Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineering

Fluid Mechanics for

Chemical Engineering

Mathieu Mory

iSlE @WILEY
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Library of Congress Ca tal og in g- in -Public ation Data

Mory. Mathieu .
Fluid mec hanics J()r che mi cal engi nee rin g I Mathieu Mory.
p. em.
In c ludes bibliographical refere nces and ind ex.
ISBN 978- 1-8482 1-28 1-7 (hardhack)
I . Chemi ca l processes. 2. Fluid dynami cs. I. Tit le.
TPI 55.7.M673 20 11
660' .29--dc22
20 100-11'940

Briti sh Library Cataloguin g- in -Publication Data

A C l P reco rd for thi s book is avai lab le from th e Briti sh Library
ISBN 978- 1 -84~12 1 -28 1 -7

Printed and hound in Grea t Britain by CP I Anton y Rowe. Ch ippenh am a nd Eastbourn e.

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 Table of Contents

Preface ... XIII

PART I. ELEMENTS I N FLUID MEC HA N I CS.

C hapter I. Local Equations of Fluid Mechanics 3

1.1. Fo rces, stress tenso r, and pressure . . . . . 4
1.2. Nav ier- Stokes equation s in Cartes ian coordinates. 6
1.3. The pl ane Poise uill e fl ow . . . . . . . . . . I0
1.4. Nav ier--Stokes equati ons in cy lindri ca l coordinates: Poiseuill e fl ow
in a circular cylindrica l pipe. . 13
1.5 . Plane Couette fl ow 17
I .6 . The boundary layer concept . 19
1.7. So lutions ofNav ier- Stokes eq uati ons where a grav ity fi eld is present,
hydrostatic pressure. . . . . . . . 22
I .8. Buoyancy force 25
I .9. Some conclusions on the so luti ons of Nav ier- Stokes eq uati ons. 26

Chapter 2. Global Theorems of Fluid Mechanics . 29

2. 1. Eul er equati ons in an intrinsic coordinate system 30
2.2. Bernou lli 's th eo rem. . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3. Press ure variati on in a direct ion normal to a streamline. 33
2.4. Momentum theorem. . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.5. Eva luating frict ion for a steady-state fl ow in a straight pipe . 38
2.6. Pressure drop in a sudden ex pansion (Borda ca lculation) 40
2. 7. Us ing the momentum th eo rem in th e presence of gravity. 43
2.8. Kinetic energy balance and di ss ipation 43
2.9 . Appli cation exerc ises. 47
Exe rcise 2. 1: Force exerted on a bend . . . 47
vi Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engi neering

Exercise 2. 11 : Empty in g a tank . -+8

Exercise 2. 111 : Pressure drop in a sudden ex pansion and heatin g. 48
Exercise 2. 1V : Strea ming fl ow on an inclined plane . 49
Exercise 2. V: Impac t of a jet on a slop in g pl ate. 50
Exercise 2. VI: Operation of a hydro-ejector . 51
Exercise 2.V II: Bypass fl ow . 53

C hapter 3. Dimensional Ana lys is. 55

3. 1. Principl e of dimensional analys is, Vaschy- Buckingham theorem 56
3 .1. 1. Exampl e - the oscill ating pendulum . 60
3.2. Dimensional study of Nav ier- Stokes equati ons . . . 61
3.3. Sim ilarity theory. 63
3.4. An applicati on exa mpl e: fall ve loci ty of a spheri ca l particle in a
viscous fluid at rest . 65
3 .4.1 . Applicati on of the Vaschy- Buckingham th eo rem . 65
3.4 .2. Forces exerted on the ball . 66
3.4. 3. The hydrodynami c force oppos ing the particle's move ment
relati ve to the fluid . . . . 67
3.4.4. Fall ve loc ity for a small Reynolds number. 67
3.4.5 . Fall ve loc ity for a large Reynolds number . 68
3.5. Appli cati on exerc ises . 69
Exe rcise 3. 1: Time of res idence and chemica l reacti on in a sti rred
reactor . . . . . . . 69
Exercise 3. 11: Boundary layer on an osc ill ating plate. 69
Exercise 3. 111: Head capacity curve of a centrifuga l pump 70

C hapter 4. Steady-State Hydraulic C ircuits . 73

4. 1. Operating point of a hydrauli c circuit 73
4.2. Steady-state fl ows in straight pipes: regul ar head loss . 78
4.3 . Turbulence in a pipe and ve loc ity profile of th e flow . 81
4.4. Singul ar head losses. . 83
4.5. Noti ons on cavitation . 87
4.6. App li cati on exercises . 88
Exercise 4.1: Regular head loss measu rement and fl ow rate in a pipe . 88
Exercise 4.11 : Head loss and cavitation in a hydrauli c circuit. 89
Exercise 4.111: Ventil ati on of a road tunnel . . . . . . . . 91
Exercise 4.1V: Sizing a network of heating pipes. 92
Exercise 4.V: Head, fl ow rate, and output of a hydroe lect ri c
power plant . . . 93
4.7. Bibliography . 93
 Table of Contents v 11

C hapter 5. Pumps . 95
5. 1. Centrifuga l pumps. 96
5.1. 1. Operating principle. 96
5. 1.2. Simil arity laws and head/capacity curves. 97
5. 1.3. Impl ementati on of a centrifuga l pump . . I0 I
5.2. Class ifi cati on of turbo pumps and ax ial pumps. I 05
5.3. Positive displacement pumps I 06

C hapter 6. Transient Flows in Hydraulic Circuits: Water Hammers . II I

6. 1. Sound propagation in a rigid pipe. . . . . . . . . . I 11
6.2. Over-pressures associated with a water ham mer: characteristi c
time of a hydraulic circu it . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 5
6.3. Linear elasti city of a so lid body: sound propagation in an
elastic pipe . I 18
6.4. Water hammer prevention devices 120
Exerc ise . 12 1

C hapter 7. Notions of Rheometry 123

7. 1. Rheology 123
7.2. Strai n, strain rate, so lids and fluid s. 126
7.3. A rheology experiment: behavior of a materi al subj ected
to shear . 129
7.4. The circul ar cy lindrical rheo meter (or Couette rheometer) 132
7.5. App li cat ion exercises . . 13 6
Exerc ise 7. 1: Rheometry and flow of a Bingham fluid in a pipe 136
Exercise 7.II : Cone/plate rheometer. . . 13 7

PART II. MIXING AND CHEMICAL REA CTION S . 139

C hapter 8. Large Scales in Turbulence: Turbulent Diffusion -

Dispersion . 141
8. I. Introduction. 141
8.2. Concept of average in the turbul ent sense, steady turbulence, and
homogeneous turbul ence . . . . . . 142
8.3. Average ve loc ity and RM S turbul ent ve locity . . . . . . 145
8.4. Length sca le of turbul ence : integral sca le . . . 146
8.5. Turbulent flu x of a sca lar quantity: averaged diffusion equation 15 1
8.6. Modeling turbul ent flu xes using the mixin g length model 153
8.7. Turbul ent dispersion 157
8.8. The k- 1:: model 159
viii Fluid Mec hani cs for Chem ica l Engineerin g

8.9. Appendi x: so luti on o f" a diffu sion equ ati on in cy lindri ca l

coordin ates . . 163
8.1 0. Appli cati on exercises .. . .. . 165
Exercise 8.1: Di spersion o f fluid streaks introdu ced into a pipe
by a netw ork of ca pill ary tubes . . . . . 165
Exercise 8. 11: Grid turbul ence and k- r: modeling . .... . . . . 167

C hapter 9. Hyd rodynamics and Residence Time

Distribution - Stirrin g .. 17 1
9. 1. Turbul ence and res idence tim e di stri buti on . 172
9.1. 1. Noti on of res idence time di stributi on 172
9. 1. 2. Modelin g RTD via a turbul ent diffusion approach:
cases of a tubul ar reactor w ith ax ial di spersion and of a CSTR . 173
9.2. Stirrin g 178
9.2. 1. Mec hani ca l characteri za ti on of" a stirrer . 178
9.2.2. Stirring and mi x ing time . .. 182
9.2.3. Emul sions and foams . . 183
9.3. Appendi x: int erfaces and the noti on of" sur face te nsion . 185
9.3. 1. Interface between two non-mi sc ible fluid s and
sur face tension .. 185
9.3.2. Equilibrium in th e co ntact lin e betwee n three phases ,
Jurin' s law. . . . . . . . . 187

Cha pter 10. Micromixing and Macromixing 193

I0. I. Introducti on . 193
I0.2. Characteri zati on of the mi xture: segregati on index. 195
10.3. The dynami cs of mi xin g .. 198
I 0.4. Homogeni zati on o f a sca lar fi e ld by mo lecul ar di ffusion:
lllt CrOmt Xlll g . 20 1
I0.5. Di ffusion and chemi ca l reacti ons 202
10.6. Mac romi xin g, mi cromi x in g, and chemi ca l reacti ons. 204
I 0. 7. Ex perimental demonstrati on o f th e mi cro mi xing process . 205

C hapter II. Small Scales in Turbulence 209

11 . 1. Noti on of signal process in g, ex pansion o f a time signal into
Fo uri er seri es 2 10
11 .2. Tu rbul ent energy spec trum . 213
I 1.3. Kolmogorov"s th eo ry 2 14
I 1.4 . Th e Kolmogorov sca le . 2 18
11 .5 . App li cati on to mac romi xi ng, mi cromi xing and
chemi ca l reacti on . 22 1
 Table o f Cont e nts ix

11 .6. Appl icat ion exercises 222

Exercise 11 .1: Mixi ng in a cont inuous st irred tank reactor 222
Exercise 11.11: Mixin g and combustion. 223
Exerci se 11 .111: Laminar and turbul ent diffusion flames. 225

C ha pter 12. Micromixing Models 229

12.1 . Introduction . 229
12.2. CD model . 233
12.2.1. Principle 233
12.2.2. CD model in a closed reactor without reaction . 235
12.2.3 . CD model in an open reactor without reacti on . 239
12.2.4. CD model in th e presence of a chem ica l reaction 24 1
12.3. Mode l of interaction by exchange with the mean. 245
12.3. 1. Princip le . . . . . . . . . 245
12.3.2. IEM mode l without a chemi ca l reaction. 246
12.3.3. IEM model with a chemical reaction. 249
12.4. Conclusion . 250
12.5. App li cation exercise. . . . . . . 25 1
Exerc ise 12.1: Impl ementation of th e IEM model for a slow or fast
chemical reaction. . . . . . . . . . . 25 1

PART Ill. MECHANICAL SEPA RAT ION 253

C hapter 13. Physical Desc ription of a Particulate Medium

Dispersed Within a Fluid . 255
13 . 1. Introd ucti on .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . 255
13.2. Solid particles . . . . .... . 257
13.2.1 . Geometrica l characteri zation of a particle. 257
13. 2.2. Grain size distribution in a granu lar medium . 259
13.2 .3. Determination of a so lid 's den sity usi ng a pyc nometer . 26 1
13.2.4. Co ncentrat ions . . ........ ....... . 263
13 .2 .5. Formation of clusters, coagu lat ion, and flocc ul ation 264
13.3 Flu id particles .. 270
13.4. Mass ba lance of a mechani ca l separation process 273

C hapter 14. Flows in Porous Media .. 277

14. 1. Co nso lidated poro us media; non-consolidated porous media,
and geometrical characterization . 278
14.2 . Darcy ' s law . . . ..... . 280
14.3. Examp les of app li cat ion of Darcy 's law . 282
14.3 .I . Laboratory permeameters . . . . . . . 282
x Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

14. 3 .2. Membrane res istance to filtrati on. . 2R6

14.3.3. Dead-end filtrati on and cross-tl ow tlltrati on . 2RR
14.4. Modeling Darcy 's law through an analogy with the tl ow
in side a netwo rk of ca pill ary tubes. 2119
14.5. Modeling permea bility, Kozeny-Ca rman formul a 29 1
14.6. Ergun 's relati on 293
14.7. Draining by press in g . 293
14 .7. 1. Drainin g the liquid 295
14 .7.2. Mechani ca l equilibrium of forces appli ed on the so lid skeleton
and on the liquid 295
14.7.3 . Force transmi ss ion in th e structure. 296
14. 7.4. Characteri sti c time of drainin g by press in g. 298
14.8. The reverse osmos is process . 298
14.9. Energeti cs of membrane separati on . 30 1
14. 10. Appli cati on exe rcises . . . 30 I
Exercise: Study of a seawater desa linati on process. 30 I

Chapter IS. Particles Within the Gravity Field . 305

15.1 . Settling of a ri gid parti cle in a fluid at rest. 306
15.2. Settling of a set of so lid parti cles in a tluid at rest 309
15.3 . Settling or ri sing of a tluid parti cle in a tluid at rest . 3 12
15.4 . Parti cles being held in suspension by Brow ni an moti on. 3 15
15.5. Parti cles being held in suspension by turbul ence . 3 19
15.6. Fluidi zed beds 32 1
15.6. 1. Flow reg imes. 32 1
15.6.2. Mec hani ca l equilibrium in a fluidi zed bed 324
15.6.3. Fluid tl ow in a fluidi zed bed . 327
15.7. Appli cati on exercises 329
Exe rcise 15. 1: Di stributi on of parti cles in suspension and grain size
so rting res ulting from settling . . 32 L)
Exe rcise 15. 11: Fluidi zati on ofa bimodal di stributi on ofp articles . :no
Chapter 16. Movement of a Solid Particle in a Fluid Flow . 33 1
16. 1. Notati ons and hypotheses. 332
16.2. The Basset, Bouss inesq, Oseen, and Tchen equati on 333
16.3. Move ment of a particl e subj ected to gravi ty in a tluid at rest . 336
16.4 . Move ment of a parti cle in a steady, unidirecti onal shea r fl ow 339
16.5. Lift force appli ed to a parti cle by a unidirecti onal fl ow . 34 1
16.5. 1. Lift force exerted on a parti cle in a tluid tl ow
in an infinite medium 342
16.5 .2. Li ft force exerted on a parti cle in th e vicinity of a wa ll . 346
16. 6. Centrifugati on of a particle in a rotating tl ow . . 350
 Tab le o f Contents XI

16.7. Appli cati ons to th e transport of a parti cle in a turbul ent fl ow or

in a laminar fl ow 355
16.7. 1. Appli cati on to laminar fl ows 356
16.7.2. Appli cati on to turbul ent fl ows 356

C hapter 17. Centrifugal Separation . ... 359

17. 1 Rotating fl ows, circul ati on, and ve loc ity curl 360
I 7.2. Some exa mples of rotatin g fl ows .... 364
17.2. 1. So lid-body rotati on in a rotatin g tank 364
17.2.2 . Vortex fl ow. 366
17.2.3. Flow in a hydrocyc lone 369
17.3. Th e principle of centrifuga l separati on . 377
17.4. Centri fuge decanters .... 38 1
17.4.1. Di scontinuous centrifuge deca nters 38 1
17.4 .2. Continu ous ce ntrifuge decanters 383
17.5. Centri fuga l separators. 385
17.6 . Centrifuga l filtrati on . 388
17.7 . Hydrocyc lones 39 1
17.7. 1. Separati on by a hydrocyc lone of particl es th at are denser
than the fluid 392
17.7.2. Separati on by a hydrocyclone of parti cles less dense
th an the fluid 395
17 .8. Energeti cs of centrifuga l se parat ion. 396
17.9. Appli cation exercise . .. 397
Exe rcise 17. 1: Grain size sorting in a hydrocyclone 397

C hapter 18. Notion s on Granular Materials . . 40 1

18. 1. Stati c fri cti on: Coul omb 's law of fiicti on 402
18.2. Non-co hes ive gran ul ar materi als: Angle of repose, angle of
internal fri cti on . 403
18.3 . Mi croscopi c approach to a granular materi al . 405
18.4. Macrosco pi c modeling of the equilibrium of a granul ar
materi al in a sil o . .... 40 7
18.5. Flow of a granul ar material : exampl e of an hourglass . 41 3

Physical Properties of Common Fluids . 41 7

Index 41 9
 Preface

Thi s book is mainl y about flui d mec hani cs, but it is firs t intended to MSc
and profess ionals who need to make use of fluid mechani cs skill s fo r appli cati ons
pertainin g to chemi ca l and process eng ineering. Thi s obj ecti ve ex pl ain s the
presentati on o f fluid mec hani cs as g iven in thi s book. The foundations of th e
di sc iplin e are generall y not set out, but the book endeavo urs to help students and
pro fess ionals to use th e too ls of fluid mechani cs in a pertinent way, whil e attempting
to point out th e key ideas assoc iated with th e concepts enco untered .

As an exa mpl e, the ability to use Nav ier-Stokes equati ons appropri ately is more
important , to most practiti oners, than the ability to prove them. It is of course very
interesting to have refl ec ted upon that proo f at so me point, but thi s ca n be found in
other books, and thi s is not the intended obj ective of thi s book. Bes ides, I will be
very happy if thi s book ca n pro ve useful for spec iali sts in fluid mec hani cs, giving
them the opportunity to di scover important appli cati ons of fluid mechani cs in the
field of chemi ca l engineerin g.

The boo k is di vided into three parts.

Th e first part is about th e bas ics of fluid mechani cs . Emphas is is on ge neral

theorems that constitute the too ls used in the firs t in stance by engineers. Chapter 2
form s th e main foundati on o f th at part, whi ch then branches into short chapters
tackling th e key noti ons impl emented by a spec iali st in process enginee ring
(hydrauli c circuits, pumps, rh eo metry , etc. ). The concepts of dimensional an alys is
are also emph as ized (C hapter 3 ).

The seco nd part dea ls with mi x ing ph enomena assoc iated with turbul ence.
In that part , noti ons relatin g to tu rbulence are first presented. Th e probl ems
assoc iated with di spersion and mi xin g in co nn ection with ch emica l reactions are
then considered. Th e key notion , from a fund amental standpoint, regards th e
interrelati on between the phenomena of turbul ence and th at of molecul ar diffusion,
the latter being the actu al ca use for mi xing that all ows a chemical reacti on to occur.
xiv Fluid Mechanics for Chemi cal Enginee rin g

Toward the end of thi s part, elementary models for the simul ati on of reacting flows
are also presented.

The third part presents the too ls of fluid mechani cs used in mechanical
fluid/so lid and fluid/fluid separation processes. Process unit operati ons considered
include filtration , fluidi zat ion, and centrifuga l separati on. I have also tried to
provide, in that part, means for understanding more co mpl ex app roac hes regardi ng
the modelin g of a so lid parti cle 's dynami cs within a fluid fl ow (C hapter 16) and a
prese ntation of the phys ics of a granu lar materi al, which wil l often be of interest to
spec iali sts in process engineerin g.

Alth ough the who le treatment mi ght not see m very ambiti ous, my goa l was
primaril y to spec ify the elementary noti ons in fi elds related to fluid mechanic s. in
order to facilitate access to other, more specia li zed books.

This book draws its materi al chi efl y from the co urses I have been teachin g for
abo ut I 0 years at th e Eco le Nationale Superieure en Geni e des Technologi es
lndustri elles , an engineerin g curri culum at the Uni vers ity of Pau and the Adour
Region (U PPA) in the chemi ca l and process engineering spec iali zation . For the sake
of consistency, I have endeavored to ex pand th e coverage of the subject matter by
compl ementin g ce rtain parts of my lectures. As thi s is an adaptation of a book
previously publi shed in French, and of cou rse drawn from material orig in all y taught
to French students, th ere were of course issues regarding th e references. I am fu ll y
aware that some of th e li terature in French wi ll not be ava il able to non- Frenc h
speakers, and I apo logise fo r thi s, but it wou ld have been un fair not to keep these
citations , as they were signifi ca nt so urces for writing the book. Whereve r poss ibl e
Engli sh subst ituti ons to th e French references have bee n prov ided , and where not,
additi onal Engli sh tex tbooks have been suggested as a com pl ement to the reading or
the book .

I wish to thank the UPPA for giving me an opport unity to lecture in these topi cs.
I am thank fu l to my co ll eagues S. Alexandrova, A. Sabo ni , and D. Graeb ling. from
th e UPPA, for th eir in sightful disc uss ions that proved in va luabl e to me whil e writin g
thi s book . Beyond this. their fr iend ship has been a treme ndous support for me
throughout thi s criti ca l work.

I have also used my experi ence in resea rch and education whil e writin g th e
various chapters of thi s book.

It is important to me to mention first my first teac hin g ex peri ences, when I

join ed a tea m in Grenob le, teachin g fluid mec hani cs at th e Eco le Na ti onale des
Travaux Publi cs de I'E tat. The co urse taught by C. Le Provost, who was then in
charge, emphasi zed th e use and und erstanding of too ls rath er than th e proof of
 Preface xv

th eir va lidity. I have tri ed to emph as ize and retain th at approach as far as poss ibl e
in thi s boo k. Later, I was lu cky to rece ive an in va luabl e edu ca ti onal tutorin g
from R. Morea u, M. Favre-M arinet, and A. Tempervill e, at th e Eco le Nati onale
Super ieure d' Hydrauliqu e et de Meca niqu e de Grenobl e and at Jose ph Fo uri er
Uni ve rsit y.

Th is book also includes the legacy of the one year I spent ( 1988- 1989) on
secondment to the Centre d' Etudes et de Recherche de Grenoble (ALSTHOM group )1,
when I learnt a great dea l alongs ide speci ali sts in industri al hydraulics. My thanks to
P. Chantre l, who was my supervi sor and also to the whole team in thi s regard .

My thes is superviso r, E. Hopfinger, mi ght not recogni ze much of himse lf in thi s

book. Yet, I rece ived my training, first and foremost, from him during my PhD
years. He was in strumental in expanding my knowl edge base. More importantl y, by
mak ing him se lf ava il abl e to me, he enabl ed me to get acquainted with the way he
saw and tackl ed tluid mechani cs. Those years were undoubtedl y the ri chest and the
most momentous in my profess ional life . I wi sh to express to him my recognition
and my gratitude.

Lastl y, I thank the ex perts who agreed to read thi s book and took time to offer
ve ry use ful rev iews in order to improve it and rectify errors. Jean-Luc Achard
monitored th e whole enterpri se and I th ank him for th at, alth ough I often cursed him
during th e editing stage for obvious reasons! Neverth eless, he has remained a true
fri end since 1982.

