing craft no such methods are yet established for use in
practical design. Since heavily loaded planing craft have very stiff hull
structures, hydroelastic effects are however generally of minor importance. This
opens up for separate modeling of the hydromechanic and the structure
mechanic problems and quasi-static or quasi-dynamic coupling there between.

More sophisticated modeling of the structure mechanics can be achieved by

using finite element analysis. In its most simple form responses are calculated
simply by applying the semi-empirical design loads on a finite-element

20
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

representation of the craft as illustrated in Figure 14/H1-P1-S2. Such an

analysis is for example presented in Purcell et al (1988) where the Heller &
Jasper (1960) method is used to formulate design loads for structural analysis of
a U.S Coast Guard Patrol boat (Figure 16), and in Ojeda (2004) where the
global structure responses on a high-speed catamaran are studied by applying
design loads from DNV (2011). However, finite-element analysis of local
responses due to semi-empirical design pressures makes little sense, since the
design pressures are dependent on the load-carrying area of the studied
structure member, and since they are derived based on certain assumptions
regarding the boundary conditions (Allen & Jones 1977).

Figure 16. The finite-element model and the applied loads for the U.S Coast Guard
Patrol boat studied in Purcell et al (1988).

Regarding the hydromechanic problem there are a range of methods that can
be used to model high-speed planing craft in waves, with varying complexity
and accuracy, as illustrated in Figure 14. Highly resource demanding CFD
methods based on solving the RANS equations are for example presented in
Azcueta (2003) and Caponetto (2003). For such methods the pressure
distribution on the hull bottom is given explicitly and could be applied quasi-
statically/dynamically on a finite element representation of the craft in each
time-step, following Figure 14/H2-P2-S3. Alternatively the pressure
distribution is averaged over certain structure members and uniform design
pressures formulated using statistics. The structure responses can then be
calculated by using handbook formulas, as in Figure 14/H2-P1-S1. Phillips et al
(2004) presents another approach where a simplified hydrodynamic solver is
used to calculate the slamming pressure distribution on a high-speed rescue
craft in waves. These distributions are then applied on a finite-element model

21
M. Razola

of the hull quasi-dynamically in each time-step, including structure inertia

effects. The method is however not validated, and the simplified hydrodynamic
solver requires tuning either by experiments or by advanced CFD analysis.
Another approach worth mentioning is that of Kim et al (2008) where
slamming loads for four different type of large high and medium speed craft are
estimated by solving the hydromechnic problem using a 3-dimensional panel
method (LAMP). Uniform design slamming pressures are formulated from the
simulated section forces as illustrated in Figure 14/H2-P1. Following a similar
approach, extensive efforts with the aim of advancing state-of-the art regarding
high-speed craft structural design has also been made in a project executed by
CDI Marine (e.g. Gupta et al 2009), where a methodology for route/mission
dependent determination of design loads was presented. However, the study
focus on the external loads and the details regarding local structure loads due to
slamming are not presented in the public reports.

For conventional ships the hydromechanic problem has been modeled using
strip methods since their development during the 1950s (e.g. Salvensen et al
1970). The problem often is solved in the frequency domain, assuming linearity,
and the slamming pressure is typically modeled by using the local relative
velocity between the hull and water surface for each 2-dimensional section in
combination with analytical solutions to the slamming problem, such as Wagner
(1932) or Von Karman (1929). Since the hydromechic problem is solved for a
number of 2-dimensional sections instead of considering the complete 3-
dimensional problem, strip methods are computationally efficient. The
conventional linear methods are however not as readily implemented for high-
speed craft due to the non-linear nature of craft response and the character of
the slamming pressure loading. The first non-linear strip method for high-speed
planing craft was presented in Zarnick (1978). The method of Zarnick has since
then evolved and variations are for example presented in Keuning (1994) and
Payne (1995). Common for these strip methods are however that the pressure
distribution on the hull bottom is not explicitly given. In Akers (1999) a non-
linear strip method based on Zarnick (1978) is presented, where the panel
pressures are calculated in the time-domain using the simulated section forces.
Statistical treatment of the peak panel pressures is used to formulate design
pressures for bottom panels following Figure 14/H4-P1. The consequential
structure responses are however not considered. An interesting 2D+t strip
method is presented in Sun & Faltinsen (2011). The method can be used to

22
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

study motions and accelerations of complex hull shapes in irregular seas,

however the focus is not on structural design and therefore local loads are not
considered in the presented paper. A promising approach is presented in Rosn
(2004) where a non-linear strip method, presented in Garme (2005), is used
together with a pressure modeling technique to calculate the momentary
slamming pressure distribution on the hull bottom in irregular seas. The
calculated pressure distribution is then applied on a finite element
representation of a 10.5 meters high-speed craft, according to Figure 14/H4-
P2-S3, and short-term extreme structure responses for one panel in the bottom
structure are determined. In Razola et al (2012a)/Paper A a framework of
methods, following a similar approach as in Rosn (2004), is presented. A non-
linear strip method is used together with a pressure modeling method to
formulate the slamming pressure distribution in the time-domain. The pressures
are either applied directly on a finite-element representation of the craft
structure following Figure 14/H4-P2-S3, or uniform slamming equivalent
pressures are formulated for individual structure members by integration and
statistical treatment of the simulated pressure distribution as in Figure 14/H4-
P1-S2.