Mathi eu Mory
January 20 I I

J Now a s ubs idi ary o f th e Environn e ' Tech company (http ://ce rg-fluid es.co mD
 Part I

Elements in Fluid Mechanics

 Chapter 1

Local Equations of Fluid Mechanics

In thi s chapter, to beg in with , we reca ll th e Navier- Sto kes equation s tha t gove rn
th e fl ow of a Newtonian fluid . These equations ex pl a in th e beha vior o f common
fluid s such as wa te r o r a ir. For a g ive n fo rce fi e ld a nd bo undary conditi o ns, the
so luti o n of av ier- Sto kes eq ua ti o ns control s both th e fl ow ve loc ity and pressure at
any point a nd a t a ny time in th e do ma in unde r cons id erati o n. The Navier- Stokes
eq uati ons a re th e most common ly used equa ti o ns in fluid mechanics; they prov ide
th e kn ow ledge of th e fl o w ofNewtonian fluid s at th e loca l leve l.

The so luti o ns to Nav ie r- Stokes equ ati o ns a re typ ica ll y very diffi c ult to a rrive a t.
T hi s fac t is attested to by th e ex trao rdin a ry deve lo pme nt of nume rica l computati on
in fluid mechani cs . Only a few exact a nalytica l so luti o ns are kn ow n for Nav ier-
Sto kes equa ti o ns. We prese nt in thi s c ha pte r so me la mina r fl ow so luti o ns whose
interpretati o n per se is esse nti a l in thi s rega rd. W e th e n introduce the bo undary laye r
concept. We conc lude the c ha pte r w ith a di sc uss io n o n th e uniqu eness of so luti o ns
to a vier- Stok es eq ua ti o ns, w ith spec ia l refere nce to the ph e no me non o f turbul e nce.

This being the introdu ctory chap ter. we have not in c luded a pro lo nged discussion
on continuum mec ha nics. The de ri va ti o n of Navier- Stokes equations is ava il a ble in
1
oth er continuum mechanics o r fluid mecha ni cs boo ks. We have consc ious ly
avo ided concentra ting o n th e de ri va ti o na l aspects of Navier- S to kes equa ti o ns as we

I In particul ar, th e we ll-known books by L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz, Flu id Mecha nics
(2 nd Editi on, Butterworth-H einemann , 1987) and by G. K. Batchelor. An lmroduction to Fluid
Merhanics (Cambrid ge Uni ve rsity Press, 1967) provide an app roac h th at complements th e
present book .
4 Flu id Mechanics fo r Chemi ca l Enginee rin g

are co nvinced that it is far more important to understand the mea nin g of the diffe rent
terms of these eq uati ons and to hence interpret th e way they are appli ed in the study
of fluid mec hani cs in ge neral. In additi on, we limit ourse lves to introducin g the onl y
class ica l co ncept from cont inuum mec han ics to be used in thi s book , namely. th e
ability to ca lcul ate the force acting through a surface pas in g through a point that
li es in side a co ntinuum , usin g the stress tensor. Hence, Chapter I part ly se rves as a
co ll ecti on o r fo rmul ae, whi le proper phys ica l princip les are di sc ussed in the
remainder of thi s book. The reader mi ght wish to read thi s chapt er without
ponderin g on it for long, and then may refe r to it later. if necessary. for it may be
insightful in such a case.

1.1. Forces, stress tensor, and pressure

Co nsider a domain. V. contai ning a fluid . The fluid 's ll ow is controll ed by

va ri ous fo rces actin g on it. The laws or mec hani cs help us to di stin gui sh two type s
of forces :

- Body forces, whic h are exe rted at every point in a domain . We ight is th e most
common body force .
- Forces that are transferred from one parti cle to another, at th e bou ndary of and
wi thin th e domain. These forces are ex pressed using th e stress tensor. Thi s is where
th e co ntinuum concept int ervenes.

The fo rce at a point M in the co ntinuum is assoc iated with surface element ds
whose orientati on is given by the unit normal vector i7 (F igure 1. 1). The forc e d!-' .
whi ch is proport ional to the surface ds. vari es when the ori entati on of the surface
changes . It is determined at the point M usin g th e stress tenso r [I] , whi ch is a
sy mm e tri c . ~ 3 x 3 matri x:

[Un
[I] = : ::
O' n

u ,.,
o-.1':
u,
(]' r:

(]' : :
l [ 1. 11

:?. The reade r is referred to continuum mechan ics textbooks for a justi fica ti on of the symmetry
of th e stress tensor.
 Local Equati ons of Fluid Mechanics 5

F igue 1.1. Forces elf~ and dF2 exer!ed at a point M through two sw face elements
ch 1 and d.12. '' 'hose oriel1lations are g iven b1 normals ii1 and ii 2 . Both d.11 and d.12 are
eli'llll!nts of' closed surfaces sl (wlid line) and sl (dashed line). respectiel)'. surrounding
volumes V1 and V2

l
The force through th e surface e lement d1 whose norma l is n is written as:

dF, [CJrr CJ n CJx::[ nnxl,.

dF = dF,. = [I] iids = ds CJ.n CJ n cr ., ~ [ 1. 2]
[
dF: CJx: ()_~ .: CJ:: n:

T he force app li ed to a closed surfaceS surrounding an arb itrary vo lume V in the

co ntinu um (F igure 1. 1) can be deri ved usin g th e surface integral:

F= fJ[ IJiids [ 1.3]

.\'

The concept of th e stress tensor is in separable from the mec hanica l principl e of
ac ti on and reac ti on. Th e nom1al vec tor i7 is ori ented toward th e ex terior of the
doma in on whi ch the forc e is appli ed. The direction of the force is reve rsed if one
cons iders th e fo rce exerted by th e domain Von th e exte ri or. Therefore. the domain
under consideration should always be specified The force is exerted by the ex ternal
environment through the surface of separation.

In equati on [ I. I] and [ 1.2] . the stress tensor is ex pressed in a Cartesian

coo rdin ate system (0. x, y . :) . In thi s coordinate system, th e single-co lumn matrices
defin e the norm al vector ii and force dF. We only have to multipl y matrix [I] by
ii to ca lc ulate the fo rce.
6 Fluid Mechan ics for Chemica l Engineeri ng

The stress tensor embod ies two noti ons: press ure and tiicti on forces. For a
Newton ian fluid . pressure is introduced by addin g together th e diagona l terms of th e
stress tenso r:

11 = - ( O" u + O",:r + O":: ) I 3 [1 4]

We also introduce the stress dev iator ten sor [I'].

[u:"
a n
a' ,=
a' rr
a '.\y

a' y=
u> ] [u"+ p
u y:

a' ==
= a ,T
O" r:
O"xy

O",:r +p
(]" =
(]" "

U ,-
0":: +p
l [ 1.5]

such that O" ' u + O" ',:r + O" ',, = 0. The stress dev iator is assoc iated wi th fri ction forces,
whereas the pressure produces a force that is perpendicu lar to th e surface element
und er consid erati on. Alternati ve ly, the stress tensor can be ex pressed as:

~ ]+[I']
-p 0

[I] = ~ -p [ 1. 6]
[ 0 -p

Figure I . I depicts two vo lumes V1 and V2 surrounded by closed surfaces 5 1 and 52 .

At a point M belonging to bot h surfaces , the normals are different , and therefore the
forces exe rted on the surface elements, ds 1 and dY2, are also different. The ori entati on
of th e force vectors show n in Figure 1.1 sati sfies two properti es. The force s are not
perpendi cul ar to the two surfaces onto which they are app li ed, if fr icti on forces ex ist.
However, th ey are not far from being perpendicular to th e surfaces, and they are
ori ented toward the interi or of the domain ; thi s is because pressure forces are usuall y
predom inant in a fl uid . Further, the forces exerted by the ex ternal env ironment on the
vo lumes VI and v2push them towa rd the interi or of the domain.

These concepts become more clear as and when they arc used in spec i fi e cases. as
do ne in subsequent secti ons of thi s chapter and oth er chapters of thi s book. The
important point is to correctly use tensor ca lculus to ca lculate forces, usin g the stress
tensor so as to obtain proper ori entat ion of the normal vectors to the surfaces to ass ign
a correct direction to the forces that are app li ed on the surface of a given vo lume.

1.2. Navie r- Stokes equations in Cartesian coordinates

The fundamental law of dynamics for fluid fl ow in a continuum is given in

Tabl e 1. 1 in a Cartesian coordinate system (0, x, y, z) . The ve loc ity vector is
ex pl ained usin g its three ve loc ity components ( u,.. u ,. , and 11 , ). The quantiti es
( .f,. , .f, , and I) are the three components of body forces, such as wei ght , pg .
 Loca l Equati ons of Fluid Mechani cs 7

In math ematical term s, th e system of equat ions show s the divergence of th e stress
te nso r. For a continuum , the compl ete dynami c formulation of th e mec hani ca l
probl e m requires that th e stress tensor be know n. Rheo logy is th e di sc ipline of
mechanics which dea ls with the determinati on of the stress tensor for a given
material , whether fluid or so lid . In Chapter 7, we introduce some co ncepts of
rheo logy, or rather rheometry. This discipline makes use of certain techniques (e.g.
the use of rheometers) to determin e the relati onship that link s th e stress dev iator
tensor to the strain tenso r or to the strain rate tensor, for a given materi al. Thi s
re lationship is called "constituti ve equati on."

Local formulation of the fundamental law of mechanics:

au aur au aur l- OCJXXax a(J \)' a(Jxz

l
p - - + u ,. - - + u \' - - + u z - -
of ax oy az
- -- + - - + - - + / ,.
av az

au~ au~ au~

l
p - - + u,. - - + u \' - - + u z
of ax ay
au: } = -
--
az
a(Jxz
ax
- + -aCJ_
-
ay
\'Z a(J zz
+ -- +
az
fz

Strain rate tensor:

au,
Dn = 2 - -
ax
[D] = -I D,T -_(au, + ~J
2 . ay ax
__(au, au=)
- az + ax
D"'-

Stress tensor for a Newtonian fluid:

au,
CJ.rx = -p + 2jl -ox- (JX\'. -_ j.l [au, ~J =p (au,
- -+ -auz - J
(!y + ax a _rz az ax
au\.
[~ ] = CJ_\"\' = p [-aur- + -au- J CY y v = - p + 2p -ay CYvz = ~{ -~'J~ + _?_L!_z_ J
1

-

-

ay a" az ay
( aux auz) (J \'Z- f-/ r~ + auzJ (J zz = - p + 2p -auz
(J xz = JI --+ - - -
az ax - az ay az
8 Flui d Mec hanics for Chemi cal Engineeri ng

Navier-Stokes equations: Conservation of momentum

our ou r OUr 011 X }

p - - + Ur - - + u 1. - - + U: - - = --
op
+ p!:>.ux + / r
{ 0/ OX . ov oz OX

au,. + ou)}- - ~
p
l
ou,
ot
+ ur
ou,,
ox
+ u 1.
~v
ll _
- oz
-
DJ'
+ JL!:>.ll 1. + f
1.

ou
ur ---
au - ou ou- } op .
l
7 7

p -- - + +u 1 --- + u: ~ = - - + pt>.u z + ./:

01 ox . ov o:: o::

Continuity equation: Conservation of mass

op op op op au,.
-+ ux- + u ,. - + u:-+ P --+ - - + -..,- = 0
lour ou:}
01 OX . DJ' o:: ox 0\1 o::

State law

Incompressible fluid Compressible fluid

ou . ou" ou _ p = p(P)
_ ._
\ + -- + --- = 0
ax ~y oz

Table 1.1. Nm ier~St okesfonnulation in a Cartesian coordinate .\~\ 'S tem

For Newto ni an fluid s th e constituti ve law is a lin ea r relati onship between th e

stress dev iator te nsor and th e strain rate tensor:

[L '] = 2p( D] [ 1.7]

Tabl e 1. 1 sets out th e strain rate tensor, [ D], as ex pressed in a Ca rtes ian coo rdinate
system. The constituti ve equ ati on [ 1.7] in vo lves the dynami c viscos ity of the flui d, Jl
(in kg m 1 s 1 or Pas). We also introduce the kinemati c viscos ity, v (in m2 s- 1) ,
defin ed by p =pv, where p is the mass density of the fluid (in kg m-\

For a Newtoni an fluid , the Nav ier- Stokes equati ons are de ri ved by introdu cing
the constituti ve equati on [I .7] into the fundamental law of mechani cs. The Nav ier-
Stokes equati ons in a Ca rtes ian coordinate system are also show n in Tabl e I. I.
 Local Eq uations of Fluid Mechani cs 9

In thi s boo k, we restri ct our di sc uss ion bas icall y to th e principl es of isoth ermal
fl ows. When temperature va ri es within th e domain , th e heat equati on mu st
be add ed to th e system of equati ons in Tabl e I . I. Here the ph ys ica l properti es
of fluid s are ass umed to be constant , i.e. th e num eri ca l va lue of th e viscos ity
at eve ry point within th e domain is linked to th e fluid under consid erati on. The
th ree Nav ier- Stokes equati ons co ntain fi ve unknown s: press ure, three ve loc ity
co mponents, and density. To determin e th e so luti on fo r a fl ow, th e Nav ier- Stokes
equati ons mu st th erefore be co mpl emented with two more equat ions:

- the continuity equati on, whi ch asserts the conservati on of mass ,

- the eq uat ion of state law specific to the fluid .

We can observe that in th e fl ow pattern s of non-miscible, incompressible .fluids,

the fluid de nsity remains constant within each fluid parti cle that is fo llowed along its
pat h. Th e continuity equati on impli es th at th e diverge nce of the ve loc ity vector is
zero at a ny point. Density is a phys ica l quantity that characteri zes a fluid 's
sp ~ c ifi c ity at every point in th e domain. It can be inhomogeneo us in space or
variabl e with time without th e fluid be ing co mpress ibl e, as is th e case when one
cons iders fl ows of several non-mi sc ibl e fluid s (e.g. oil and water) or fl ows of fluid s
that show layered density in a natural environment (e.g. when sa linity vari es in
seawater, th e molecul ar di ffusion of sa lt can be neg lected at th e tim e sca les
cons idered).

For an isoth ermal co mpress ibl e fluid , the state law of the fluid links density with
press ure.

The system of equat ions to be so lved is surrounded with doubl e bars in

Table I . I. It needs to be assoc iated with boundary conditi ons. For a Newtoni an
fl uid, such as water or air, with so lid wa ll s consistin g of common materi als, the
boundary condi ti on is a no-sli p condi tion for the flui d at the wa\ 1. 3 The ve loc ity of
th fluid becomes zero on a fixed so lid wa ll , or it equ als th e ve loc ity of the wa ll if
the latter is in moti on.

In the fo ll ow in g three secti ons, we prese nt so luti ons to Nav ier- Stokes equati ons
for class ica l laminar fl ows. These so luti ons are spec ifi c to an incompressi ble fluid of
homogeneous mass density . The system to be so lved is then reduced to the three
Navier- Stokes equ ati ons, plus incompress ibility.

3 111e no-slip conditi on at the wa ll does not always hold . Part icular properti es of the materi als
ma ing up the so li d wall or fl uids such as liquid polymers provi de reaso ns regarding why the
fl uiJ slips along the wall.
I0 Fl ui d Mec hani cs for Chemical Engineerin g

1.3. The plane Poiseuille flow

The few kn own analyti ca l so luti ons to Nav ier- Stokes equations are not obtained
by integratin g Navier- Stokes equati ons in their most general formul ati on. Typi ca ll y,
one mere ly ve rifi es the ex istence of a simpl e so luti on sati sfy ing simpl e ass umpti ons
of kinemati cs. These simplifi cati ons include an ass umpti on th at the ve loc ity of
certain co mpone nts du rin g the fl ow is nil and/or that the ve loc ity and the press ure
are independent fro m time or fro m certain space coo rdinates. We return to these
ass um pti ons toward the end of thi s chapter.

u,(y)

~------------------------~-------------,r---------~ x
L t

Figure 1.2 . Plane Poiseuille laminarfluH

Fo r th e pl ane Poiseuille fl ow, we consider (F igure 1.2) a tluid betwee n two

parallel pl anar wall s loca ted at y = - 1-1 and v = H. Th e medium ex tends to infinity in
the di rec ti on o f 0 ,. Initi all y, th e force of grav ity is not taken into account. The fl ow
is generated due to a di fference in press ure between the inl et secti on (at x = 0) and
the outl et secti on (at x = L) . On th e surfaces of both these sec ti ons, press ure is
ass umed to be uniform .

The boundary conditi ons fo r th e probl em are as foll ows:

- O n so lid wall s, the normal and tangenti al component s of th e fl ow ve loc it y

equal ze ro:

u ,(x,y = 1-/ ,z ) = 0 u,.(x,y = 1-/ ,z ) = 0 u z (x,y = 1-/ ,z ) = 0

ri 8al
u x(x,y = - 1-/ ,z ) = 0 u ,.(x . y = - 1-/ ,z) = 0 Uz (x,y = - 1-/ ,z ) = 0
 Local Equat ions of Fluid Mec hani cs II

- In the inl et and outl et secti ons, press ure is g iven as :

p(x = O,y, .::) = P1 p(x = L ,y,.:: ) = P2 r1 .8 bl

A steady, time- independent so luti on is what we intend. For th e pl ane Po iseuill e

fl ow, th e most obvi ous kin emati c simplificati on is to ass um e th e flow is
unidirecti onal (i.e. onl y the u, ve loc ity co mponent is non-ze ro). The second
simplifi cat ion is the ass umpti on that the u, ve loc ity co mponent is independent from
.:: (pl ane flow) . Lastly, it ca n be ass um ed intuiti ve ly th at u, is also independent from
x; however, thi s propert y is also influenced by incompress ibility. The structure of
th e fl ow is, therefore, simplifi ed by usi ng a so luti on in the form :

u , (l ') u ,.(x, y . .::) = 0 u;(.r,y, z) = 0 [ 1.9]

Based on all these assumpt ions, the three Nav ier- Stokes equati ons become
considera bl y simplifi ed:

[I. I OJ

The partial -deri vative sy mbo ls for press ure have been reta ined, but it is now
clear th at the pressure depends onl y on th e space coordinate x . The pressure is
uniform in any fl ow secti on th at is perpendicular to th e wa ll s. Th is property is
already ve rifi ed using the inl et and outl et bo undary condition s. Fo r a so luti on of
th e form:

p(x)
[ I . I I]

the prin c irl e of variable separati on leads to :

op d 2u ,
- = ;.1 - - = constan t [ I .12]
OX dy 2

The two success ive integration s, w ith ve loc ity boundary conditi o ns [ 1.8a, 1. 8b]
on th e side wa ll s, yield :

1 op { )
u , (l') = - - v- - H -)} [1.1 3]
. 2p ax -
I2 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineerin g

We hence obtain the wel l- known result that the velocity profil e for a Poiseuille fl ow
has a parabo li c shape.

The force exe rted by th e so lid wa ll on th e fluid is ca lculated usin g the stress
tensor. On th e upper wall ()' = H) , th e outward normal to the fluid domain is th e
vector, (0, I, 0). The force is ca lcu lated usin g eq uation [ 1.2] and th e de finiti on of the
stress tensor (Tabl e 1.1) for the ve locity fi eld [ 1.1 3] of the Poi se ui li e tl ow :

[ dF,
dF = dF, = ds
l [a,. a,Tl
O' n
O'"r.'

a .,., O' r: I = ds
f.1 ou , ( H )
0)'
- p(H) = ds
op H
OX
- p(f-1) [ 1.1 41
dF: (]' r: (]' = (]' :: 0 0 0

So luti on [ 1. 13] for the ve loc ity fie ld all ows th e force to be ex pressed as a function of
the press ure field onl y.

The Poiseuille so luti on illu strates seve ral important mechanical concepts,
including the following:

- The tlow is generated by the press ure grad ient :

[I. 15]

whi ch is negati ve when ? 1 > ? 2, making the tluid fl ow along the 0 , directi on. The
direct ion of the fl ow is opposi te to th at of the pressure gradient. The abso lute va lue
of the press ure grad ient is ca ll ed the regul ar head loss in side the pipe.

- The pressure is uniform in any plane that is perpendicu lar to th e direction

of th e flow. The very general character of thi s propert y is further di scussed in
Chapter 2.
- At th e so lid wall , th e tlow is subj ected to a friction force whose orientati on is
oppos ite to th e direction of th e fl ow. There ex ists a genera l relat ionship (equati on
[ 1. 14]) between the pressure gradi ent and the friction al stress. We discuss thi s
general relation ship Ill Chapter 2 also. The pressure gradi ent makes it poss ibl e to
overcome th e fri ction force and faci litates fluid flow.
 Local Equati ons of Fluid Mec hani cs 13

1.4. Nav ier- Stokes equations in cy lindrical coordinates: Poiseuille flow in a

circular cy lindrical pipe

The Poiseuill e flow in a circul ar cy lindrical pipe is determined in th e same

fas hi on as detail ed above. The main difference is the need to represent th e equations
in a cylindrical coordinate system, si nce the boundary conditions are most opt imum
in th at coordinate system . The equations are given in Tab le 1.2 , and Figure 1.3
indicates the way in whi ch a point Min space is located through th e di stance r to an
ax is 0 =. it s absc issa:: along that ax is, and th e ang le B. At th at point , the fl ow velocity
is determined by the components ( u,., u 0 , and u= ), represented on the basi s of the
three vecto rs e,. , e0 , e= indicated in the figure. Therefore , th e ve loc ity vector is:

[ 1.1 6]

The az imutal component u 8 accou nts for th e rotation of point M aro und the 0 =
ax is. The rad ial ve loc ity component u , , depending on its sign, transports a fluid
parti cle toward the 0 = axis or away from it. u z is ca ll ed ax ial compon ent. The strain
rate and stress tensors are written as:

[D,
[D] = ~.~
D,.u
Doo
Do=
D,
Do=
D::
l and [>:]f ;
r,.=
r,.o
IJOO

ro=
,l
ro=
IJ::
[ 1.17]

To describe th e steady tlow in a c ircular tube, we visua li ze ourse lves in a

cy lindrical coordinate system wherein the 0 =axis co incides with th e ax is of the pipe
(Figure 1.3). The rad iu s of the pipe is denoted by R.

D = 2R

Figure 1.3. Poiseuille laminarfloH in a circular cylindricaltuhe

14 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engin ee rin g

The relevant boundary conditi ons to such a situati on are:

- The ve loc ity is zero at the so lid wa ll of the tube

u, (r = R,B,::.) = 0 u 11 (r = R,B,::.) = 0 u0 (r = R,B,::.) = 0 [ 1.1 8a]

- In the inl et and outl et secti ons, the pressure is uniform:

p(r ,B,::. = 0) =!; p(r,B,::. = L) = ~ [ 1.1 Rb]

From a kinemat ic standpoint, th e simpl est is to ass ume th at the fl ow is

unidirect ional along th e 0 =direction. The ass umpti on of fl ow ax isymm et ry leads us
to emph as ize that u= does not depend on e.
Local formulation of the fund a mental law of mechanics:

b) = -O-fJ
lOUr OUr II() OUr OUr U
p --+ u,. - - + - - - + u_-- - -
01 or r ae - i3::. r

+-
I i3(rO"',.,)
or
I i3 r,.o
+---+--
i3 r,.0 O"'oo .
- - - + /,.
r or r ae az r

p { OU0 + II . OU0 + !!..!!._ OU() + II - Cll 0 + Ur II 0 } = _ ~ Op

cJI I c!r r ae - a::. r r ae
2
I o(r r,. 0 ) I oO"'r;o o rrt
+-? + - - - + - -+fo
r- c!r r ae i3z

01/ :! 011 = u 0 au : iJu: } ()p

p --+ u,. - - + - - - + 11 0 - - =--
{ ot or r ae 8::. D::.
l i3(rr ,. ) l 8 r0:: n O"':: .
+ - - -0- + - - - + - - + 1-
r or r ?e i3::. .-

Strain rate ten sor:

( ~r au,. auzJ
au,. + ,. ..!}_ ( uo )) au,. +
2- (
i3r ae ar r a::. or

[D] =-
I I i3uo
2 - -+-
u,. ) i3uo + ~ ?u: )
2 ( r ae r ( oz r ce
au0 +~ auz) 2- -
au_
( i3z r ae (' ::.
 Local Equations of Fluid Mechanics 15

Stress tensor for a Newtonian fluid :

- p+2p-- au,. I au,.

p[ ---+r-- a ( uo)) p -au,.- +auz )
ar r ae ar r ( az -ar-
[I]= p [ ---+
l ou,. r- a( -u0 )) - p+2p ( -1 au 0 +u,.
-- - ) p(auo + ~ auz)
/' ae ar /' r ae r az r ae
au,. au z ) au- + -I au zJ au_
- p + 2p---
p - 0 --
1-' (- - + - - (
az 01' az r ae az

Navier-Stokes equation:

aur u --+---+
p --+ aur u0 aur u -au--
r u~ ) =--
- op +!
1 ar r ar r ae z az r ar . r
2
+)~(~ o(ru,.) )+-J_a u ,. +a u,. __2__ auo)
2

l ar /' 01' r2 ae2 az 2 r 2 ae

p{--+ ouo -
ouo u,. --+ uo--+
oufJ u---+--
ouo u,. uo} =--I -+
op fo .
cr or r ae - az r r ae .
+)~(~ o(ru o))+-l_ a uo +a uo +_2__ au,. )
2 2

l or r or r
2
ae2 az2 r 2 ae
auz auz +-u --
auz auz} ap
{ ar + ar r ae + - az = -az - +(
I)
P -- U ,. - - U 7

.--
2

2
+ ph~(r auz
2
)+-1
o uz + o uz)
l r ar or ,. 2 ae2 az2
Continuity equation :

ap ap u 0 ap ap
- +u,.-+--+ u =0 2 -
at ar r ae az
Incompressibili ty :

Ia(ru,. ) + -I -au-o+ ou
- --
z
-- = 0
r ar r ae az
Table 1.2. Navier- Stokes.formulalion in a circular
cylindrical coordinare svslem (or an incornpressible fluid
16 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

e,.

Figure 1.4. Reference for !he pas ilion of'poinl Musing ils coordinu/es (r. (), z) in u
e,-, eo
()' /inc/rica/ Coordina /e syslem of axis 0 , and dejiniliOII (!f'VeCIOI'S and e,

Incompress ibility also signifies that u, does not depend on : either, whic h leads
to th e conservati on of the flow rate along the pipe. Therefore, we try a so luti on o f
th e form:

u,. = 0 uo = 0 [ 1.19)

Th e Po iseuille fl ow in a cy lindri ca l circul ar pipe is the so luti on of the set of

equati ons surrounded by a doubl e bar in Tabl e 1.2. With equati on [ 1. 19) , the
Nav ier- Stokes equat ions are simplifi ed into:

0 =- op
ar
o=- ap [ 1.20)
ae
0 =- ap + ,u.!.._i_{r du, }
a:: . /' dr dr

Variab le separati on between the pressure, whi ch depe nd s onl y on z, and the axia l
ve loc ity. whi ch depends onl y on r, leads to the foll ow in g results:

- The pressure is uniform in any tlow sec ti on that is perpendicu lar to th e

directi on of the tlow. with a regular head loss:

ap P2- A
- = - -- = constant [ 1.2 1]
az L
 Loca l Eq uati ons of Fluid Mec hani cs 17

- Th e ax ia l ve locity is such that:

1
u=(r) = - - r
ap 2
+A ln(r) + B [1 .22 ]
4JI az
The constant of integrati on, A, is ze ro so as to avo id an infinite ve loc ity va lu e o n
th e pipe ax is. Th e integrati o n consta nt B ensures that th e ve loc ity is zero at the wa ll.
C onsequ e ntl y:

[ 1.23]

- In the case fo r the pla ne Poi seuill e fl ow , the stress exerted by the wall o n the
fluid is linked to th e press ure g radi ent:

di [ dF,

dF=
l[
= dFo = ds r,.o
~.,
r ,.=
r,.o
0'()0

T()z
,,
TO=
(J' zz
][']
0 = ds
0
- p( R)
0
8p R
[ 1.24]

az 2

T hi s is al so ca lculated fo r the cylindri ca l coordinate system us ing equation [ 1. 2]

and the stress te nso r (T able I .2) for th e ve locity fi e ld [ 1.23 ] of the Po iseuille fl ow in
a circ ul a r pipe.

-- T he fl ow rate va ri es lin earl y w ith the pressure gradie nt:

r21T rR 7r ap
Q = .b d B.b Uz(r)rdr = - - - R 4 [1. 25 ]
8p az

1.5. Plan e Cou ette flow

For the Po iseuill e fl ow presented in the prev io us two sectio ns, th e fl ow was
indu ced b y a pressure diffe rence appli ed betwee n the tw o ends o f a straight pipe.
The pl ane Couette fl ow makes it poss ibl e to study the way how a force is appli ed
to move a so li d wa ll , w ith out pushing the fluid in contac t with the wall , and can
ge nerate a fl ow du e to v iscos ity . The fluid is held betwee n two pa ra lle l plates o f
in fi nite le ng th (F igure 1.5). O ne o f the pl ates, at z = 0 , is kept stati o nary. The oth er
18 Fluid Mec hanics for Chemi ca l Enginee rin g

pl ate (z = H ) is subj ected to a fo rce by one surfa ce r_, along the 0 , direc ti on. Thi s
pl ate is set in moti on and the Ouid between th e two pl ates, if it adh eres to the wa ll . is
entrained in the 0 , directi on due to fri cti on between the laye rs of fluid . We w ish to
determin e the profil e of th e now and the link between the appli ed fo rce and the
ve loc ity of th e fluid . Such a co nfi gurati on has an appli cati on in rh eo metry. as we
di sc uss in Chapter 7.

-
dF = r,dsi
-

p=O p =O
L

0 +----"------------....J---~x

Figure 1.5. Plane lam inar Coue11ejlow

Along the lin es of simil ar kinemati c ass umpti ons as with Poise uill e tl ows, and
using incompress ibility, one is naturall y inclined to have a unidirec ti onal fl ow a long
the Ox directi on, in the form:

u , (z) u , (x ,y, z ) = 0 [ 1.26]

Nav ier- Stokes equati ons now simpli fy into:

ap
0 =--+ p---
d 2 ux
ax dz 2
O=- op [1 .27]
a.v
O=- ap
az
j
 Local Equations of Fluid Mechani cs 19

If no press ure gradient is operati onal along the 0 , direction, the pressure is
uniform in th e entire fluid domain , and consequentl y has no dynami c role. This
hence leads to:

u , (.:) = Az [1. 28 ]

The ve loc ity is zero at the lower wa ll . The constant of integrati on, A, is
determin ed by the force exert ed on the wa ll . Th at force is calc ul ated by using
(eq uati on [ I .2)) and representin g the terms o-r:, a-,=, and a-== in the stress tensor
(Table 1. 1) as a function of the velocity fie ld (eq uation s [ 1.26] and ( 1.28 )), taking
into acco unt th e fact that the normal to the wa ll is oriented along the 0 = directi on.
We hence obtain :

elF =
[
cJ.P,
dF,.
elF;
l [O".u
= ds a-.:..
O".r:
O"xr
a-,,.
a-,.;
a- ,.
a- ,=
a-==
][O
0 J= ds [
I
pA
0
- p(H)
l[ l
= ds r,0
- p(H)
[ 1.29]

application of the frictional force (F igure 1. 1) to th e upper wall leads to:

r,
ll x(.:) = _:_ z [ 1.30]
}I

Thi s is the profile of the plane Couette flow. If a pressure grad ient is app li ed
along the Ox direction , a plane Poiseuill e-ty pe so luti on (equation [ 1.13)) is
superimposed onto the Co uene fl ow [ 1.30] .

1.6. The boundary laye r concept

The boundary layer concept is introduced when dealin g with a tl ow where the
effect 0f viscos ity is confined to the vicinity of solid walls . Such case is obtained
when th e flow ' s Reynolds number (introduced in Chapter 3) is sufficiently large .

Under these conditions, outside the boundary layer, th e effect of viscos ity IS
neg li gibl e.

The simple st boundary layer case is depicted in Figure 1.6(a). A uniform flow
arri ves in th e 0 , direction onto a semi -infinite flat that is parallel to the direction
of th e flow (half-plane z = 0, x > L) . For x < L, th e ve locity is ind ependent from
any spa ce coordinate (ux(x, y, z) = U). If th e fluid adheres to the wa ll , the ve locity
20 Flu id Mec hanics for Chemical Engineering

w ill necessa rily beco me zero on th e pl ate (u ,(x, y, 0) = 0 for .r > L). In th e vic inity
o f th e pl ate, v iscos ity gradu all y slows th e fluid dow n as the di stance fro m th e
leadin g edge in creases (thi s is th e (x = L, z = 0) lin e) in th e x > 0 directi on. Two
bound ary layers deve lop and thi cken on eith er side of the pl ate when x in crea ses.
O utsid e th e bo undary laye r, th e fl ow is not affected by th e pl ate, whereas a
ve loc ity grad ie nt ex ists within th e boundary layer. The bound ary laye r thi ck ness.
de noted by c){x ). is zero at th e leadin g edge (x = L) and in creases gradu all y when x
mcrea ses.

(c) Bounda r y layer in a

.r= L di ve rgent pipe: PH > l'11
(a ) Boundary layer on a n at plat e

(b) Boundary layer in a (d ) Bounda ry layer separation in a

con ve r gent pipe: I' H < !'A divergent pipe: PH > PA

Figure 1.6. Bound01 y layers in a.flo v along a solid wall. Th e houndwT lm'er zone is
delineated b_l' the dashed lines and its inside is shaded

Th e bound ary layer concept is form ali zed when the thi ckness (y of th e boundary
layer is small compared to th e geometri ca l dimensions of th e zone of th e fl ow th at
li es outside the boundary layer. Apart from th e case (F igure 1.6(d)) where th e
boundary layer separates from th e wa ll , the draw in gs of Figure 1.6 are di storted
represe ntati ons where the boundary laye r thi ckness is exaggerated to show the in side
of the boundary layer. The actual boundary layer thickness is very small compared
 Loca l Equa ti ons of Fluid Mechani cs 21

to th e ex tent of the fl ow along 0 =, in th e fl at pl ate case (F igure 1.6(a)), or to th e

width of the pipe (Fi gures 1. 6( b) and 1.6(c)).

T he main res ult from boundary laye r theory (not deri ved herein ) is that the
pressure in side a boundary layer is equal to the press ure that preva il s outside th at
boun dary layer. Thi s translates math emati ca ll y into the fac t that the pressure
gradi ent along the normal directi on to the wa ll is zero inside the boundary laye r:

aP = O [ 1.31 ]
011

In th e case of a fl at pl ate bou ndary layer (Figure 1.6(a)), thi s equation is written
as 3P I oz = 0. It can be in fe rred from this that the press ure re main s constant
th roug hout the flui d, including inside the boundary layer.

For th e co nfig urat ions ill ustrated in Figures 1.6(b) and 1.6(c), the press ure is not
constant within th e fluid fl ow outside the boundary layer. In side a convergent pipe,
the press ure dec reases when one fo llows a particle in its movement ( P8 < PA) as
stated by Bernoulli 's theorem (Chapter 2). Th e press ure decreases in th e same
mann er in side th e boundary layer. In a di vergent pipe, the effec t is reversed. Th e
press ure increases when fo ll ow ing the partic le along its movement , in the fluid fl ow
outside the boundary layer as we ll as in side the boundary layer ( P8 > PA ). Thi s is
referred to as a boundary laye r subj ected to an "adverse pressure gradi ent. " The
more qui ckl y the di vergent widens, the more intense th e adverse pressure gradi ent to
whi ch the boundary layer is subjected. When the adverse pressure gradient is too
stro ng, thi s leads to th e ph enomenon of boundary layer separation (F igure 1.6(d)),
whi ch we describe in Chapter 4. Thi s produces, in th e vicinity of the wa ll s, a zone
that is stirred by turbul ent motion but without an average fl ow rate. Thi s is no longer
a bo undary laye r, as its thi ckness has become much larger. In Chapter 4. we return
to the essenti al diffe rences between fl ows in convergent and di vergent pipes, and to
the effects of cross-secti onal changes.

The property (eq uati on [ 1.3 1]) of boundary layers regarding the pressure
grad ient is o f th e same nature as the property of pressure uni for mi ty in pl anes
pe rpendi cul ar to the fl ow di recti on, whi ch was observed for the Po iseuill e and
Couette so luti ons. Figure 1.6(a) shows that the boundary layer thi ckn ess on a fl at
pl ate grows with increas ing va lues of x. At a suffi cient di stance from the inl et of a
pipe, th e boundary layer thi ckness eventuall y exceeds the di ameter of the pipe. The
fl ow reverts to the Poiseuille type so luti on presented prev iously, if th e Reynolds
num ber is suffi cientl y low to all ow the fl ow to remain laminar. Such tl ows are
termed "establi shed laminar fl ows" or "deve loped fl ows", as the ve loc ity fi e ld does
not change any more when trave lin g downstream in the pipe, because the boundary
22 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemi ca l Engineering

layers have spread enough to establi sh ve loc ity gradi ent s ac ross the whole width
o f the pipe.

Rega rding boundary layers, we limit ourse lves in thi s boo k to di scuss in g th e
essenti al prope rt y of boundary laye rs relatin g to the pressure field (equati on [ 1. 3 1]).
The boundary layers on th e surface of a so lid wall or at th e interface betwee n two
fluid s with different properti es (e.g. tluids of di ffe rent densiti es or viscos iti es. or
non-mi sc ibl e fluid s) pl ay a key role in quanti fy ing transfe rs of mass , heat. or
momentum. It is at flui d/fluid or fluid/wa ll boundari es th at transfers betwee n medi a
with different characteri sti cs need to be dete rmined, whi ch necessa ril y in vo lves
boundary layers. It is, therefore, paradox ica l not to di sc uss boundary layer
ph enomena furth er in a book intended to be used by process engineering spec iali sts.
We refer th e readers to books dedi cated to transfer ph enomena,4 where they will lind
a deta il ed desc ripti on of boundary layer processes, in connecti on with interface
transfer problems.

1.7. Solutions of Navier-Stokes equations where a gravity field is prese nt,

hydrostatic pressure

The simpl e so luti ons just described are onl y sli ghtl y mod ifi ed when the grav ity
fi eld is added as a body force . The kinematic s of the fl ow remain unchanged. Onl y
th e press ure f~ e ld is altered to incorporate th e effect of grav ity. Let us consider that
the acceleration due to grav ity has an arbitrary direction in th e Cartes ian coordinate
system ( 0 , x , y, z) in which the tl ow is desc ribed. The body force is written as:

[
f, l [pga:
f , = pgj] = p g
!: pg y
where in a 2 + /] 2 +y 2 = 1 [ 1.32]

(a,/], anq y) are the co mponent s of one vector along whi ch grav ity is orientated.

4 In parti cul ar, the essenti al book, Transfer Phenomena , by R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and
E.N. Lightfoot, (Jo hn Wil ey & Sons Inc. , 2nd Editi on, 2002) and th e recent book,
Phenomenes de 1ransjerl en genie des procedes by J.P. Couderc, C. Go urd on, and A. Line
(Lavo isier, 2008). A di scussion of bound ary laye r fl ows is also give n by L.D. Landau and
E. M. Lifshitz, Fluid Mechanics (2 nd Ed ition, Butterworth-Heinemann , 1987), and by G. K.
Batchelor. An lntroducrion ro Fluid Mechanics (Cambrid ge University Press, 1967).
 Local Equations of Fl uid Mechanics 23

When the fluid is incompressible and its mass den sity is unifo rm , Nav ie r- Sto kes
equations can be written by introducing the grav ity terms into th e press ure g rad ie nt :

aux au , aux aux}- a(p - pgax)

p { --+ u , - + ll r-+Uz- -- + pf3.U x
at ax . a)l az ax

[1 .33 ]

au: . au: au: au:}- a(p - pg yz )

p { --+ u , - + u r-+ U: - -- +pt<,.u:
at ax . ay az az

The so luti o n to the problem is there fore th e sa me as the one establi shed
previously . prov ided the pressure pis repl aced at any point M with the qua ntity:

p '(x) = p(x,y,z )- p(g OM)= p(x,y,z) - pg {ax+ ,By+ yz} [ 1. 34]

= constant P2 = pCr~ = L. y, z) - p(ii,.O M 2 )

- H _:._ _______ _ =cons): am

Figure I. 7. Plane Poiseuille flow occounting.for the gravity field

24 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

In Fi gure 1.7, the modifi cati ons brought about by grav ity in the case of a pl ane
Poiseuill e fl ow are depicted. The pipe is inclined within the grav ity fi eld 5 Nav ier-
Stokes eq uati ons in directi ons 0 , and 0 = now red uce to:

a(p - pgj]y) = a(p - pg(ax+fJv +rz )) = 0

oy ay
[ 1.35 ]
8( p - pgj]y ) = 8( p - pg(ax + j] y + yz)) =
0
a:: az
Equati ons [ 1.34] and [ 1.35] in vo lve the hydrostati c press ure:

Ph1 d (x ,y, z) = p(g OM) = pg{ax+ j]y + yz} [ 1.36]

whic h is defi ned with respect to a reference point 0, where it is take n to be zero.
The quantity p' (equati on [ 1.34]) is, at any point , the di ffe rence between the actual
press ure and the hydrostati c press ure. It is uniform in any pl ane th at is perpend icul ar
to the fl ow directi on (Fi gure 1.7), and onl y vari es with x. The ve loc ity profil e in th e
pipe retain s th e sa me shape, since:

u , (y) = - 1 8(p - phni ){y ~- H 2 } [ 1.37]

. 2ji ax .

The regul a r head loss whi ch generates th e tl ow is:

8p' () (p - p'"" ) P' 2- P 't

[ 1.38]
ax ax L

where P' 1 and P'2 are defin ed in Fi gure I.7.

In many cases. the pro bl em is indeed simplifi ed by introducing the grav ity term
into th e press ure term . Th at is equi va lent to subtracting th e hydrostati c pressure
from the press ure value meas ured or cal cul ated at any point. It should , however, be
recall ed th at we introduced th e gravity term into the pressure term und er th e
ass umpti on th at the mass density of the fluid is homogeneo us within the domain .

5 Attent ion should be paid to th e notati ons for coordin ate systems: here, th e 0 : directi on is not
the vertica l direc ti on related to th e grav ity fi eld, as it is often defin ed, but rath er a directi on
related to th e ax is of th e pipe. It is not possibi e here to write p '=p +pgz ..
 Local Equations of Fluid Mec hanics 25

T hat is no lo nge r th e case whe n a tw o-phase fl ow (air- water fl ow, free-surface fl ow )

is cons ide red. Fo r a two-ph ase fl ow , it is ty pi ca ll y not wo rth w hil e to cons ide r
int ro du c in g grav ity into the pressure term , a lth oug h thi s could in theory be do ne
in eac h phase separate ly. Thi s wo uld compli cate th e process o f w ritin g o ut th e
bo undary co nditi o ns at the inte rface betwee n the fluid s.

1.8. Buoya ncy force

T he bu oyancy fo rce is the res ultant o f hydrostati c pressure forces exerted on a

doma in V, under the acti o n of grav ity, by th e surro undin g fluid . In the absence o f
flow , the press ure inside the fluid is th e hyd rostatic pressure, p'""' assoc iated with
the we ig ht of th e wa ter co lumn . Nav ier- Sto kes equati ons now redu ce to:

- \lp!nd + pg = 0 [1 .39 ]

The res ultant o f the pressure fi e ld exerted by the fluid o n doma in V is:

R=- ff Phdl1d\" [ 1.40]

s
S is the c losed surface surroundin g V and ii is th e o utward norma l to the do ma in
o n that surface (F igure 1. 1). Fo ll ow in g Ostrogradsky's theore m, a nd the n usin g
(equati o n [ 1.39]), we arri ve at:

[ 1.41]
s I'
,.
We recover the buoyancy fo rce:

R= -p g JfJd v [ 1.42]
v

w hose mag nitude equal s th e we ig ht o f the liquid vo lume di splaced by th e so lid body
a nd w hose orientati on is oppos ite to th e directi o n o f grav ity . Thus, th e buoyancy
fo rce corresponds to the integra l o f hydrostati c pressure forces exerted o n a vo lume
by the fluid located o utside that vo lume.

It is important to establi sh the link between buoyancy force and hydrostati c

pressure. The fo rces exerted by the movement o f a fluid on an obj ect conta ined in that
fluid are in most cases ca lculated using press ure p', whi ch is the difference between
the absolute and hydrostati c pressures (equati on [I .34 ]). The force ca lcul ated by
integrating the press ure fi e ld, p ', across the surface o f the object is the one produced
26 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi cal Engineering

by the fluid fl ow ing around the obj ect. It has a very clear point. The grav ity Ioree
exerted on th e obj ect, whi ch then has to be taken into account, is the di fference
between the we ight of the obj ect and the buoyancy force applied to the obj ect.