Concluding, modeling of the structure mechanics problem is well advanced and

a large variety of commercial finite-element software packages are available.
However, for application in structural analysis of slamming loaded high-speed
planing craft, established analysis procedures are still lacking. As mentioned the
hydromechanic problem can be solved, with high resolution regarding the
resulting loads, using advanced CFD methods. Presently such analyses require
prohibitively large computational resources and are not yet an option for
practical design of high-speed planing craft structures. However design of truly
efficient high-speed craft structures can only be achieved by using direct
calculations based on first principles (Moan 2003) and there is a great need to
establish such methods that are rational and efficient (Cho et al 2012). Despite
the progress made in developing direct calculation methods, the prevailing
semi-empirical design method remains state-of-the-art, at least for practical
design. Therefore, and since they are well established in the design community
and consolidated in the scantling rules of the classification societies, these
methods require and deserve an evaluation. Modern methods should be used in
analyzing modern high-speed craft to assess the semi-empirical design method
uncertainties and investigate possibilities for improvements.

23
M. Razola

Summary of Appended Papers

As described in the preceding sections there is a need for better understanding
of the loading situation, and improved structural design methodologies, for
high-speed craft with respect to slamming. The prevailing semi-empirical design
methods are lacking resolution and limit the possibilities of designing truly
efficient high-speed craft. Further, application of these methods, that have been
developed based on densely stiffened metal structures, on modern craft
structures may be questioned. Design methods based on direct physical
modeling of the hydromechanic and structure mechanics problem are not yet
established and many of the presented approaches require large computational
resources. Their use in practical design of high-speed vessels is thus limited,
especially for small craft designers. To enable progression, development of both
the prevailing semi-empirical methods in relation to modern craft structures,
and establishment of a practical direct calculation method is therefore
necessary.

The focus of this thesis is to establish methods that can be used to evaluate and
develop the prevailing structural design methods for high-speed planing craft.
Design methods applicable in both larger projects and smaller projects with
smaller resources are addressed and the governing rules and regulations for
high-speed craft design with regards to slamming are evaluated. Summarizing
on a synoptic level the research project concerns three interlinked tracks

experimental and numerical method development to enable detailed

studies of the external loads and the structural loads developed in high-
speed craft structures due to slamming,

evaluation and development of the prevailing semi-empirical design

methods for high-speed craft and

evaluation, validation and further development of methods for direct

calculation of loads and responses for high speed craft in waves.

In Razola et al (2012a)/Paper A a methodological framework is presented that

enables detailed studies, in both time and space, of the slamming loads and the
structure responses in realistic craft structures. This methodology is to large
extent a synthesis of the large amount of work carried out at KTH in relation to

24
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

high-speed craft and slamming (e.g. Garme 2004, Rosn 2004 and Stenius
2009). The methodological framework consists of four modules, the rule-based
scantlings module, the slamming load module, the finite-element module and
the signal-processing module. The rule-based scantlings module is used to
efficiently develop initial scantlings and enables parametric studies of different
material concepts and structural arrangements. The slamming load module
contains a numerical approach for simulation of the detailed slamming pressure
distribution, and an experimental approach where the slamming pressure
distribution sequences are determined based on discrete point measurements.
In the finite-element module momentary slamming pressure distributions are
applied on a fully parameterized model of the craft hull based on results from
the scantlings module, and detailed structure responses are calculated in the
time-domain. The signal-processing module is used to study the complete
stochastic load and response processes, for example containing methods for
signal peak identification and methods for calculating extreme response values.
The methodology is not only a useful tool in detailed studies of the slamming
phenomena, but can also be seen as a step towards establishing a method of
direct calculation.

In Razola et al (2012b)/Paper B the methodology is experimentally evaluated

and developed regarding the pressure modeling method. The experiments are
also used to perform phenomenological studies of the slamming phenomena,
and highlight some of the limitation in the design pressure formulation in the
prevailing semi empirical design methods. It is for example shown that
representing the transient and non-uniform slamming pressure distribution as
static and uniform, may imply under predictions of structure loads (i.e. bending
moments and shear forces) by as much as 10-20%.

The methodology presented in Paper A is used in Razola et al (2013)/Paper C

to further study the limitations in the prevailing design methods highlighted in
Paper B. The prevailing semi-empirical design method for high-speed craft with
respect to slamming is recreated and extensively evaluated in relation to modern
craft structures. It is shown that there are limitations in the design pressure
formulation, for example related to the geometry and location of the structure
members. Based on this evaluation suggestions for improvements are made
which result in significant improvement regarding the design load prediction.
The used methodology is also validated using experimental measurements, and

25
M. Razola

it is shown that the simulated loads are comparable to the experimentally

measured loads, both on a global and local level. The results are important and
could be used to further develop the prevailing scantling rules with respect to
slamming, for example regarding design pressure formulation and safety factor
levels.

Future Work
The work contained in the appended Papers A, B and C is largely focused on
method development, phenomenological studies of the slamming phenomena,
and on evaluation and development of simplified design formulas for high-
speed planing craft. However, to enable design of truly efficient high-speed
craft structures, an efficient and rational design method, where the external
loads and structure responses are modeled based on first principles, is required.
The present thesis provides a step in this direction with the development and
synthesis of the methodology presented in Paper A, and the methodology
evaluation in Paper B. However, further work needs to be focused on for
example signal analysis and statistical treatment of the stochastic load and
responses processes. This includes but is not limited to peak value identification
methods and statistical extrapolation of extreme values. Issues such as material
characterization and evaluation and development of assessment criteria also
require more attention. To design more efficient craft it is also critical gain a
better understanding of how high-speed craft are actually loaded and operated
in service. Such progress can enable design of more efficient high-speed craft,
which ultimately lead to reduced production costs, operational costs and
environmental impact, while improving craft reliability and safety.

26
 On Structural Design of High-Speed Craft

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