1.9. Some conclusions on the so lutions of Navier- Stokes equations

The three exact so luti ons of Nav ier- Stokes equati ons presented in thi s chapter
have all owed us to fa mili ari ze ourse lves with Nav ier- Stokes equati ons and to use
the concept of stress for a New tonian fluid. Th ey also illustrate simpl e properti es
regardin g pressure di stributi on within the fl ows.

One may reca ll the approac h empl oyed to estab li sh th ese three so luti ons, by
making ass umpti ons about th e kinemati cs of th e fl ow to simpli fy the system of
differenti al eq uati ons to be so lved. In fact , we have merely checked that such
so lu tions ve ri fy Nav ier- Stokes eq uat ions and th e boundary conditi ons for each of
th e probl ems co nsidered.

There are a few analyti ca l so luti ons to Nav ier- Stokes equati ons. Thi s ex plains
why so lving Nav ier- Stokes eq uati ons numerica ll y has beco me a di sc iplin e per se in
the field of fluid mec hani cs. However, notion of a "so luti on to Nav ier- Stokes
eq uati ons" ca ll s for further discuss ion.

Fo r th e three so luti ons prese nted in thi s chapter, ca n we assert that these are "the
ri ght so luti ons?" From a math emati ca l standpoint , it co uld be argued th at th ese are
exact so luti ons to Navier- Stokes equati ons, sin ce they veri fy them and also verify
th e bo undary conditi ons. Nonetheless, we ca nn ot assert that these are necessaril y the
ones the ex perimenter will observe , eve n when ac hi ev in g the ex periment with the
hi ghest ca re.

It is poss ible to offer a simpl e ex planation to r thi s ap parent paradox. To obtain

the so luti ons described in thi s chapter, we have ass umed th e fl ow to be steady. In
rea lit y, the fl ow remain s steady onl y if it is stab le. Th e ex perim en!er cann ot avo id
the superimpos itio n of small di sturbances onto the fl ow. Wh en the fl ow is stab le,
such small di sturbances will fade out in time, thu s always reve rting to th e steady-
state so luti on. The fl ow is un stabl e when fl ow co nditi ons are such that so me
disturbances may grow in time and end up altering th e fl ow altogether. In th at
case, Nav ier- Stokes so luti ons cannot rema in steady for the se lected ex perimental
conditi ons. Thus, in the case of th e fl ow in side a ci rcul ar cy lindri ca l pipe, it is found
that the Poiseuill e so luti on describes the flow adequate ly when th e fl ow rate is
suffi cientl y low. On the other hand , when it exceeds a certain value, the ve loc ity
field does not remain steady. This is the initial idea that helps one to understand why
a fl ow becomes turbul ent.
 Local Equati ons of Fluid Mechanics 27

A conclu sion of the above di scuss ion is that ex press ing an exac t so lution to
Nav ier- Stokes eq uati ons is not suffi cient in itse lf. One also needs to be abl e to
demo nstrate , with all necessary ri gor, th at thi s so lut ion is stabl e under the condition s
co nsidered. Thi s requires mastering th e th eory of in stab ili ty in fluid fl ows 6

We mi ght consider th at we have tri ed everythin g to discourage the reader findin g

exact so luti ons to Navier- Stokes equati ons. Thi s is not true, although we did wish to
show so me of th e limitations in vo lved in this regard. In the following chapters, we
also introduce some too ls for treati ng problems of fluid mec hanics with out exp lic itl y
so lvi ng Nav ier- Stokes eq uat ions.

6 Besides the famous book by S Chandrasek.har (Hydrodvnamics and hydrornagnelic

stabilitv , Dover Publication s, 196 1), we recommend the introdu ctary chapters in the books by
P.G . Drazin (Hydrodynam ic in/ability , Cambridge Un ivers ity Press, 198 1) and F. Charru
(!nstubilites hydrodynamiques, ED P Sc iences, 2007).
 Chapter 2

Global Theorems of Fluid Mechanics

Fo r ma ny a pplicati o ns, it is no t necessa ry to have a deta il ed kn ow ledge of th e

fl ow at a ll points in the do m a in . Globa l conservatio n re la ti o ns e nab le e ng ineers to
determine th e main c ha rac teri stics o f a fl ow. For in sta nce, they prov ide c lues abo ut
pressure c ha nges induced in a fl ow ing fluid a nd e nab le the ca lc ul at io n of forces
o n walls in contact with the fluid . They a lso he lp in estimating the head losses
ge nerated in some flows . Using these prin c ipl es, some o f th e re lation s establi shed in
Chapte r I whi le so lving th e loca l Navier- Stokes equation s will be reso lved .

It is esse nti a l for an e ng inee r to ha ndl e g lo bal th eorem s. Gene ra ll y spea kin g, thi s
c hapter is devoted to the g loba l conserva ti o n of mass, mo mentum , a nd energy. As
far as the notion of conserva tion is conce rned , these three quantities a re interpre ted
differently:
- Mass is necessaril y conserved . T hi s no ti on is art ic ul ated in thi s c hapter thro ugh
fl ow ra te co nse rvat io n relations.
- The co nserva ti o n of mo me ntum is more co mpl ex. In a s tead y state,
cons ide rin g a fluid do mai n, th e mo me ntum flu x leav in g th e do ma in equal s
th a t en te rin g the do main , if no fo rce is exe rted a t th e do main boundaries. The
mome ntum th eore m enables the eva lu a ti o n of th e fo rces exerted by a flow on a
wa ll , or the es timati o n of th e g lo bal hea d loss produ ced in a vo lum e, de pe nding on
th e circ um sta nces.
- The not ion of e nergy conservati o n is more subtl e. Bernoulli ' s th eore m
e mbodi es a n energy conservati o n prin c ipl e that proves quite use ful in linking
pressure changes to ve loc ity cha nges. In rea l fluid s, however, the assumption o f
e nergy co nserva ti o n cannot be made that eas il y. The conserva ti o n of e nergy depend s
not onl y o n viscos ity, but a lso o n th e structure o f fl o ws. The fl ow mi g ht strongl y
30 Fluid Mecha ni cs for Chemi ca l Enginee rin g

di ss ipate energy in certain areas, and negli gibl y in others. By introducin g th e kinetic
energy ba lan ce in secti on 2.8. th e ph ys ica l principle that causes the di ss ipati on o f
kinetic ene rgy is ex plicitl y set out.

For simpli city, all derivati ons in thi s chapter ass ume an incompress ibl e tluid and
homogeneous mass density.

2.1. Euler equations in an intrinsic coordinate system

The Eul er eq uati ons are the eq uat ions of motion for an idea l tluid , that is. an
in visc id tluid. They are eas il y deduced from th e Nav ier--Stokes eq uati ons, simpl y by
omittin g th e viscous term s.

Genera l pro perties of the pressure tl eld come to the fore when th e Eul er
equat ions are written in an intrin sic coordin ate system. Such a formulation is
espec iall y helpful when the tlow is steady. In th at case, the strea mlines and particle
paths are th e same curved lin es.

The intrinsic coordinate system is assoc iated with the path of a parti cle.
Considering a point M in the tluid that moves in time, its path follows the curve
OM(t). The movement of the parti cle along its path can be characterized by th e
variation in time of its curv ilinear abscissa, which is denoted by s(l); thi s is actuall y the
di stance trave lled along that line from an original pos iti on M0 , as a function of time.

R g

c
Figure 2. 1. Definilion oj'1he imrinsic coordinale S\'Slem associuled vilh !he pa!h
of afluid purl iclefor u s1eudr p/aneflo~<

Some noti ons of differential geometry are necessary to prove what follows.
So th ese can be recollected without provin g them. If the pos iti on of point M is
 Global Theorems of Fluid Mec hanics 31

desc ribed by its curvilinea r absc issa, it is establi shed that:

dOM -
--= ! [2. 1]
ds

at M, the unit vector tangent to the path . Th e normal vector n, direc ted toward the
in side of the curve, is such that:

dt n
[2 .2]
ds R

where R is the radius of curvatu re of the path at point M, whil e its ce nter of
cu rva ture is located at C.

At every point M, th e intrin sic coo rdinate system compri ses the unit vectors I
and n. It is important beca use ve loc ity is tangential to th e path :

V = Vi" [2.3]
1
In the intrin sic coo rdin ate system, the Eul er equati ons for a steady fl ow are
written along th e tangenti al and normal directi ons, respecti ve ly, as:

pV av = f, _ ap [2.4a]
as . cs
V2 ap
p--- = f, , - - [2.4b l
R an
where .f, and .f;, are th e two co mponents of body forces, e.g. we ight. Prov ing th ese
two equati ons is not very crucia l. However, the globa l theo rems that stem from these
equati ons and the assumpti ons they require are worth y of further di sc uss ion. Th e
first equati on [2.4a] leads to Bernoulli ' s theorem. The second equa ti on [2.4b]
enab les the derivati on of im portant res ults on press ure changes around a point.

2.2. Bernoulli's theorem

If it is considered th at the body fo rce is the we ight, th en it ca n be written as

] = - pgk , introducin g a Ca rtesian coordinate system (0,/ ,],k) , wherein k is the
unit vector oppos ite to the directi on of th e grav ity fo rce (Figure 2. 1). The definiti on

I Here, we simpli fy the case of a fl ow within a plane.

32 Flu id Mec hanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

of the intrin sic coordinate system then leads to:

- - - dOM d(k OM ) d(pg.: )

I = - pgk I = - pgk - - = - pg ----'---- ---- [2 .5]
ds ds ds

where .: denotes th e pos iti on of point M along th e k ax is of the fi xed coo rdinate
system (not in th e intrinsic coordinate system). By substitutin g (equati on [2.5 ]) into
the tlrst Eul er equati on [2.4a], we obtain:

-a {pv-
' + pg.: + p } = 0 [2 .6]
as 2

For a fl ow within the grav ity fie ld , the quantity:

vz
H = p - + pgz+ p [2.7 ]
2

is referred to as th e "head" of the fl ow. It quantifi es the energy or the fl ow per un it

vo lume. 2 Its dimension is kg m 1 s 2 Relati on f2.6] means th at th e head is conse rved
along a path in a steady fl ow. Thi s statement constitutes Bern oulli 's theorem. In
equ ati on [2. 7], three fo rm s of energy are recogni zed: kineti c, potenti al, and pressure.

c
Figure 2.2. Application a/B ernoulli's theorem along a streamline

Thi s deri vation of Bernoulli ' s theorem is quite int erestin g beca use it requires
onl y the fo ll ow ing assumpti ons: th e fluid should be idea l and th e flow must be
steady. It is essenti al to bea r in mind that in order to appl y Bern oulli 's theo rem th e

2 The term " head" oft en refers to th e qu anti ty Hl pg, wh ich is homogeneo us to a length .
Th is quantit y is conve nientl y used when press ure changes are measured as wa ter heights.
Our definiti on is closer to th e noti on of energy. Either of th ese can be used, prov ided th at
consistency is maintained throughout.
 Globa l Theorems of Fluid Mechanics 33

path between two points in the fl ow needs to be known . The energy va lue is not
necessaril y identi ca l al ong two different streamlines. There is no se nse in using
Bernoulli 's th eo rem if th e two points between whi ch it is being appli ed are clea rl y
not located on a comm on streamline . Thi s is illustrated in Fi gure 2.2, which is a
sketch of the flow in an enclosure, wherein a fluid enters through secti on Se and ex its
through secti on S,. Strict ly, Bernoulli 's theorem can only link energy between pairs
of point s (A e, A,) and (Be, BJ, if the strea mlines are we ll determined . In practice, th e
head is often uniform in the inl et secti on and is eq ual to the outl et head since the
partic les th at come in are th e ones th at come out . However, there is no reason for
th e head at point C, whi ch is located in a cav ity where rec irculat ion occurs, to be
eq ual to the inl et head, as point C ca nnot be connected by a strea mline to any point
in th e inl et secti on.

Anoth er fo rmul ation of Bernoulli 's th eo rem ex ists when the fl ow is irrotational
( i. e. the curl of the ve locity is zero at every point in the domain). This all ows
ap pli cati on to unsteady fl ows such as th e propagation of waves on the sea. For a
steady, irrotational tlow , the head is th e same at every point in the domain , and it is
no longer necessary to check that the two points between which Bernoulli 's theorem
is being app li ed are co nn ected by a strea mline. However, the assumption of an
irrotational flow is a substantia l restricti on; it prec ludes th e reci rcul at ion depicted in
Figure 2.2, for which th e probl em posed for the applicati on of Bernoulli 's theorem
was already indicated.

2.3. Pressure variation in a direction normal to a streamline

If Eul er's equati on [2.4b] is considered along unit normal vector n , so me si mpl e
and use ful properti es regarding the pressure field can be established for a steady
fl ow in two cases.

In the absence of gravity: pres.sure variation in a direction perpendicular to a

curved streamline

If the grav ity force is omitted, equati on [2.4b] redu ces to:

V2 ap
p -= -- [2.8]
R 8n

When th e parti cle path has finite curvat ure, si nce the normal vector is orient ed
toward th e inside of the curve (F igure 2. 1), the pressure in creases from the inside to
th e outside of the curve.
34 Fluid Mechanic s for Chemica l Engineerin g

0
u

p~Hm

p t: IHl l aLt < Palm

Figure 2.3. 11/uslralion o[lhe ej{eCI o{slreamline C/11'\ 'a/llre on lite pressure.field.
The liquidflow e.rr!rls a fo rce F; on !he com c.rface of a scoop

The co ncept of centrifuga l force li es behind thi s noti on. Thi s effect ca n be
demonstrated simpl y by placin g the back of a scoop in the jet of an ope n tap
(F igure 2.3 ). Due to the curvature of the scoop, the press ure decreases in side th e jet
fo ll ow ing a line directed radia ll y along n. Since at mosph eric pressure preva il s at
th e water- air interface, th e pressure at the co ntact surface between th e liquid and th e
scoo p (dashed lin e) is lower than th e atmospheric pressure. The integra l of pressure
forces actin g on th e scoo p ge nerates a force, /~ , since the atmosph eri c pressure
appli es on the periph ery of th e scoop , except for the da shed- line liquid/scoop
co nt act surface where th e pressure is lower. If th e scoop is held rotatabl y by an ax is
go ing through 0 , force f'... reduces th e torque that needs to be appli ed in order to
mainta in the inclination of th e scoop in the grav ity ne ld . The pressure gradi ent is
proporti onal to the squared ve loc ity (equa ti on [2.8]). Thi s effec t ca n be fe lt manuall y
if th e jet fl ows sufn ciently fa st and th e radius o f curvature of th e scoo p is
suffi c ientl y small.

In the presence ofgravity: hydrostatic pressure distribution in a parallel flow

Co nsiderin g the case where gravity is taken into account , it is assu med that th e
movement occ urs in a verti cal plane containing the 0 : ax is. For a pa rall el fl ow.
R = oo, therefore equati on [2.4b] becomes:

. cp - - (l p
0 = f/1 --::;- = - pgk. 11 - - [2. 9]
0 11 iln
 Globa l Theorem s of Fluid Mechanics 35

, II

Figure 2.4. Representation of the imrinsic coordinate svstem in the vicinitr o{

a poim around which the /lOll' is parallel

Let us consider a point M in th e vicinity of M, as depicted in Figure 2.4.

Denoting with 1 and n its coordinates in the intrin sic coordinate system ( 1 , n), it
can be written as:

MM' = I t+ nn [2 .1 0]

Us in g the notation: for th e coordin ate of M along the grav ity axis , k , it can also be
written as:

: = k MM' = I (t k) + n (n k) [2. I I]

The dot products (t k) and (i7 k) are the cosines of the angles between I and k ,
and between n and k , respectively. Since the direction of the tlow is known and
the fl ow is parall el, the unit vectors of the intrinsic coordinate system I and n at M
are the sa me as the ones at !vi', the angles are identical at any point near M, and
conseq uentl y, it can be written as :

o::: at - -
- = - (!
acl -k)+ -an ( nk
k) + l -
- - acn. k) -
)+n - - = (i1k) [2 . 12]
011 on an an an

Eq uat ion [2.9] is therefore transformed into:

- _ op a
0 = - pgk n - - = - - {pgz+ p} [2 . 13]
an on
36 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineering

Thi s eq uati on can be int egrated in any pl ane that is perpendicular to the direction
of the flow . yieldin g:

p(M ') + pg {::(M ') - ::(M) } = p(M ') - pg MM' = p(M) [2.14]

for two points M and M located in the same planeS 11 perpendi cular to the direct ion of
the fl ow. The constant of integration is the pressure at M Relation [2. 14] makes it
possible to determin e the pressure at any point in plane 5 11 if the pressure at a poi nt
within that pl ane is known. This property i very use ful and will be frequently referred
to. It enabl es the determin ati on of the pressure ti eld at any point in a parallel fl ow.

Relati on [2 . 14] means th at, for a parall el fl ow. th e pressu re vari ati on 1s
hydrostati c in any plan e perpendi cul ar to the directi on of th e fl ow. This property has
already been hi ghli ghted for a Poise uill e tlow within the grav ity ti eld (Chapter I.
secti on 1.7). It can be seen here th at thi s property is much more genera L

2.4. Momentum theorem

Co nsider a domain. D, bounded by a closed surface, S (F igure 2.5). Some

portion s o f th e surface , denoted by S,. are so lid wa ll s, whi ch do not permit flui d fl ow
and th e ve loci ty of the fluid mu st be parall el to th e wa iL Other porti ons of th e
surface S" are virtual surfaces within th e fluid , whi ch may all ow fl ow through them.
At any point M on surfaceS, th e vector n is the normal vector to surfaceS ori ented
toward th e outside of th e domain .

Figure 2.5. Mo ment/Ill/ theorem. Definition ofa closed vo lume. D. o{its em elope ha 1ing
solid swj(,ces S, (sol id lines} and thm ughf/rm s/1/ faces S" (dashed lines}. and
of the normal oriented toll'ard the outside of the domain
 Globa l Theorems of Fluid Mechanics 37

To exp lain th e momentum theorem, it is assumed that the tlow is steady and this
is th e onl y necessa ry assumpti on. It is by no means necessary for the fluid to be
ideal, or even for th e fluid 's rh eo logy to be Newtonian 3

The momentum theorem is establi shed by integratin g the loca l equati ons of
motion on domain D, given in Chapter I, which are written so as to ex hibit the stress
deviator. I' (the fluid is not necessaril y Newtonian) . We then obtain:

fJ p(U ii)Uds =- fJ pnds + ffJ Fdv + fJ I'i1ds [2 . 15]

s s D s

This expression exh ibits different term s, wh ich correspond to balances on the
whole of vo lum e D or on surface S. The term on the left-hand side is the flux (or
flow rate) oj"momentum through surfaceS. This is only non-ze ro on th e portions of
surface S" through whi ch some flow occurs. Two contributi ons should be
distinguished wi thin the pressure term (the first term on the right-hand side): the
integral over th e throughflow surfaces S" and that over so lid surfaces S,. On so lid
surfaces , we have:

Jf pnds = i? [2. 16]

s.

whi ch is the integral of th e normal force exerted by the fluid on the so li d wa ll.

The integral of body forces is the total weight of the fluid contained in si de the
domain , if grav ity is the body force.

The integral of the stress deviator on surfaceS (last term in eq uati on [2.14]) is
the friction force exerted by the outside on th e fluid, through the flow surfaces S",
and on the so li d surfaces S,.. In man y cases, the friction force exerted through the
fl ow surfaces is eq ual to zero. This is the case, for in stance, when th e fl ow is
perpendicular to the throughfl ow surface. Here, these possible terms are neglected
by writing:

fJI'iids"' fJI'nds = -K [2.17]

S Sd

3 Exe rci se I in Chapter 7 uses th e momentum theorem for a Bingham fluid .

38 Fluid M echanics for Chemica l Engineerin g

The momentum balance can thu s be written in th e form :

[2.18]
S,, /)

Forces R and K are the globa l pressure and friction forces, respectivel y,
exerted b1' the (low on solid ~mils (a minus sign appears in equati on [2. 17] in front
of K ). The left -hand side of equati on [2 .18] represents the impulse fl ux. Whil e
applying the momentum th eo rem, it is important to specify wheth er th e force s under
co nsideration are the ones exe rted by the flow on so lid wall s or the ot her way round .
Sign errors freq uentl y occ ur when there is lack of specificity in thi s respect.
To apply the momentum theorem, the firs t step is to specifY domain D, th roughflow
swfaces S" and solid swfaces S,. Care must then be taken to orientate the normals in
the proper direction.

The momentum theorem is used to answer two types of questions:

I. Eva lu atin g the force s appli ed by a fl ow on th e so lid wall s that surround the
fluid . A class ica l exa mpl e is the flow in a bend (see Exe rc ise I). Sec ti on 2.5 deals
with th e equa ll y class ica l relati on between regu lar head loss and wa ll fric ti on for the
flow in side a straight pipe. In both cases, the pressu re changes between the di fferent
throughfl ow surfaces in th e domain are known .
2. Eva luating pressure drops in a flow . The cla ss ica l exa mpl e of a sudden
ex pansi on is presented in sec ti on 2.6. Since there is a loss of energy, Bernoulli 's
th eo rem ca nnot be appli ed. An ass umpti on usuall y enab les th e determin ation of th e
forces exerted by the flow on the so lid wa ll s, and th e deri vati on there from of
pressure chan ges between the inl et and outl et.

2.5. Evaluating friction for a steady-state flow in a straight pipe

Consider th e fl ow in a straight pipe, whose wa ll s are parallel to th e 0 , ax is

(F igure 2.6) . Here, the cross-sectional geometry is arbitrary. In addi ti on. the gravity
fo rces are ignored and it is also assumed that the fl ow is unidirecti onal in the 0 ,
direction. Th e momentum theo rem applied to the closed domain bounded by th e
walls and the fluid inl et and outlet secti ons is written as:

If {p (U ii)U+ pi1} ds =- R - K [2 .19]

S,. L\ ,
 Glo bal Theorem s of Fluid Mechanics 39

i/ =11,.. (y . :) i

Figure 2.6. Application of the mmnenlum theorem/a the fluid comained in a ( )'lindrical pipe

From th e res ult s of secti o n 2.3, it can be stated that the pressure is uniform in the
fl ow inlet a nd o utl e t secti o ns , s in ce the fl ow is parallel. Through mass conservati o n,
the mome ntum flux es between the inl et and the o utl et cance l each other, as the
direc ti o n of th e unit norma l vector is reversed between the inl et and outlet while the
ve loc ity pro fil e is th e sa me for bo th secti o ns. We therefore deduce from equation
(2. 19] tha t:

{ p(L) - p(O)}SI =-R-k [2.20]

The inl et a nd o utl et thro ughfl ow sec ti ons of the pipe have an area of S. Re lation
[2.20] is a vec tor relation . Th e press ure fo rce R exe11ed by the fl o w on th e solid
s ide walls is pe rpe ndi cu la r to vec to r I, whereas the friction force , k , is parall el to
it. Conseque ntl y:

{p(L) - p(O)}SI =- K a nd R =0 [2.21]

We ass ume th at th e friction stress r exerted by the fl ow is uniform on the side

wa ll. Thi s ass umpti o n is questionable in the case o r a compl ex cross-sectional
geo metry, but is w ho ll y va lid in the case of the pl ane Poiseuille fl ow o r fo r the
Po iseuill e tl ow in a c irc ul a r pipe. Therefore, it is written as:

{ p(L) - p(O)} sl = - r. L. P I [2.22]

w he re P is th e perimeter of a pipe secti o n and PL is th e wetted surface of the pipe.

The fri c ti o n stress exe rted by th e fl ow on th e s idewall is thus ex pressed simpl y as a
function of th e press ure g radi ent:

{p(O) - p(L)} S
r = ..:..:...-'---'-'---'-- (2.23]
L p
40 Fluid Mechanics for Chem ical Engineering

As can be see n, the relati ons obtain ed in Chapter I lo r Poi se uill e !lows are
so lved in eq uati on [2.23]. For a circul ar pipe, SIP = R/2, hence:

ap R
r =- - - [2.241
o::. 2

Figure 2.7. Applica!ion o/the momentum theorem una virtual, circular cvlindrical volume
o/radius r (.~haded volume) contained '''ithin a pipe of radius R

The momentum theorem is eq uall y ap pli cab le to any circul ar cy lindri ca l vo lume
of radius r internal to th e pipe (i .e. r < R) as sketched in Figure 2.7. It then enab les
the ca lculati on of th e friction stress exe rted by the fluid contain ed in side the cy linder
of radius ro n th e fluid contained outside th at cy linder. Extrapolating eq uati on [2.24]
shows that thi s quantity varies Iinearl y wi th the radiu s:

ap,.
r(r) = - - - [2.25]
oz 2
This remarkab le result hold s for a laminar fl ow as we ll as a turbulent flow . Such
exampl es illu strate th e power of momentum theorem; loca l know ledge of the fl ow is
not always necessary to determine wall friction. However, the pressure gradi e nt
enabl es its determination.

2.6. Pressure drop in a sudden expansion (Borda calculation)

Consider th e flow in a sudden expansion (Fi gure 2.8(a)) betwee n two straight
pipes whose walls are parall el to the Or ax is. In the expan sion area, th e fl ow is not
parall el to the Or directi on. The domain to whi ch th e momentum th eo rem is appli ed
(shaded domain in Figure 2.8(a)) is taken between the ex pansion secti on S 1 and a
dow nstrea m secti on sl chosen suffici entl y far away for the fl ow therein to become
parall el aga in . Here, the gra vit y forces are ignored (the way gravity can be
accounted fo r is discussed in secti on 2.7). Consequentl y, th e pressure is uni for m 111
section s sl and s~ , and is denoted by PI and P2, respectively.
 Global Theorems of Fluid Mec hani cs 41

pI
SL

SF

ll = -i
ul
sl

SF

SL
(a) (b)

Figure 2.8. (a) Sudden expansion and (b) restriCiion in a cy lindrical pipe.
geometrical definiti ons

For a fl ow that is uniform in secti ons 5 1 and 5 2, and denoting the ve loc iti es by U 1
and U2 , mass conse rvat ion is written as :

[2.2 6]

The momentum th eorem, of which onl y the projection onto vector i is

considered here, is written as:

[2.27]

The pressure force on the sidewa ll S~_ has di sappeared as it is perpendicular to T.

Fo rce Rf represents the pressure force on the so lid wall SF, which is the end wall
surrounding throughfl ow secti on S 1 Borda 's mode l assumes that the pressure also
eq ua ls P 1 on SF. The pressure force R/ is th en given by:

[2. 28 ]

Lastly, th e fr icti on, K , exerted by the fl ow on the sidewa ll is neglec ted. Us in g

mass conservation [2.26] and property [2.28], it is inferred from [2 .27] that:

[2.29]

Neg lectin g friction can be eas il y justified: the di stance between secti ons S 1 and
S2 is short and , consequently, the surface subj ected to friction is limited. It is less
straightforward to state that the press ure P 1 preva il s all over surface SF, due to
42 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

rec ircul ati on in th at zone. However, th e turbul ence that reigns th ere contributes to
homogeni ze th e press ure, whi ch settl es at the leve l of pressure P 1 in th e outlet.

Therefore, the momentum th eorem makes it poss ibl e to ca lcul ate the press ure
change between th e inlet and outl et secti ons. The head change (equati on [2. 7])
between the inl et and outl et is th en estimated (usin g [2.26] and [2.29]) based on th e
ve locity in th e inl et secti on onl y:

[2.30]

Thi s model, referred to as Borda 's model, shows that the fl ow undergoes a loss of
energy in a sudden ex pansion, since /-/ 1 > f-1 2. Such di ss ipati on is assoc iated with the
producti on of turbulence in the sudden ex pansion. Secti on 2.8, and further di sc uss ions
in Chapter 8, expl ains the reasons that cause turbul ence to di ssipate energy.

Obviously, relati on [2.30] does not hold if th e directi on of fl ow is reve rsed to

consider the case of a sudden restri cti on. Oth erwise, energy would need to be
suppli ed to the fl ow in order to in crease th e head for the fluid parti cles. The s ituati on
of th e fl ow in a sudden restri ction is depi cted schematicall y in Figure 2.8( b). The
fl ow se parates on the ri ght angle of th e restri cted secti on's inl et edge. At first, it
goes th ro ugh a narrowed-down secti on of areaS,.< 5 1, th en it spreads out. If the area
S,. of th e separati on zone is known, mass conservati on makes it poss ibl e to in fer the
ve locity U'"' in the restri ction. In th e hatched zone corres ponding to the restri cti on,
the particl es maintain th eir energy. Bernoulli 's th eorem, appli ed betwee n sections 52
and S,., prov ides the pressure in th e contracted secti on. Lastl y, th e mome ntum
th eo rem, appli ed to th e hatched domain , prov ides an estimate of th e fo rce appli ed by
the fl ow on the end wa ll Sr. The head loss occ urs within the shaded part in Figure
2.8(b), revertin g to Borda's ca lcul ati on described earli er and appl ying it to th e
ex pansion between S, and 5 1 The unknow n needed to complete th e ca lcul ati ons is
the surface, S,., of th e contracted secti on. Ca lcul ati on rul es based on ex perimental
data, for computing head losses in many ex pansion and restri cti on situ ati ons, can be
found in th e we ll-known handbook by ldei'C ik 4

The exampl es present ed in the last two secti ons show th at Bernoulli 's th eorem
and the momentum theorem cann ot always be appli ed simultaneously. When the
momentum th eorem is appli ed ass uming th at the pressures on the throu ghfl ow
surfaces surroundin g the domain considered are known , th e forces on the wall s ca n
be deduced therefrom (as in secti on 2.5). When the fo rces are ass umed kn own, the
momentum theorem makes it poss ibl e to ca lcul ate th e pressure change between the

4 I. E. \d ei'C ik, 1960, Mernento des pertes de charge (translated from Russian), Editi ons
Eyroll es, Pari s.
 Globa l Theorems of Fluid Mechanics 43

inl et and outl et secti ons and to deduce the pressure drop therefrom. Energy is not
always conserved, as seen in the case of sudden ex pansio n.

2. 7. Using the momentum theorem in the presence of gravity

The momentum theorem is written in equati on [2.18] by ex hibiting the body

forc e, F . Th e pressure to be considered in ca lcul ating the impulse flu x (left-hand-
side term in equat ion [2.18]) is then the absolute pressure. The ca lculation of
integra ls is typicall y not straightforward because the pressure varies with height due
to th e effect of grav ity. To circumve nt this difficulty with out neg lecting grav ity, the
impul se flux integrals are ca lcul ated using pressure p', whi ch is eq ual to the
difference between the abso lute pressure and th e hyd rostatic pressure, Ph yd

p'(M) = p(M)- P h <~ (M) [2.3 1]

The hydrostati c pressure, introduced in Chapter I (eq uat ion [ 1.36]), is written as:

Plnd(M) = po + pg OM [2.32 ]

where p 0 is a refe rence pressure taken at point 0 . Pressure p' is homogeneous

in throughfl ow secti ons sd if the flow is perpendicular to the throughfl ow section
(see secti on 2.3), and the ca lcul ati on of integra ls poses no further diffi culty. This
ve ry simpl e proced ure enabl es a ri gorous application of the momentum theorem in
th e presence of grav ity, by omitting th e gravi ty force in equati on [2. 18] of the
momentum theorem.

2.8. Kinetic energy balance and dissipation

It is see n that a sudden ex pansion (F igure 2.8(a)) results in energy di ssi pati on:
the head decreases between the inlet and the outlet (equati on [2.30]). The rate of
energy dissipation eva luates how fa st th e kineti c energy is dissipated . For the sudden
expa nsion, it is possible to estimate an average rate of kin etic energy diss ipati on per
unit mass, if, by computing the rati o of the head change to the time of res idence in
th e sudden expansion, nam ely:

[2.33 ]

Thi s formul a in vo lves the fl ow rate and the vo lume of th e sudden expa nsion.
44 Fluid Mechanics for Chem ica l Engin ee rin g

In rea lity , the rate of di ss ipa ti o n is a loca l ph ys ica l no ti o n tha t va ri es in both

space a nd tim e. As wi ll be seen he re in after, turbu le nce drama ti ca ll y in c reases the
rate o r e nergy di ss ipatio n, a nd he nce it s paramoun t impo rta nce in flui d mechani cs .
The rate of e ne rgy dissipa ti o n ca n be defi ned ri go ro us ly o n th e bas is of th e Navier-
Stokes equa ti o ns, by estab li shing th e evo luti o n eq ua ti o n for kine ti c energy. For thi s
de ri vatio n, it is ass umed tha t the flui d is incompress ibl e 5 A te nsor no tati o n is used
(Ei nste in 's no tati o n) w he re th e ve loc ity vec tor is ex pressed in the fo rm u,. with
index i vary ing from I to 3 to d es ig nate th e three space di me ns io ns (na me ly u 1 = u,,
u2 = u, and u 1 = uJ. Th e loca l equati o ns ca n the n be w ritten as:

for illcompressib ilily

?u , = Oll t + au2 + au.1 =0 [2 .34]

ox I axl ax2 CXJ

for !he equalions oldvnamics

au, au; } ap 8a 'u

p - +u , -- =-- + - - [2.35]
{ a! axi ax, ax,
Whil e th e tensor no tati on is con ve ni en t fo r subsequent ca lcu lati ons, it shou ld be
re me mbe red th at, in e quati o ns [2 .34) an d [2.35) , the terms in vo lv in g index j are
summed for a ll three va lu es of), i.e . in equati o n [2.35) ,

OU ; OU ; au, au,
U1 - = lit - + 1.1 2 - - + U 3 -
Dx , ax1 ox 2 8x.1

oa ',, 8a'tl oa ';" 8a't3

--=-- + --+--
OX, ox1 8.r2 OXJ

The re are a lso three equa ti o ns o r dynamics for eac h va lue o f index i = I, 2, and
3. Equa ti ons [2.35) a re w ritte n us in g th e symbolic notation o r th e stress d ev iator,
to s impli fy interm ediate ca lc ul ati o ns. Th e ex press io n of th e stress tensor for a
New to ni a n fluid w ill be used la te r o n .

By multipl y ing eac h of th e equ ati o ns [2.35 ] of d y nami cs by u,, res pecti ve ly ,
three equati o ns are obta ined fo ri = I, 2 , a nd 3.

5 The foll ow ing di scuss ion is much inspired by section 16 of the book of L.D . La ndau and
E.M. Lifshit z, Fluid Mechanics (2 nd Edition. Butterworth -Hein emann , 1987 ), whi ch is
outstandin gly clear.
 G loba l T heorem s of Fluid Mec han ics 45

fa(
Pi --ul) + u , -a(-ul)} = -op- oa'u
. u; + u, - -.- [2.36]
LOI 2 OX; 2 ax, ax ,

Summin g th ese three eq uati o ns over index i brin gs in the kine ti c e ne rgy per unit
volume:

e= p ( -u? J [2 .37]
2 ,

whose evo luti o n equat ion is:

ae ae} ap aa,j
[2.38 ]
{ -+u;
01
- _ =- - u; + u; - -.-
a.,j OX; ax)

Equati o ns [2.3 7] a nd [2.38], a nd the subseque nt o nes , a re now su mmed over

indices i a nd j.

Differentiation formulae y ie ld some s implificati o ns, tha nks to incompress ibility :

ae o(euj ) OUj o(eu ) )

UJ -=----e-...,-=---
ox ; OX; OX; OXj
op o(pu; ) OU; o(pu;)
- - U ; = -- - - p - = - - - [2.39]
OX; OX; OX; OX;
a a ij o(u ;a ';; )
0
' o(u; )
U ; - - = ------- - G ij - - - -
OX; OXj ax ,

Evo luti o n eq uati on [2.38] for kineti c energy therefore becomes:

o(t'u ; ) o(pu , ) o (u ,o 'y )

-oe = - - - - - - - - + ---'----'--'- a ' yo -
(u , )
- [2.40]
0/ ox j OX; ax i ox;

that is:

-ae =- div {( p + e ) u- } + d'tv {"'L... ' u- } - a 'y -

o (u-
;) [2.41]
ot ax j

This fo rmul ati o n, which brings in the di ve rgence of certa in vectors, is attract ive
because, by integrat ing th e equation over a volume D, it is poss ibl e, through
Ostrogradsky ' s formu la, to tra ns fo rm the volume integrals in some of the te rms into
integra ls over surface S, which surrounds volume D. Thi s results in the appearance
46 Flu id Mechani cs fo r Chemi ca l Engineerin g

of flu x term s through sur faceS. These transformati ons lead to:

~{ Jedv}=- fC p +e )(ii i1)d.1 + Jo::: ' ii) rids - Ja- 'u a(t: ,) dv [2.42 ]
al {) S S D a.xI

Finall y, th e symmetry of th e stress tenso r yields:

!._{ Jedv} =- f (p + e)(ii n)ds + JCI ' n) ilds - Ja-',, a~ 1:' ) dv

a1 /) S S 1J C'.\ 1
[2.43]

The phys ica l mea nin g of the di fferent terms is worthy of so me clarifi cati ons.
From left to ri ght , it is encountered in sequence:

- The rate of vari ati on of th e kineti c energy co ntained in the vo lume.

- The head flu x through the surface surroundin g the domain. Grav ity forces may
be incorporated into thi s term , through potenti al energy.
- The power of fri cti on stresses at the boundari es.
- The rate of energy di ss ipati on.

Now , spec ifi c attenti on is give n to the fourth term , i.e. th e rate of energy
di ss ipati on. For a Newtoni an fluid , brin ging the ex press ion of th e stress dev iator
tenso r (C hapter I, Tabl e 1.1 ) in , th e rate of energy di ss ipati on, integrated over th e
vo lume, ca n be written as:

'
- I a- ', ..::..:..:..o..
aui v = - I ,l' {a
-
u,+auj)au , v = - J.l- Ilou
- ..::..:..:..o.. - ,+au
-,)-d v
/) ~ ox, /) ax , ax, ax , 2 /) ax, ox,
[2.44]

sin ce the summati on takes pl ace on both i and j indi ces. As a result, we arri ve at the
foll ow ing conclusions:

- Thi s quantity is always negati ve . Th erefore, it is justifi ed in referrin g to it as

the rate of di ss ipation of kineti c energy, as it can onl y co ntri bute to dec rease kineti c
energy.
- Energy di ss ipati on is linked to ve loc ity gradi ents. The larger the ve loc ity
gradi ents in the fl ow, th e stro nger the di ss ipati on. It can therefo re be anticipated th at
di ss ipati on will be very large in a turbulent tlow. The kineti c energy di ssipated is
thereby turned into heat. For fluid s such as water or air, the wa rming induced by
di ss ipati on is very wea k (see Exercise Ill at the end of thi s chapter). But for hi ghl y
viscous fluid s in confi gurati ons where the fl ow is strongly sheared, such as a liquid
 Global Theo rems of Fluid Mec hani cs 47

polymer in an extruder, the amount of se lf-heat ing resulting from viscous di ss ipation
can be ve ry large.
- The di ss ipati on rate per unit mass , denoted by r: , can thus be defi ned as a loca l
qu antity by:
2
f..1 {CU;
r:=-- - +CUj
-} [2.45 ]
2p CX; CX;

The spatia l distribution of thi s quantity is typi ca ll y highly inhomoge neous. These
aspects wi ll be ex pl ained in Chapter 8, whil e dealing with the concepts of
turbul ence.

2.9. Application exercises

The exercises proposed below are appli cations of Bernoulli 's th eo rem and the
momentum th eorem. As demonstrated in this chapter, these two theorems cannot
always be appli ed simultaneously, because appl yin g Bernoulli 's theorem impli es
energy conservati on, whereas energy is obviously not conserved if th e momentum
theorem is used to estimate a head loss. The first challenge is to know when and in
whi ch reg ions of a fl ow it can be considered that energy is conserved, and when
the fl ow is di ss ipating energy. Thi s will be expl ained in Chapter 4. The wording of
the foll ow in g exercises is deliberately kept somewhat ambiguous , because if it is
indi cated which of Bernoulli 's theorem or th e momentum theorem should be appli ed
(spec ifying in which domain) there would no longer be an exercise to solve, but only
ca lcul ati ons to perform.

Exercises 2. 1- 2.111 and 2.V are class ica l ones. Exercise 2. 1V co mpares the results
of a loca l approac h to those yielded by the global approach, establi shing a link with
Chapter I. Exerc ises 2.V I and 2.VII are more co mpl ex. In those cases, the fl ow does
not di ss ipate energy in certain subdomains, while in others it di ss ipates some. Based
on Borda ' s model, it will be assumed that energy is conserved in regions where the
fl ow is convergent (the available cross section dimini shes) and that di ssipation
occ urs in domains where a sudden expansion occurs.

Exercise 2.1: Force exerted on a bend

A circu lar cy lindri ca l pipe whose di ameter is 50 em goes through a 90 bend . If

th e water fl ow rate in the pipe is I m3 s- 1, ca lcul ate the force applied by the flow
onto th e support (ori entation and magnitude). The absolute pressure measured at the
inl et of th e bend is 2 bar and the air surrounding the pipe is assumed to be at a
pressure of I bar.
48 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

Ca rry out th e numerical appli cati on and di scuss th e way in which the ambi ent
atmosph eri c pressure should be taken into account .

Exercise 2.11: Emptying a tank

Here, we analyze what ca n be learnt from th e appli cati on of th e Bern oulli ' s and
momentum theorems wh en they are appli ed to the emptyin g of a tank in whi ch the
water leve l is H.
I. Establi sh Torrice lli 's formula, which g ives th e veloc ity of the fluid at its ex it
fro m the tank . For thi s questi on, it w ill be assumed th at th e pressure in th e jet is the
atmospheri c pressure.
2. Us ing the results from section 2.3 , ex pl ain whi ch effect all ows the press ure
(w ithin th e grav ity fi eld ) to actuall y settl e at the atmospheri c pressure in th e jet at
the tank outl et.
3. Ca lculate the force exerted on the wall s of the tank . How would the tank
behave if it was mounted on whee ls and able to roll with out fri cti on?

s
u=u;

Figure 2.1 1.1

Exercise 2.1/J: Pressure drop in a sudden ex pansion ami heating

Consider a sudden ex pansion such that S 1 i S 2 = I I 3. Th e inl et ve loc ity is

5 m s- 1

Determine:
- Th e head loss;
- The temperature ri se;
 Globa l Theorems of Fluid Mec hani cs 49

T he nume ri ca l appli cati o n w ill be carri ed o ut w ith wa ter as th e flui d (mass

dens ity p = 103 kg m- 3 , s pec ifi c heat C11 = 4 .2 103 J kg- 1 K- 1).

Ex ercise 2.1 V: Streaming flow on an inclined plane

Co ns ider the strea min g fl ow o n an inc lined pl ane ly ing at an ang le a to the
horizo nta l pl ane ( imag ine a ri ve r). G rav ity is a lo ng th e ve rti ca l ax is. In a uni fo rm
fl ow reg ime, th e thi ckn ess h of the flui d laye r is in va ri a nt. It does not depend o n
coord inate x in the coordinate syste m indi cated in the Fi gure 2. IY. I. T he fl ow 1s
ass umed to be two-dime ns io na l (tha t is, ur(x, z)) a nd unidirecti ona l (u,= u== 0). p IS
the mass de ns ity of the fluid , a nd f.1 its dy na mi c v iscos ity.

Figure 2.1V. I

Part I - Do not use the local solution of the Navier- Stokes equations
I. W hy is the u , ve loc ity compo ne nt inde pe nde nt fro m x?

2 . Dete rmine th e press ure fi e ld .

3. Dete rmin e th e head at every po int in the liqui d. Whi ch term ca uses the head
loss in the fl o w a lo ng a streamline?

4 . Determine th e fri ct io n stress exerted by the fl ow on the so lid wa ll .

Part 2 - Use of the Navier- Stokes equations

I . W rite o ut the Nav ie r- Sto kes equati o n for the u, ve loc ity component (a long
0 ,), us ing the ass umpti o ns made a bo ut th e kin e m ati cs of th e fl ow and the res ults
esta bl is hed in the first pa rt?

2. Write o ut the bo unda ry conditi o ns o n th e bo tto m (z = 0) and at th e free surface

(.:: = h).

3. Dete rmine the ve loc ity profi le , ur(z)?

50 Fluid Mechanic s for Chem ical Engineerin g

4. Calc ul ate the friction stress exe rted o n the bottom by the flow, us in g a method
o th e r th an the o ne used in Question 4 of Pa rt I?

5. Ca lc ul ate he ig ht has a function of th e flow rate Q inj ected by unit w idth '/

Exercise 2. V: Impact of a jet on a sloping plate

Cons id er, in a two-dime ns io nal configuration , a j e t o f water th at impin ges o n a

fl at plate de finin g an angle a with the direc ti o n of the incident fl ow (th e jet impin ges
perpendicularl y on the pl ate when a = rr./2). The upstream thi ckn ess of the jet is
denoted by e and the thicknesses a lo ng th e pl ate o n e ithe r s ide of the incid e nt jet's
ax is are de no ted by e 1 a nd e 2 . Bes ides th e pressure of the gaseous atmosp he re is
de noted by Pu w hi ch is a lso exerted o n the rear side of the pl ate. The ve loc ity in th e
incident j e t is assumed to be unifo rm , which is denoted by U. A t a su ffi c ient
di stance from the incident j e t's ax is. ve loc ities are also assumed to be unifo rm in the
throughfl ow secti o ns, and are de noted by U 1 and U2 .

e u=Ui ~ .. _r

Figure 2.V . I

1. Determine:

- Thicknesses e 1 a nd e 2 .

- Ve loc iti es U 1 a nd U2 .

- Th e force exerted on the plate .

The e ffect of gravity is neglected. lt is ass umed th at ene rgy is conserved a nd that
the friction force exerted by the flow o n the plate is neg ligible with respect to th e
pressure fo rce . Justify th e la tter ass umpti o n.
 G lo bal Theorems of Fluid Mec hani cs 51

2_ If it was now ass umed that the fluid partic les undergo a head loss o n
impact, wo uld thi c knesses e 1 a nd e 2 be g reate r o r smaller than the ones obta ined in
Question I?

Exercise 2. VI: Operation of a hydro-ejector

This exerc ise aims to unde rstand the princ iple of o perati o n of a hydro-ejector,
w hi c h is an opparatus used , for example , for c lean ing the walls of a basin.

Part I - Jet from a submerged pump

In th e first stage , we consider a s impl ifi ed configuration where the ap paratu s
s impl y cons ists of a submerged pump, which draws water from ins ide the bas in and
di scharges it in th e sa me basin in the form of a j e t The sucti o n a nd di scharge pipes
a re circular cy lindrical pipes, which have the same diamete r, Do = 0.1 m . Velocity ll;
is ass umed to be uniform at th e o utlet of the di sc harge Iine ( Fig ure 2 . VI. I) . The ax is
of the apparatus is hori zo ntal within the g ra v ity field .

Th e c harac te ri stic of the pump is plo tted in Figure 2. Yl.2. The head/ve locity
re lati onship can be represented by a parabolic function

Ml pump = ~nax - apU J I 2

with nume ri ca l va lues Pmax = I 0 5 Pa and a =9.

Figure 2. Vl.l

Figure 2.VI.2
52 Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineering

I. State the operating conditi ons of the pump in terms of fl ow rate and head.
2. What is the mome ntum flux discharged by the appa ratus'1

Part II - The hrdro-ejector

Free surface

I"

Primary feed

Seco ndary fe ed Plane P Plane P'

Figure 2.VI.3

To form a hydro-ejector (Fig ure 2.V I. 3), the jet produced by the apparatus
considered in part I is fed into a tube with diameter D 1 = 0.2 m, allowing a
seco ndary suppl y by entrainment. In plane P, it is assumed that the jet produced by
the primary suppl y (velocity U;) is always uniform with 0 < r < Dr/2; the same is
true of th e velocity Ue of the second ary feed with D!/2. < r < 0 1/2 in plan e P. At the
outl et of the hyd ro-ejector (plane P') , the velocity is assumed to be homogeneous ,
which is denoted by U. The length of th e tube is not a parameter of th e problem. It is
ass umed sufficiently large to all ow th e ve locity fi eld to become homoge neo us, and
suffi cient ly short to all ow wa ll friction to be neglected.
For simplicity, it is assumed th at the ve locity U, is the sa me as th e one
1
determined in Question I. If Question I has not been so lved. a va lue of U, = 4 m s-
may be used. The pressure value, howeve r, is not necessa ril y the same. The axis of
the hydro-ejector is located at a depth h under the free-surface leve l of th e basin.
3. Wh at indication s can be provided regarding the press ure field in planes P and
P'? (Numerical values will be calculated at the end of Question 5.)
4. Exp lai n the mechani sm th at draw s fluid through the secondary supply . State a
first relation in vo lvin g U,..
5. Ca lculate the entrainment ve locity U"' the veloc ity U at the outlet of the
hydro-ejector, and the numeri ca l va lues of the pressure. Ca lculati ons will be
facilitated by bringing in the rat io of the area of the primary jet to that of the hydro-
ejector tube , s = D0"1D 1"= 1/4, as well as the velocity ratio , U;fU,_ .
 Global Theo rems of Flu id Mechanics 53

6. Wh at is th e power consumpti on of the hydro-ejector? Compare thi s to an

equ iva lent estimate th at ca n be derived for the apparatus considered in part I.
7
Ca lcul ate th e fl ow rate of the hydro-ejector, as we ll as the rate of momentum
at tl.e outl et of the hydro-ejector (plane P'). Expl ain one benefit of th e hydro-ejector
by co mparing it to th e co nfigurati on without a secondary suppl y tube as studi ed in
part I.

Exercise 2. VII: Bypass flow

-:-his exerc ise is inspired by coo lin g prob lems in an industri al fa cility. Part of the
fl oV~ of a ri ve r is di verted and fed into a bypass channel th at goes through a grid
wit!- whi ch it exc hanges heat. The exe rcise dea ls with th e hydrauli cs probl em: how
is tl1<! !low rate di stri buted between th e bypass channel and the ri ver?

s
A .. ss, L
__ _. ... .

t .........-----,--------- J...
............ uuu.. uc. t~2 ..!-.
...... uuuuuu =

Figure 2. VII.I

For th e so luti on of thi s probl em, grav ity will not be considered. Th e fluid is
watrr. Fo r simpli city, it is assum ed th at the ch annels are rectilinear in geometry, as
shovn in the Figure 2. Vll.l , and wa ll fri cti on is neg lected. The grid induces a
singl lar head loss in the tl ow, written as t:JI = K pU } 12 . K = 3 will be used for the
num ~ ri ca l appli cati ons.

\./e denote by U = I m s- 1, U2 and U 1, respectively, the ve lociti es in th e inlet

secti m (whose area is S = I ,000 m2) co ntainin g point A, in the outl et secti on of the
byp<ss chann el (a rea S2 = 200m 2) containin g point C, and in the outl et secti on of the
oth e chann el (a rea S 1 = 800m 2) containing point B. The ve loc ity is ass umed to be
uni fmn in all the secti ons considered. Th e pressure at A is ? 11 = I bar.

I Justi fy why th e pressure is the same at B and C.

54 Flui d Mec ha ni cs fo r C he mi ca l Eng in ee rin g

2. By cons id erin g ene rgy conserva ti o n (or non-conserva ti o n) betwee n A a nd B,

th en betwee n A a nd C dete rmin e ve loc iti es U2 a nd U 1. Ded uce therefrom th e
difference in pressure, ? .1 - ? 8 , between po ints A a nd B.

3. It is ass umed that th e tluids a re aga in compl ete ly mix ed in the o utle t secti o n
co ntaining po int D. Ex pl a in w hy the head canno t be conserved betwee n Band D. By
ap pl y ing th e m o me ntum th eo rem o n a do ma in to be spec ifi ed , ca lc ul ate the pressure
diffe rence , ? 8 - P D , betwee n po ints B a nd D.
 Chapter 3

Dimensional Analysis

The treatment of thi s chapter goes far beyond the fi e ld of fluid mecha nics.
A Ith ough the concepts of dimensiona l ana lys is a ppl y in a ll the fi e lds of sc ience, it
find s ex tensive use in fluid mec hanics as a too l for stud y ing vari ous pheno me na. It,
therefore, occ upi es center stage in this book. This cha pter e laborates on severa l
top ics:

- It sets o ut the consequences o f a system 's behav ior be in g independent from th e

system of units used to describe it. This idea is link ed to th e notion o f ho moge ne ity
th at s hou ld be ve rifi ed by any mathemati ca l express ion describing a physical
system .

- Dimensional analysis he lps to establish th e ge nera l form of a re lati o n that

ex ists between the va ri o us parameters invo lved in a proble m . Let us co nsider the
exa mpl e of a fluid fl ow in a pipe with a di a meter D a nd a length L , which we di scuss
later. This flow is generated by the pressure chan ge between th e inl et and outlet,
shiftin g fr om P 1 to P2 Th e strea mwi se velocity, U, is the re fore ex pressed by a
relation in th e form F(P 1, P2 , U, D, L, v, p , ... ) = 0 between the different ph ys ica l
parameters that define the system. Dimensional ana lys is shows that thi s re lati on
should assoc iate the parameters in a way respect ing consisten cy in regards to units
attac hed to the parameters. It also enables us to identi fy a reduction in th e number of
variables in the re lati on describing the system.

- An offshoot o f dimensional analysis is the th eory of s imilariti es, which sets

out a way to model a physical system at a different sca le without altering its
nature. This theory is commonly used in mechanics, as well as in chemical
engin eerin g, whenever a " pilot ex periment" is invo lved . Similarity theory is based
on de finin g " dimens ionl ess numbers" to describe a phys ical phenomeno n.
56 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi cal Engineering

The principles of dimensional analys is are diffi cu lt to understand fo r a st udent

who is studying them for the first time. This is natural because one ap parentl y
presumes to understand a phenomenon without acrua ll y being fam iIiar with the
equati ons which govern its behav ior. The exa mpl es di scussed in thi s chapter show
th at it is desirable to identify such equations correct ly (even though we do not so lve
them) to count the parameters involved in a first stage and , to ex press releva nt
dimensionl ess numbers in a second stage. For the abo ve- mentioned fl ow in a pipe.
the parameter count is a consequence of th e findin g that the ph enomenon is
described usi ng Navier- Stokes equati ons alone ; so lving th em would suffice to arri ve
at the exact answer. The parameters involved in a probl em may have different roles.
A simpl e procedure, but one that is necessary to use dimensional analys is efficien tl y,
consists of identi fy ing the phys ica l parameters that cause th e phenomenon (th e
pressure difference between the ends of the pipe - why does the fluid fl ow in side th e
pipe?), th ose that characteri ze the consequence (the area-averaged strea mwise
velocity of the fl ow), and the other parameters (vi scos ity, geometri ca l dimensions,
etc), whi ch simpl y have an effect on the phenomenon.

3.1. Principle of dimensional analysis, Vaschy-Buckingham th eorem

The Vasc hy- Buckingham theorem is stated below:

Consider a phenomenon in vo lving n va ri ab les. Let those n vari ab les.

in turn , involve p unit s. The ph enomenon can then be described by a
relati on linkin g (n- p) dimensionl ess numbers.

Dimensional ana lys is, therefore, enab les a red ucti on of th e num ber of variab les
in th e function al rel ation linking the phys ica l quantiti es that describe the behavior of
a system. To understand the Vasch y- Buckingham theorem, let us return to th e
example of the pipe flow . Initi all y, the system 's parameters includ e the followin g:

- ? 1 is the pressure at the pipe' s inl et.

- ? 2 is the pressure at the pipe's outl et,
- L is the length of the pipe,

- D is the diameter of the pipe,

- v is the kinemati c viscos ity of the fluid , and

- U is th e area-averaged streamwise ve locity of the fluid .

The first five parameters are set by th e user who wi shes to make a fluid. whose
properti es he/she spec ifi es, fl ow in side a chosen pipe. The sixth one. i.e. the
ve loc ity, is set based on the va lues of the prev ious five. It is thi s quantity
(the unknown of the problem) that we want to determ ine based on the knowledge of
 Dimensiona l Analys is 57

th e oth er parameters. Other, more or less relevant , parameters such as th ose given
below ca n also be taken into acco unt :

e, th e roughness of th e pipe (unit m), and

- the age of th e ca ptain (unit s) who actuates th e va lve.

Let us retain all these parameters. 1 We thus wi sh to ex press the ve loc ity as a
function of the other parameters, i.e. a functi onal of the form

U = F(P 1, P2, D. L, e, v)

Including the quantity we wish to determine, we have n = 7 parameters in the

fun cti onal , wh ich are li sted with their units in Table 3. 1:

Para meter u PI ?2 L D e v
Un it ms- 1 Kg m- 1s 2 kg m- 1s-2 Ill Ill 111 ml s- 1

Table 3.1. Lis! ofparamelers. ll'ilh !heir dimensions. in volved in !he .flow
in a C\ 'lindrical pipe (proposal no. I)

The parameters in vo lve three units. The Vaschy- Buckingham theorem spec ifi es
that there ex ists, for determining the velocity, a functional relati on between four
dimensionl ess numbers. Dimensionless numbers are eas ily identifi ed, starting
by taking th e ratio of quantiti es that have the sa me dimensions : A I ?2 , L I D, and
e I D . These first three numbers are independent from one another, as eac h of
them brings in at least one quantity that is not present in the others. The fourth
dimensionless number necessaril y invo lves the kinematic viscos ity, whi ch had
not yet been taken into account , e.g. by writing UD I v . The Vaschy- Buckingham
theore m actuall y enab les us to understand that the fun cti onal linking of all th e seven
parameters can be written in th e form:

[3.1]

Other formulations , involving different numbers, cou ld also be used. Further,

any oth er combination of dimensionless numbers can also be ex pressed usin g the
four numbers we have defi ned.

I Except, obviously, for the age of the captain . This sill y proposa l aims at pointing out that,
for using dimensional analys is, we should tend to count onl y the parameters that are
signifi cant for the phenomenon and not all parameters that may eventuall y have an effect in
some ci rcumstances.
58 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemical Engi neeri ng

Alth ough the Vas hy- Buckingham theo rem is not based on ph ys ics, usin g
dimensional analys is should not rul e out co nsiderin g the ph ys ics; for. quit e th e
contrary is true. Regardin g th e exa mpl e treated here, it is very clear that ex press ion
[3. 1] is un sustain abl e from a ph ys ica l standpoint, because:

- We know that th e fl ow is generated du e to the pressure difference between

th e inl et and outl et. It wo uld , th erefore, be more judicious to obtain a fun cti onal of
th e form :

[3.2]

- Functi on [3.2] is not pertinent either, in a phys ica l sense, as the so luti on
de pend s on th e press ure leve l P2 at the outl et, rather than just th e di ffe rence in
pressure between th e inl et and outl et. A rev iew of th e dimensions thu s indi ca tes that
we are short of a parameter that in vo lves mass.

The prev ious parameter co unt was intenti onall y incompl ete; thi s is to convey
th e fac t that reverting re pea tedl y to a ph ys ica l analys is of a phenomena enabl es one
to utili ze dimensional analys is to ex press mea nin gful relati ons. The additi onal
parameter in vo lvin g th e mass is eas il y obtain ed. One si mpl y has to obse rve aga in
th at the ph enomenon is gove rned by av ier- Stokes eq uations, whi ch invo lve the
densi ty of the Ouid (p). We th ere fore incorporate p into th e parameter count , and
withdraw P2 since onl y the press ure diffe rence between the inl et and th e outl et
modifi es the velocity. Thi s leads us to arrive at a fun cti onal between th e parameters
in Tabl e 3.2.

Table 3.2. List o/pwwneters. ~o~ it h their di111ensions. imoln!d inthe./lo11

in u crlindrical pipe (pmposal no. 2)

Once aga in , four dimensionl ess numbers need to be determin ed. Th ey are, for
exampl e:

[3 .3]

Thi s fun cti onal is more appea lin g beca use it brings bac k quantiti es that have a
phys ica l meaning, such as kin eti c energy, the pressure di ffe rence between th e inl et
and outl et, and th e Rey nold s number. Without hav ing so lved the equations of
the probl em, the use of simpl e res ults from the general prin cipl es of phys ics has
 Dimensional Analys is 59

enabl ed us to bring to the fore so me dimensionl ess numbers, whi ch compare

quantiti es that " in terpl ay together within the principl es of ph ys ics".

Thi s can be taken even furth er, by callin g upon a res ult th at we have fo und
before w ith Poiseuill e fl ows: the fl ow rate is induced not by the pressure difference,
but by th e press ure di ffe rence per unit length of th e pipe. Thi s means th at it is
phys ica ll y poss ibl e to introduce the quantity (A - P2 ) I L alone, in stead of the three
parameters L , ? 1, and ? 2. Functi on [3.3) then reduces to a relati on betwee n three
dimensionl ess numbers:

[3 .4)

As seen in Chapter 4, the press ure drop laws for steady fl ows in pipes are
ex pressed usin g a re lati on simil ar to thi s fo rm , usin g the foll ow in g dimensionless
numbers:

A = 2( A - P2) D
- The linear pressure drop coeffi cient
pU 2 L

- The Reynolds number, Re = UD [3.5)

v

- The relati ve roughness

Di me nsional analys is, com bined with simpl e phys ica l considerations, makes it
poss ibl e to set out numerous dimensional fo rms th ro ugh whi ch phys ica l results can
be ex pressed. It helps to number the parameters in vo lved in a probl em whil e
re mov ing ex traneous ones . A fruitful use of the Yaschy- Buckin gham th eorem can
onl y ensue from a meaningful parameter count. The lesser the paramete rs, the more
in fo rm ati ve the res ult from dimensional analys is will be.

The noti on of independent parameters and independent dimensionl ess numbers

needs to be emph as ized. As each dimensionl ess nu mber contai ned a quanti ty
not present in th e rest, we ensured that th e defin ed dimensionl ess numbers are
independent. By using Washy- Buckingham theorem, we usuall y want to investigate
the dependence of one quantity (presentl y the fl ow veloc ity in the pipe) with other
parameters. It is also important checking that these other parameters are
independent. For the pipe fl ow probl em, thi s noti on is simpl e: the length and
di ameter are clea rl y inde pendent, since we can choose th e pipe length on the one
hand and its diameter on the other. Neverth eless, adding the dynami cs viscos ity J.1 to
th e parameters in Tabl e 3.2 would not be sensibl e, as it is simpl y linked by Jl = pv to
other parameters already taken into account. The noti on of independence also leads
to subtl er questi ons. We have not taken temperature into account in the exa mpl e
60 Flu id Mechanics for Chemical Engineerin g

we have di scussed above, alth ough the principl es of phys ics and ex peri ence indi cate
uneq ui voca ll y that temperature influences changes in th e flow rate for a given
pressure drop. Thi s is beca use temperature's onl y effect is to alter th e viscos ity.
In sofar as th ermal ph ys ics is not taken into account in the ph enomenon, the eq uati on
that govern s its dynami cs is limited to the Na vier- Stokes eq uati on, whi le th e
temperature remains an indirec t paramete r of the prob lem. Identifyin g the nature
o f th e phys ica l phenomena governing a system is indi spensab le to perform a
meanin gfu l dimensional analysis of a prob lem.

Counting the units that appea r in a prob lem can so metimes be complex.
If, e.g. the units of length (m) and time (s) systematicall y appear in ve locity-type
parameters ( m/s ), th en onl y one unit ( m/s) shou ld be counted, instead of two. ~

3.1.1. Example- th e oscillating pendulum

Consider the case of a pendu lum , osc ill at ing within th e grav it y field , whose
osc ill ati on freq uency we wish to determine . The a priori para meters of the probl em
are the angul ar frequency, cv (s 1) - the quantity to be determined - th e pendulum 's
mass , M (kg), the length of th e wire, I (m), the grav itational acce leration, g (ms \
and th e max imu m angle of osc ill ation , Bo (d imension less). Based on fi ve para meters
and three dimensions, there should therefore be two dimens ion less numbers. The
first is obvious!/ 00 . Th e mass M, therefore , does not in tervene in the ph ys ical
probl em, as no other parameter depends on th e unit of mass. Co nsequent to thi s, th e
onl y option is to write:

cv2f = F(Bo )
g

For sma ll angles, we obta in the we ll -k now n pend ulum rel ation:

Constant A is undetermined as per dimensional analys is. Howeve r, based on

dimensional ana lys is the fa ct that the osc ill ati on frequ ency is not dependen t on the
mass is j ustifi ed.

2 This dirticu lty is encountered when so lvi ng Exercise 3. 1 at th e end of thi s chap ter.
3 Is the noti on that simple'/ An angle is ex pressed by a unit (radian s, degrees, etc.). For a
dimensional analys is problem, we consider that an angle is a dimensionless qu antity, because
th e length of a circular arc is th e produ ct of th e angle by th e radius. The angle, th erefore. has
no dimension as such.
 Di me nsional Analys is 61

3.2. Dimensional stud y of Navier- Stokes equations

The exa mpl es so fa r given. and th e one we di scuss full y in sec ti on 3.4 (th e fa ll of
a ba ll in a fluid under the effect of grav ity). illustrate the fac t that a probl em ca n onl y
be treated through dimensional analys is in a meaningful way if one compre hends
the nature of it s determinin g phenomena. In the case of th e osc ill atin g pendulum ,
e.g. it is necessa ry to rea li ze that the pendulum osc ill ates beca use it is located with in
th e gravity fie ld. If thi s property is not identifi ed, th e error th at res ults most often is
the omi ss ion of th e grav itati onal acce lerati on from the parameter count.

Dimensional analys is of the equati ons that gove rn a system enables the
ide ntifi cati on of th e releva nt dimensionl ess numbers for the probl em. It also ensures
th at all parameters have bee n taken into account, and that they are independent. We
illustrate thi s principle be low with the exampl e of Nav ier- Stokes eq uati ons, written
in vector fo rm:

au ( _,.., ) _= - ,..,vp -
p - + p u- v u
k- _
p g + ;..tl'lu [3.6]
at
A critical interpretati on of equati on [3.6] helps us to ge nerate a li st of parameters
in vo lved in Nav ier- Stokes equ ati ons:

- the density, p , whi ch we ass ume here to be homogeneo us and constant ,

- th e grav itati onal acce lerati on, g.
- the dynami c viscos ity, f..l,
- th e space dimensions (x , .1 ', z), for which a length sca le L is introd uced,
- the ve loc ity components (u r, u,., and uJ, whose sca le is denoted by U.
- th e pressure. p, whose sca le we denote by P. and
- time I, whose sca le is denoted by T.

Of th e seve n sca les defi ned to re present the dynami cs of av ier- Stokes
eq uati ons, the first three are actu al parameters of the probl em. Their va lue is known
and fi xed, at least in the case where density is homogeneous. On th e other hand, th e
length , ve loc ity, press ure, and time scal es are not defin ed prec ise ly. Th e length sca le
can be defi ned arbitraril y usin g any ex istin g geometri ca l dimensions (such as the
di ameter of the pipe), but thi s phys ica l dimension is not necessaril y a typi ca l sca le of
th e fluid fl ow . In co mpl ex cases (e.g. turbul ence or boundary layer), several scales
may ex ist in th e tl ow. We shall ass ume in th e present case that the length sca le is the
sa me along all th e three directi ons in space. Thi s is not necessaril y correct (there
may be the length and width of a pipe). The same considerati ons appl y to the
ve loc ity d imensions.
62 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Enginee rin g

The seve n sca les in vo lve three units (time, length , and mass). Four
dimensionl ess numbers should , therefore, be defined to represent th e fl ow. These
numbers are determined naturall y by eva luating the order of magnitude of th e
various term s in Navier- Stokes equation. By writin g:

ii = Uii ' }
( x,v , z ) = L(x', v',z') '
[3.7]
p = Pp'
I = T! '

we brin g in the ve loc ity, ii', length sca les (x',y', and z'), pressure p ', and tim e 1',
which are dimensionless variab les. Substituting [3.7] into [3.6]1 eads to:

au' (
U ) + p -U " ) ( U- ,.,
( p -T -
- , =- ( -P ) .,
v )U vp ,- ( pg ) k- + ( p -U ) 6.11- , [3.8]
ot ' L L U

Di vidin g thi s equation by pU 1 I L yields:

L ) oii' ( - , .,) - , ( P- ) nv p ,- -g L ) k- + ( -P- ) 6. u- '

( -TU -ot ' + u v u =- -
( [3.9]
pU 2 U1 pUL

Equ ati on [3 .9] naturally brin gs the fo ur numbers we require, namely:

- th e reduced frequ ency, r = _!::_, which eva luates th e signill ca nce of

TU
un steadin ess,
p
- the Eul er number, E = - - whi ch g ives the rati o of press ure to kineti c
pU 2,
energy,

U"
- th e Froude number, Fr = - which eva lu ates kin eti c energy in rel ati on to
gL
variation in potential ene rgy,

- , w I11.c h eva Iuates t I1e e 11ect o f v1scos1ty

pUL
- the Reyno ld s num ber, Re = - . . .111
p
the dynami cs of the flow.

These four dimen sionl ess numbers ha ve a phys ical signifi cance, because they
co mpare th e orders of magnitude of the diffe rent forces th at govern the dynamics of
the flow .
 Dim ensional Analysis 63

Nav ie r- Sto kes eq uati o ns ca n. th e re fo re, be regarded as a functional re lati o nship

betwee n these four dimensionless numbe rs. The so luti o n of a vier- Stokes eq uati o ns
depe nd s o n th e va lu es o f th e different dime ns io nless numbers. Unsteady effects are
neg li g ibl e if y << I. The g ravitati o na l force is neg li g ible if Fr >> I. Las tl y, dynamic
equilibrium s are independent from viscosity if Re >> I . This formulati o n means th at
the fl ow ' s length . ve loc ity, press ure , a nd time sca les a re linked by a re lati o n. Fo r
exa mpl e, in th e case w he re, s imulta neo usly, y << I , Fr >> I and Re >> I , the
predominant terms in [3.9] a re such th at:

(i''V)ii ' - E'Vp' [3.1 OJ

T he E ul e r number is of o rd e r I ( if that is not th e case, the n th e sca les were

improperly c hosen ). The flow is c ha racterized by the excha nges between pressure
energy a nd kinetic e ne rgy. This is the case of a fl ow gove rned by Bernoulli's
theorem , for a n idea l fluid , and in th e abse nce of g ravity.

The approach presented here is the most comm o nl y used w hen two terms
d ominate the Nav ier- Stokes equ ation . Th e flow can the n be characterized by the
val ue of a s ing le dimen s io nl ess number. This is illu strated in sectio n 3.4 with the
c lass ica l example of the fa ll of a ba ll in a v isco us fluid (S tokes ' experiment).

The Eul e r. Froude, and Reynolds numbers a re well known . The reduced
freq ue nc y is less ; so , th e tim e sca le is o ft e n g ive n on th e basis of velocity a nd leng th
sca les by writing T = L I U so that y = I . This re lati o n is used for a turbul e nt flow .
Time appears as an independe nt paramete r in the case of osc illatin g flow s such as ,
4
e.g . the tl ow ge ne rated by the osc illati o n of a wall at a g ive n frequ e ncy

3.3. Similarity theory

S imil arity theory is used to study a phys ica l ph enomeno n at a reduced sca le
co mpared to the real sca le (th e re are a lso cases where o ne w ishes to e nlarge the
sca le , a ltho ug h thi s is rath er infreque nt) . The classical exa mpl e in fluid mec ha nics is
th e use of wind tunnel mode ls to stud y a n a ircraft prototype be fore co ns ide rin g its
rea l-s ize co nstru cti o n. The sa m e process is follow ed in c he mica l e ng in eerin g when
building a pilot ex pe riment.

To represent a given phe no me non at a different sca le , it sho uld be e nsured that
the ph ys ics of th e phe no me no n is preserved thro ug h the cha nge o f sca le. De pe nding
on th e case , the equati o ns of co ntinuum mechanics , Navier- Stokes equati o ns, th e
tran sport equ ati o ns fo r therma l energy, etc . will provide th e appropriate framework
to identify, thro ug h dime nsio na l analysis , the dime ns io nless numbe rs characterizing

4 See Exercise 3. 11 at the end of thi s chapter.

64 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi cal Engi neering

the probl em. If the dimensionl ess numbers retain the same va lue when changing
from the rea l sca le to the redu ced sca le. there is a guarantee that th e sa me physica l
ph enomeno n is being represented.

As a co ntinuation of th e previous secti on, let us take the exa mpl e of a fl ow

govern ed by av ier- Stokes equa ti ons. In the steady-state case, th e va lues of the
Eul er number, the Reynolds number, and th e Froude number should be preserved
through the change of sca le. Denoting by U, L, P, p, and p as the characteristi c
quantiti es of the real flow and U111 L111 , P111 , p 111 , and /1111 as the characterist ic quantities
of the "model'" flow , the fo ll ow ing relations shou ld be verified:

Um p Jim L
U Pm /1 Lm

U~, =J [3. 11]

p p L

brin gin g to the fore the co nsequences of th e change in geometri ca l sca le.

The firs t two relations (eq uality of Reynolds and Froude numbers) show that
it is not possible to change th e geo metri ca l sca le without changing the fluid (density
and viscos ity) , if th e first two conditi ons are to be fulfilled. If they are, th e third
co nditi on will also be fulfill ed in th e flow , in sofa r as the full-scale and model-sca le
pressure boundary conditi ons are adapted to verify th e latter conditi on.

In practice, it is rarely the case that all simil arity conditi ons are verifi ed.
It is often necessary to identify the dimensionless numbers that are the most
characteristi c of the fl ow dynami cs. The co nstraints assoc iated with a change of
fluid are usua ll y rather stringent (cost, avai lab ility of products, toxicity, etc.). Qu ite
ofte n, in marin e hydrodynami cs, in aerospace, or for impact studi es of natural flow s,
the Reynolds simil arity is not enforced between the rea l scale and the sca le model.
However, care is taken to ensure th at the Rey nold s number is suffi cie ntly large on
the sca le model, in order to be in a turbul ent regime on the sca le mode l as well as in
rea l size. Sin ce the effect of viscos ity is small in both configurations, the difference
in Reynold s number between the sca le model and the real-size case is of less
co nseq uence for the structure of the flow . Stud ying a flow in air by simulating it on
a sca le model in water is an engineer's tri ck that all ows a reducti on in the Reynold s
number difference between the real sca le and the sca le mode l (the kinemati c
viscos ity of air is about 15 tim es greater th an that of water).
 Dimensional Analys is 65

3.4. An application example: fall velocity of a spherical particle in a viscous

fluid at rest

We observe th e fa ll , under the effect of grav it y, of a spheri ca l ball with a

dia meter D and a density p" in a fluid with density Pi and kinemati c viscos ity v.
We ass ume that p" > PI so th at the particle has a fa lling movement within th e
fluid . After an acce lerati on ph ase, it is observed that the ball fall s at a constant
ve loci ty, We We wish to establi sh the dependence of We upon the parameters of the
probl em.

3.4.1. Application of the Vaschy- Buckingham theorem

As the ball is falling because it is located in the grav itati onal fi eld , the
acce lerati on due to grav ity, g , should be added to the catal og o f parameters
suggested above. It is also clea rl y und erstood that th e viscos ity o f th e fluid is an
important parameter. Friction forces slow down th e particl e and prevent it from
exceedin g a certain ve loc ity. Th e catal og of parameters is li sted in Tabl e 3.3. With
six parameters and three dimensions, the Vasc hy- Buckingham th eo rem indi cates
that th e fall dynami cs of the ball is govern ed by three dimensionl ess numbers.

Parameter
Un it

Table 3.3. List ofparameters, with their dimensions, involved in the settling (?f'a spherical
particle in a viscous fluid (proposal no. /)

A simpli sti c, "blind" anal ys is of th e dimensions of different parameters naturall y

leads us to suggest the foll owing dimensionless numbers:

PP WeD and -W/ [3. 12]

Pr II gD

Such a suggesti on is hardl y acceptabl e from th e standpoint of ph ys ics governin g

th e fall of th e ball. We have merely stated that th e ball is fallin g beca use it is s ituated
in the grav itati onal fi eld and because p" > Pi To take thi s furth er, it is useful to
consider, in sequence, two as pects of the phenomenon' s physics:

I. Th e dynami cs of th e ball 's fall , regard ed as a so lid system.

2. The dynami cs of the flo w past the ball , whi ch slows dow n its fall .
 66 Fluid Mec hani cs fo r Chemi ca l Engin ee rin g

3.4.2. Forces exerted on the ball

Three forces are exerted on th e ball:

JrD l
I. th e we ight Fp = p " - -g (dow nwa rd s):
6

JrDl
2. th e buoya ncy forc e exert ed by th e fluid F, = p 1 - - g (up ward s); and
6

3. th e hydrodynami c force exert ed by th e fluid on th e parti cle F11 (Wc.D.pr Y)

(upwards). Thi s hydrodynami c force does not depend directl y on th e densit y p" o f
the parti cle, since it res ults from th e fl ow of the fluid past th e ball . It depend s on it
indirectl y through we

When the ba ll fall s at a constant ve loc ity, th e equilibrium betwee n th ese three
forces is veri ti ed, in acco rdance with th e fund amental law of dynami cs. We ca n,
therefore, write:

[3. 13)

Not know in g FR (Wc. D,p 1 ,v) , eq uation (3.13) does not see m to take us much
furth er. Howeve r, it hi ghli ghts th e fac t that th e density of th e parti cle, p1, and th e
gravitati onal acce leration , g, onl y intervene in th e probl em through the qu antity
(p p- P; )g. Table 3.3 is th erefore modifi ed accordingly as prese nted in Tabl e 3.4.

I
Parameter w. D
I (p,,- p,)g p, I'
I
1 1 ! I
I Unit ms Ill I kg m ' s ' kgm m s

Table JA . !.is! olearunu:ters. H'ilh !heir di111ensiuns. illl'oh ed in !he sell ling o/u seherical
parlicle in a l't.lco /ls.fluid (proposa/1w. 2)

The probl em is thu s desc ribed by onl y two dim ensionl ess numbers. We
introduce th e foll ow in g two dimensionl ess numbers:

I. Archim edes number Ar = (p" -PI )gD 3

[3. 14)
Pr v 2

W, D
2. Th e Reyn old s number Re = - - [3. 15)
v
 Dimensional Ana lysis 67

The use of the Reynolds and Archimedes numbers sta nds out as the most natural
among a number of poss ibiliti es. The fall veloc ity is th e unknown of the prob lem,
whose condition s are set by other parameters. Hence, th e fall ve locity is introduced
on ly in th e Reynolds number, while Archimedes number characterizes the properties
of th e bal l and fluid (the conditions of the phenomenon).

Co nsequentl y, the fall ve locity of the ball is govern ed by a relation between

these two numbers:

Re = function {Ar } [3 . 16]

The formu lation for determining th e fall ve loc ity is ex pli cit, know in g th e va lue of
Arc himedes number.

3.4.3. The hydrodynamic force opposing the particle's movement relative to the
fluid

The analysis of the hydrodynamic force opposing the particl e's movement
re lati ve to the fluid enabl es us to determin e the dimen sional fom1 of the fall ve locity
in two asymptoti ca l cases, when the Reynolds number is small or when it is large.
The hyd rodynamic forc e result s from two contribut ions :

I. The viscous fri ction forc e [3.1 7)

2. The pressure force exe11ed on the surface of the ball F P :::: PD 2 [3. 18)

Both these forces are proportional to the area of th e ball , which is homogeneous
to D2 The viscous fricti on force in vo lves the visco us stress for a Newtonian fluid
(Tab le 1. 1 of Chapter I ). We obta in [3 .17] by estimating that the ve loc ity grad ient in
the vicinity of th e ball is of th e order Wj D, since We is the velocity sca le and D is
th e on ly length sca le in the probl em. The length sca le of movements generated in the
fluid by the moti on or the ba ll is necessaril y simil ar to the size of the ball. The
pressure fi eld changes with th e va lue of the Reynolds number.

3.4.4. Fall velocity for a small Reynolds number

When the Reynolds number is small , th e dominant term in [3 .9) is the

viscous term. The Eul er number has the orde r of th e rec iprocal o f the Reynolds
number, ( E:::: I I Re). Th e dynami cs of the fl ow is governed by equ ilibrium between
68 Fluid Mechanics for Chem ica l Engin eerin g

th e press ure fi eld and th e visco us stress 5 The press ure sca le, the n, has the same
order of magnitude as th e visco us stress:

[3.19]

and th e resis tant hydrodynami c force is:

[3.201

Th e eq uilibrium betwee n th e force s exerted on the ball (equati on [3.13]) leads to

th e dimensional form of Stokes law:

We = A (p" - P t )gD " [3.2 1]

P J I'

An exact ca lcu lati on of th e fl ow past th e ball shows th at the value of the constant
is A = 1/ 18.

3.4.5. Fall velocity for a large Reynolds number

When the Reynold s number is large, th e visco us term is neg li g ible in (3.9]. The
Eul er num be r is of the order of I, s in ce we are in th e situatio n described by (3. 10] .
The press ure sca le is:

[3. 22 ]

Since the Reynold s number is large, the pressure force (equ at ion [3. 181)
outwei ghs the viscous force (eq uati on [3. 17]). The hydrodynami c force is:

(3.23]

Th e equ ilibrium between the forces exe rted on th e bal l (equa ti on [3.13]) now
leads to Newton's law:

W, = 8 (p,, - pr) gD (3.24J

Pr

Only th e va lue of con stant 8 is undetermin ed.

5 Thi s category or fl ows. ca lled "c reeping fl ows ... is ab un dan tl y docume nted. in particu lar for
lubrication probl ems. Chapter 16 discusses creeping fl ows around a small particl e.
 Dimensiona l Analys is 69

T he res ults of thi s a pp li cati o n exerc ise are taken up aga in in sectio n 14. 1 of
C hap te r 14 . As can be seen, dime ns io na l a na lys is is very critical and cru c ia l in the
ana lys is of p hys ica l ph e no m e na, at a first leve l by dete rminin g th e assoc iation of
ph ysical pa ra mete rs tha t e nable res ults to be ex pressed , and at a second leve l, when
th e exac t case a ri ses , by predictin g th e dimens io na l form of physical laws for certain
asy mpto ti ca l s itu ati o ns. W e have reac hed thi s second leve l in thi s examp le.

3.5. Application exe rcises

Exercise 3.1: Time of resilience and ch emical reaction in a stirred reactor

We a re inte rested in perfo rmin g, in a perfec tly stirre d reactor wi th vo lume V, th e

fo ll ow ing c he mi ca l reaction :

A + 8 -7 C + D.

w hi ch is a first-order reac ti o n with res pect to each of th e co nstitue nts. The kinetics
o f th e react io n a re . th erefore, w ritte n as:

by incorpo ra tin g th e kin eti c constan t, k. Both constitue nts are fed at time 1 = 0 with
concentratio ns [A]o and [8] 0

Determine. by dim e ns io na l ana lys is reasonin g, the ord er of mag nitude of the
residence tim e in th e stirred reac to r so th at th e concentrati on o f product B at the
reac tor o utl e t is Ill 00 of w ha t it was at the inl e t ( it is ass um ed that [A]o > [8] 0 ).

HINT.- T hi s app li ca ti o n o f th e Vaschy- Buckin g ham th eore m leads us to

questi o n th e no ti o n of unit.

Exercise 3. 11: Boundary layer on an oscillating plate

Cons id e r a fluid bounded by a flat p late at its botto m. The pl ate osc ill ates at a
v ibration frequ e nc y OJ in a ho ri zo nta l plan e (as indicated in Fi g ure 2. 11.1 by th e
d oub le arrow). The magn itude o f th e p late ' s v ibrati o na l motion is 2a. Th e fluid is a
N ewto n ian tluid havi ng a kin e ma ti c viscos ity 11 a nd a d ensity p. Due to the effect
of v iscos ity , th e v ibrati o na l mo ti o n indu ces movements in the fluid , w hi c h are
re stri cted to a bo undary layer hav in g a thi ckn ess 5.
70 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineering

Amplitude o f d isplacements of a llui cl

pa rti cle accordin g to the di stance

. :f
z fro m the wall

- 1--

211

Figure 3.11.1. Amplitude a/displacement.\ nlaf/uid particle according to the

dis tance zfrom the 11 all

I. Through dimensional analys is reason ing, determine a set of dimen sionl ess
numbers wi th which to express the dependency of 5 on the parameters of the prob lem.
2. When th e amplitude of osc illati ons is suffi ciently small , experiments show
that th e thickness, 5, of the boundary laye r does not depend on th e amplitude 2a of
the osc ill ati ons. Ca n yo u then provide a simpl e ex press ion of the boundary laye r
thi ckness?

Exercise 3. 111: Head capacity curve ofa centrifugal pump

Th e head ca pac ity curve of a pump, pl otted in Figure 3. 111.1 , is described by the
fol lowing functi on, whi ch link s the tl ow rate delivered Q with th e head change ,1/-/
between th e inl et and outl et of th e pump:

[3.11 1.1]

with I'!.Hmax.l = 10 5 Pa and a 1 = 5.76 x l 0q Pa s 2 / m 6 Thi s pump has a rotor

diameter D 1 = 200 mm and runs at a speed of 180 rpm.

Q"'"'

Figure 3.111.1. Head capacity curve nfpump I

 Di me nsional Analys is 71

I. What is th e max imum fl ow rate deli verable by th e pump, and what is the
max imum height to whi ch the pump ca n lift th e fluid ?
2. The co mpany th at manu fac tures thi s pump offers in its catalog anoth er pump
ha vin g a di ameter D ~ = 150 mm , whi ch run s at a speed o f 150 rpm .

Th e two pumps are related by a sca le factor, i.e. all geometri ca l dimensions are
111 proporti on with the rati o of rotor di ameters. For exa mple, the di ameters of th e
discharge ports are such th at d 1 I d ~ = D1 I D~ (index I refers to pump I and index 2
to pum p 2).

The fl ow conditi ons are such that the pumps operate in a turbul ent reg ime, with a
large Reyno lds number. Whi ch parameter ca n we infe r that the head ca pac ity curve
is independent from?

As thi s co mpany has not posted th e head ca pacity curve o f that second pump on
its webs ite, yo ur boss as ks you to determin e it.

Demonstrate, by a dimensional analys is argument, that the head ca pac ity curve
of th e second pump is o f the form 111-1 = M 1max.2 - a 2 Q2 . Determine th e valu es of
11H ma.\ .~ , a nd a~ , hav ing know ing th ose of 11Hma.x.l , and a1 .

Wh at are th e max imum fl ow rate deli verabl e by pump 2, and the maximum
height to whi ch it can lifi th e fluid ?

T hi s exe rcise does not require any spec ifi c knowl edge of the operati on of
ce ntrifuga l pumps, apa11 from understandin g that it is th e rotati onal speed of the
rotor th at produces the pumpin g acti on, and that the fl ow rate and head change
betwee n th e inl et and outl et of th e pump also depend on the geometri ca l dimensions
of the devi ce.

NOT E.- While many manu fac turers ex press the output head as a water-co lumn
height , it is cru cial in thi s exercise to ex press th e head as an energy per unit vo lume
( 1-1 = P + pV 2 I 2 ), as grav ity has nothing to do with the pump 's operati on.
 Chapter 4

Steady-State Hydraulic Circuits

4.1. Operating point of a hydraulic circuit

A hydra ulic c irc uit e nco mpasses a ll the e le me nts th at e nabl e fluid circulation in
a n indu stri a l syste m . It is made up of di f'fe rent e le ments suc h as:

- Pipes.

- Pumps to ge nerate the flow.

- Blocking me mbers, such as va lves .

- Reactors.

The purpose of s iz in g a hyd raulic circuit is usua lly to se lect th e me mbers of the
c irc uit (p ump , pipes . e tc .) that e nab le th e desired fl ow rate to be maintained in the
c irc uit , for a known head change betwee n th e inl et a nd the o utlet of th e c irc uit.

In order to s ize a ci rc uit, th e eng ineer sho uld cons ider two as pects:

I . Evaluate the head change in the circuit. Reca ll that the head is the fluid ' s
ene rgy per unit vo lume, a nd that thi s energy is th e sum of the press ure ene rgy,
kinetic e nergy , and potential e ne rgy (Chapter 2 , sect io n 2.2):

Vl
H = p + p - + pgz [4.1]
2

(z is the a ltitude of the fluid in th e direction opposite to that of g rav ity). Eva luating
th e head va ri at io ns provides in s ig ht into th e energy losses assoc ia ted with th e
74 Flui d M ec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engin eerin g

va ri o us e le me nts in th e c irc uit. Energy losses pe r unit pipe le ngth (re fe rred to as
" reg ul ar" or " fricti o na l" head loss) are low in stra ig ht pipes, but ca nno t be neg lected
whe n pipe le ngt hs are s ig nifi ca nt. Loca ll y, la rge e ne rgy losses are a lso assoc iated
w ith parti c ul a r ite ms (va lves, be nds, cross-sec ti o n ex pa ns io ns, etc.). Th ese head
dro ps, re fe rred to as "s ing ul ar head losses", need to be eva luated . A pump , o n th e
o th er ha nd. adds e ne rgy to th e fl ow: the fluid 's head in c reases upo n go ing thro ug h a
pump .

2. Evaluating th e press ure change along a hy draulic circu it. Ca re sho uld be
ta ke n to prevent th e press ure fro m dro ppin g be lo w th e vapo r press ure in a hydra uli c
c ircuit , so as to avo id cav it ati o n. Cav itati o n is a ph e no me no n wh e reby a liquid bo il s
due to a pressure d ro p, ca us in g pe rfo rm a nce degrada ti o n, no ise , and mec ha ni ca l
damage . W e sha ll tac kl e th e phe no me no n of cav itati o n at th e end of thi s chapte r.

Pl ott in g th e " tota l head li ne" an d the press ure line" a lo ng a hydra uli c c ircuit
e nabl es the e ngi neer to ide nti fy the most se ns it ive e le me nts. Q uite often . a
qualitati ve re prese ntati o n o f the va ri ati o ns in these two lin es, pri o r to a quanti ta ti ve
eva luati o n. prov ides a w ea lth of info rmati o n.

Let us di sc uss , fo r exa m ple, a hydra uli c c irc uit ( Fi g ure 4. 1) tha t lifts wa ter from
a lower bas in to an uppe r bas in. The diffe re nce in a ltitude betwee n th e fr ee-s ur face
leve ls in the bas in s is h. T he bas in s are ass umed to have a large s ize; the ir leve l
rema in s consta nt, a nd th e ve loc ity in each bas in can be rega rded as nil exce pt in th e
immedi ate vic inity o f th e pipe ' s o pe nin gs. Th e c irc uit inc ludes duc ts o f va ri o us
di a mete rs, a pump , a nd a va lve. A ltho ug h it does no t make mu c h se nse fro m a
prac ti ca l po int o f view, th e di a me te r o f the pipe is sm a ll e r between F and G than
e lsewhe re in th e c irc uit . Thi s w ill e na bl e us to desc ribe th e e ffect of the contrac ti o n
(be twee n E a nd F) and of the ex pa ns io n (be twee n G and H) o n th e to ta l head and
pressure lin es.

T he pressure a nd head a t both e nd s of th e c1rc uit (at A a nd L) are eas il y

dete rmin ed . If th e o ri g in of the a ltitud e is c hose n at th e free s urface o f the lowe r
bas in , bo th th e pressure p a nd the head H = p +pg~ + pV2!2 equa l th e atmospheri c
pressure, Pa1111 , at A (th e bas in is la rge and the ve loc ity is ze ro). A t L, th e press ure
a lso equa ls Pa 1111 , w hil e the head equal s J-1 = Pa 1111 + pgh . Th e pump ge ne rates the o nl y
head in c rease in the c irc uit (be twee n C and D), a ll o win g th e fluid to be lifte d from
th e lo we r bas in to the upper bas in .

Regul ar head losses occ ur a lo ng the pipes. T he s lopes o f th e tota l head lin e and
of th e press ure line a re ide nti ca l fo r the ho ri zo nta l pipe secti o ns (between 8 a nd C.
a nd the n be tween J a nd K). O n the o the r ha nd , th e press ure decreases more ra pidl y
tha n the head in th e s lo pin g pipes (be twee n D a nd E, then F a nd G, the n H a nd I)
beca use of g rav ity.
 Steady-S tate Hydra uli c Circuits 75

H--

p ......

ex pans ion

Palrn+pgh ...: ...~,'~JveI \

........._pump
.. \ expans ion
restric ti o n
"- ... \ ....... ;/
.....

AB C D EF GH IJ K L

Figure 4. 1. Hydraulic circuit. !-lead line (so lid) and pressure line (dotted)

Passi ng through the va lve (between I and J) generates a sudden hea d loss, ca lled
a singul ar head loss. As the cross-sections are identical at the inl et and outl et of the
va lve , the variation is th e same for th e head and th e press ure .

A s udden ex pansion in cross-secti o n causes a head loss, as we have seen with

Borda ' s model (Chapter 2, secti on 2.6). The head dec reases, but the pressure
increases , between G and H . Th e ex pansion that co rresponds to th e arriva l in the
upper bas in a lso causes a head loss. The flow is para ll e l; therefore the pressure is
hydrostatic at K . It s va lue is PK = ? .,111 + pghK, w here hK is the depth of the di sc harge
end with respect to the free s urface in the upper basin . The head loss between K and
76 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

L correspo nds to the kin eti c energy o f the tl o w at th e di scha rge e nd. A ll th ese
behav iors are described in Bo rd a ' s mod e l. Head losses ge ne rated by cross-secti on
contrac ti o ns are typicall y sma ll er th a n th ose ge ne rated by ex pans io ns . Fo r thi s
reason, th e head vari ation is taken to be ze ro between E a nd F, but th e press ure
dec reases, through the appli cation of Be rn o ulli 's th eore m , s ince th e ve loc ity
increases. A contraction al so occurs be tween A a nd B, a nd consequ entl y it is
postul ated th at the head is co nserved . In Fig ure 4 . 1, th e press u re increases betwee n
A and B, as is the case w he n B is suffi c ie ntl y deep be low A. Th e press ure in c rease
du e to grav it y overco mes th e pressure decrease assoc ia ted w ith the acce lera ti o n of
fluid in the contracti on. Th e oppos ite be hav io r is o bse rved if B is at a s ma ll de pth
be low A.

Thi s exa mpl e shows how easy it is to pl o t, in a qua litati ve ma nner, th e press ure
and head va ri ati o ns in a hydrauli c c irc uit . Th e theo reti ca l fo undati o n need ed fo r
SIZIIlg a hydraulic c ircuit has a lrea dy been prese nted in th e prev io us c ha pters,
name ly:

- Th e concept o f head, inc luding res pecti ve contributi o ns from th e p ress ure,
kin eti c energy , and potenti a l energy.

- Be rn o ulli 's theo rem, w hi c h can be a ppli ed a lo ng th ose po rti ons o f th e c irc uit
w here energy is conserved.

- The noti o n o f a s ing ul ar head loss , a lrea dy e nco unte red in the case of a sudde n
ex pa ns io n (Bord a's mode l). A head loss co rres po nds to a loss of e nergy. T he
differences between cross-secti o na l e x pans io ns and contrac ti o ns, a lread y con s ide red
in secti on 2.6, are aga in di scu ssed in secti o n 4.4 . W e reta in he re th e bas ic idea th at
a substantial ex pans ion in the cross-secti o n o f a pipe , in the directi o n o f th e tl ow,
res ults in a head loss, w hereas ene rgy ca n be co nserved in a c ro ss-sec ti o na l
contrac ti o n.

- Regul a r head losses in a stra ight pipe, a lread y intro du ced fo r Po ise uill e tl ows
(sec ti o ns 1.3 and 1.4) and di sc ussed in C ha pte r 3 unde r th e a pproac h of d im e ns io na l
ana lys is .

Thi s c hapter dea ls onl y with esta bli shed reg ime (s tead y-s tate) fl ow s in a
hydrauli c circuit. In thi s fram ework , we e mph as ize th e diffe rence between flow s in
conve rge nt and di verge nt pipes, di scu ss th e e ffe ct o f turbulen ce o n pipe fl o w s , a nd
tac kl e the pro bl e m of cav itati o n. Tran s ie nt tl o w s in hydrauli c c ircuits w ill be dea lt
w ith in C hapter 6, when di scuss ing wa te r hamm er ph eno me na.

In a steady-state re g ime, tluid tl o w in a hydrauli c c irc uit is charac teri zed by

the fl ow rate Q. The tlow rate is set by th e head va ri ati o ns a lo ng th e c irc uit. S in ce
the head values (equati on [4 . 1]) are kn ow n at the inl et (He) and at the o utl et (H.), the
head difference between th e outl et and inl e t is equal to the s um o f head di ffe ren ces
 Steady-S tate Hydrauli c Circuits 77

along th e di ffe re nt porti ons of th e circuit , whi ch ca n be written as:

[4.2]

In thi s fo rmul ati on, it is poss ibl e to di stin gui sh pumps (s um over index i) , whi ch
brin g energy to th e fluid , and head losses, whi ch abso rb some of it. One can also
di stingui sh, among head losses, those assoc iated with pipes (sum ove r in dex j) ,
whi ch absorb energy in proporti on to their length s, L1, and th ose with the devi ces
that are respons ibl e for singul ar head dro ps (s um over index k). Some authors refer
to equati on [4 .2] as th e "generali zed Bern oulli equati on." We avo id thi s terminology
sin ce it ca n be reca ll ed th at the Bern oulli equati on is connected to the noti on of
energy conservati on. When energy is conserved, Bernoulli 's theorem applies as a
fluid particle is fo ll owed along a streamline. Th e same holds for establi shing [4. 2].
Determinin g th e head va ri ati on H s - H E between the inl et and the outlet is
equ iva lent to fo ll ow in g a flu id par1i cle along the circuit , from th e inl et to th e outl et.
Consequ entl y, head vari ati ons ac ross a pump are added, whereas head losses are
subtracted.

In [4.2 ], we ant ic ipate secti on 4.2 for determining head losses in straight pipes,
and on secti on 4.4 fo r determining s ingul ar head losses. Th e unknow n in equati on
[4. 2] is th e tl ow rate Q through th e circuit, since the area-ave raged streamwise
ve loc iti es U1 and Uk are related to th e fl ow rate via th e avail abl e fl ow sections
( Q = U; S; = UkSk ). S 1 is th e through-fl ow secti on in straight pipes and Sk is the
through-flow secti on at a characteri sti c point in th e element ca using the singul ar
head loss. The operating point o f th e c ircuit is determined by deri ving the fl ow rate
from [4.2], whi ch requires characteri zin g singul ar head losses by their head loss
coeffi cients, (k, and regul ar head losses by their regular head loss coe ffi cients, -11. It
is also necessary to know the head/capac ity curves of the pumps in stall ed in the
circuit , t",.H pump.,( Q) .

Th e noti on o f head is assoc iated with th at of power. For a pump , th e hydrauli c

power co nsumed is:

(Jh ydrauli c =Q 1'1./-/ pump [4.3]

Since th e head vari ati on is an amount o f energy per unit vo lume in a steady state,
it is suffi c ient to multipl y it by the volume fl ow rate.

For a closed circuit, we have H s = H E, and equati on [4.2] is eq ui va lent to

writing that, in a steady state, the head contributed by th e pumps cance ls out the
total head losses in the circuit.
7R Fluid Mechani cs fo r Chemi ca l Engineering

Later in thi s chapter, we formall y set out th e too ls used for sizing head losses.
The element s used for se lec tin g pumps are introdu ced in Chapter 5. Differe nt types
of pumps are presented (ce ntrifuga l pump s, ax ial pumps, pos iti ve di spl acement
pumps), and the reasoning th at guides th e cho ice of a pump, based on the leve ls of
fl ow rate and head to be deli vered, is di sc ussed .

4.2. Steady-state flows in straight pipes: regular head loss

Consider a straight pipe o f length L, in whi ch a fluid o f density p and kinemati c

viscos ity v fl ows. The surface fini sh of th e pipe is characteri zed by th e roughness
size, denoted by e (its dim ens ion is a length ). In th e most generi c case, the cross-
secti onal geometry of th e pipe is arbitrary (rectangul ar, circul ar, etc.). A size
representati ve of its " di ameter" is de fin ed by the hydrauli c di ameter D 11 , whi ch IS
based on the rati o of the cross-secti on 's area , S, to its perimeter P:

45
D" = - [4.4]
p

The notion of a hydrauli c di ameter ori gin ates from th e momentum th eo rem
(Chapter 2, secti on 2.5). The factor 4 in [4.4] eq uates th e hydrauli c di ameter with th e
phys ica l di amete r fo r a pipe of circul ar or squ are cross-section. Fo r a rectangul ar
pipe whose sides have length s u and b, we have D 11 = 2ab I (a + b).

Dimensional analys is (described in Chapter 3) showed that the fl ow veloc ity U

in the pipe is related to th e regul ar head loss , !1? / L, via a fun cti onal in vo lving the
foll ow in g three dimensionl ess numbe rs:

I . The linea r press ure drop coe ffi cient ,1 = 2!1PD"

pU 2 L

2. Th e Reyno ld s numbe r Re = UD" [4.5 ]

v

3. Th e relativ e roughness

The ve loc ity U is th e area-ave raged strea mw ise ve loc ity in the pipe. We
th erefore write:

[4 .6]
 Steady-S tate Hydrauli c Circuits 79

The fo rm of the lin ea r press ure drop coefficient pro mpts three remarks:

I . The fac tor 2 brings into A. the rati o of th e c hange in pressure energy to the
kinetic energy of the fl ow per unit vo lume.

2. The rati o 0 11/L in th e regular press ure dro p coeffi c ie nt acco unts for th e
propert y th at th e fl ow velocity depends on th e pressure change between th e inl et and
th e outl et in proportion to th e le ngth of th e pipe. Th e same flow rate is obtained if
th e press ure change and the leng th of th e pipe are s imulta neous ly doubled.

3. The linear pressure drop coeffic ient is related in a s impl e way to a friction
coeffic ient. The momentum theore m (Chapter 2, secti o n 2.5) establi shed that the
average fr icti on stress r exerted by th e fl ow o n th e pipe is suc h th at:

!lP s
r = - - =---
l:lP D H
[4. 7]
L P L 4
The friction coeffici ent is th e n:

r A.
Cr = - - = - [4 .8 )
pU 2 8

Thi s estimates th e mean friction exe rted by the flow o n the wall . The va lue
co inc ides with the loca l va lue at a ll points o n the wall when the cross-section of
the pipe is c ircular, or in th e case of a plan e flow . On the o th er hand , friction is
inho mogeneou s when th e profil e of the pipe has angles, in which case relati o n [4.8]
estimates the mean friction over the pe rimete r of the pipe .

Figure 4.2 shows the Co le broo k diag ra m of the variations in the linear pressure
drop coeffi c ient A. with th e Reyno lds numbe r Re fo r various commo n va lues of the
relative roughness k. Whe n the streamwi se ve loc ity is known , the Co lebrook
diagram e nables a direct determ inati o n of the head loss from the value of A., since
th e Reyno ld s number and th e relative ro ughn ess a re kn own. It is usefu l to keep
o-
in mind th at A. varies be tween I 2 and I o-t for typical engineering applications.
The ro ug hness of a pipe de pe nds o n th e ma te ri a l fro m which the pipe is made,
and a lso on its state of pre pa ration . Orders of mag nitude a re provided in Ta bl e 4.1 .
In a turbul ent re gime, th e a na lyti ca l exp ress io n o f th e different curves is g ive n by
Co lebrook ' s formula:

[4. 9)

In case of a Reynolds number of very hi g h value, the linear pressure drop

coe ffici ent becomes inde pe nde nt of the Reynolds numbe r. Its value is determined
by th e re lative roughness , which means that turbulence is driven by un evenness on
the wall.
80 Flui d Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

A= 2D.P~)II
pU-L

.. L
)
La minar flo w

... ';'"""" j~::::

''"~
T""'"'""
'""
l'r:,\1',~;bul ~n~~.rm ;ll_~;,c;
....
..., I
F I ..' ."..

.....
M03 k= - ''-
D/1

"" : Snioati, pes

' , "
1-

'-~'""'""'
l
' 110" 2 l It I
' ' l

Re = uo,,
I'

Figure 4.2. Colebrook diagram. Fig ure reproducedfiwn a pho rocopvfiom lecl!lre
nores by A. Bonazz i [BON 94}

Ma teri al Conditi on e (in mm )

Brass, co pper, aluminium , pl as ti c
material s, glass Smooth , deposit-free e < 0.03
New 0.03 < e < 0. 1
Slightl y rusty 0. 1 < e < 0.2
Rusty 0.2 < e < O.J
Steel Sca le-coated 0.5 < e < 2
Bitumini zed. new 0.03 < e < 0.05
Bitumini zed, normal 0. 1 < (:' < 0.2
Ga lva ni zed e = 0 ~ 13
New e = 0.2 5
Rusty I < e < 1.5
Cast iron Sca le-coated (:' > 1.5
Bitumini zed, new 0.03 < e < 0.05
Concrete 0.3 < e < 3

Table 4.1 . Ahsol111e m 11ghnessji;r pipes

Usi ng th e Co lebrook di ag ram to determine the area-ave raged strea m wi se

ve loc ity based o n a kn ow n head loss is not stra ig htforwa rd. Howeve r, by observ ing
that the quantity Re .Ji is independent of the ve locity, it is possible to rewrite
 Steady-S tate Hydrauli c Circuits 81

Co le broo k 's fo rmul a [4 .9] in the fo rm:

-I= -2 1o { e ~Lv
+ 2.5 1 - - - } 2 [4 . 10]
Ji g 3.7 1D 11 21'!.PD 3

T hi s a lte rna ti ve fo rmul ati o n enables us to ca lc ul ate the lin ear pressure dro p
coeffic ie nt exp li c itl y a nd to deri ve therefrom the va lu e of the mean streamw ise
ve loc ity.

On the Co le broo k di ag ram, di fferent cl ass ica l fl ow reg imes can be di sting ui shed .

The smooth laminar regime. For Re < 2000, we o btain A= 64 I Re. T hi s res ult is
accurate for the Po ise uill e flow in a c ircul ar pipe (C hapter I , secti o n 1.4), as
D 11 = 2 R and U = I'!.PR 2 18pvL.

Th e smooth turbulent regime corres po nds to the lower e nve lope of the bundl e of
4
c urves in the Co le brook di agram, fo r Re > 5 x 10 3 In the ra nge 10 < Re < 10 5 , thi s
114
c urve is we ll desc ribed by the Bl as ius formul a, A= (I 00 Re) - .

The rough turbulent regime corresponds to the conditi o ns under whi ch the linear
pressure d rop coe ffi c ie nt becomes independent o f the Rey no lds number (w he n
the latte r is suffi cie ntl y hi gh). The va lue of A then depends o nl y on the ro ug hness
coeffi cient ; that is, the zo ne to the right of the dashed curve on the Co lebroo k di agram .

The Co lebrook di agra m eva luates the head loss- flow rate relatio nshi p fo r a ll
!low co nfi g urati o ns in a straight pipe. Thi s is made poss ibl e by the dime ns io nl ess
re prese nta ti o n of the diag ram and by the use of the hydrauli c di a mete r to re present
th e cross-sec ti o n of the pipe. It prov ides a sati sfactory estimate in ma ny cases.
Mo re acc urate a nd comprehens ive eva luati o ns can be fo und in the book by lde l'c ik
[ IDE 60].

4.3. Turbulence in a pipe and velocity profile of the flow

T he fl ow in a pipe beco mes turbul ent when its ve loc ity exceeds a thresho ld
defi ned by a c riti ca l value of the Reynolds numbe r. Fo r a circ ul ar pipe, th e fo ll ow ing
crite ri o n is agreed upo n:

UD
Re = - > 2000 [4 . 1 I]
v

T he Reyno lds num be r is de fin ed usin g th e area-averaged stream w ise ve loc ity
and the di a meter of th e pipe. The onset of turbul ence is related to the notion of
fl ow insta bility. T he Po iseuill e fl ow does not re ma in steady if the Reyno lds numbe r
82 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

exceeds a va lue of a few th ousand . Small di sturbances in the fl ow, which are
unavo idabl e. get amplifi ed and render the fl ow un steady. Thi s principle has been
described in th e concludin g part of Chapter I.

Although a turbulent fl ow is by definiti on un steady, th e ave rage profil e or the

fl ow in a pipe is de fined by averaging, for example in time, th e velocity measured at
every point of th e pipe. We will return to thi s approach in more detail in Chapter R,
which presents elementary notions regarding turbul ence.

The three esse ntial noti ons abo ut turbul ence that should be kept in mind for now
are as foll ows :

I. Turbulence mixes a f luid. It therefore also "mi xes ve loc iti es," hence a
tendency to render th e ve loc it y field unifom1 immediatel y upon mov ing away from
the wa ll s.
2. Turbulence reinforces viscous diss ipation phenomena. We have shown in
secti on 2.8 of Chapt er 2 (eq uati on [2.45]) that th e rate of kinetic energy dissi pation
per unit mass is, at any po int in the fl ow:

[4. 12)

Thi s ex press ion involves th e square of th e velocity gradients. Viscous dissipati on

is amplified in a turbul ent flow because velocity gradients therein are strengthened.
A knock-on effect of thi s result is an increase in the regul ar head loss.
3. Wa/1_/i-iction is strong !)' reinforced in a tu rbulenlflow. Thi s result ensues fro m
th e relati onship between th e regul ar head loss and th e fricti on stress (eq uati on [4.Rl).

Th ese three properti es are manifest in th e shape of th e ve loc ity profile for th e
pipe fl ow. In Figure 4.3 , th e paraboli c profil e of the laminar fl ow (Po iseuille
so luti on) is compared to th e typical average ve loc ity profil e for a turbul ent tl ow.
The turbul ent fl ow is quasi-homogeneous in th e cen tral secti on of the pipe. Thi s is
coupl ed with a thin boundary layer on th e walls , where the average ve loc ity gradi ent
is concentrated. For a fluid of viscos ity v fl ow ing in a pipe with a di ameter D,
friction on th e wall is much large r in a turbul ent regime than in a laminar reg ime.
The fl ow remain s laminar onl y if its area-averaged streamwi se ve loc ity U" is such
that U"Di v < 2000. Tran siti on from the lamin ar to the turbulent reg ime occ urs upon
increas ing th e mean strea mw ise ve loc ity, and conseq uentl y the maximum ve loc ity
Um is larger in the turbul ent case than in the laminar case. The velocity gradi ent
at the wall is also increased in a turbul ent reg ime due to its bein g confined to a
boundary laye r on the wall , as shown in Figure 4.3.
 Steady-S tate Hydrau li c C ircuits 83

\ u(: )IU,..

X X

Laminar Turbulent

Fi g ure 4.3. Comparison of the velocitv profile in a laminar regime with the average
velocity profile in a turbulent regime for the flo w in a straigh t pipe. U,.. is the maximum
velocity. For the turbule111 case, the colored area indicates the boundmy layer

4.4. Singular head losses

Borda's ca lcul ati on estimates the head loss of a fl ow in a sudden expansion.

In Figure 4.4 , we rev isit the situati ons already examined in C hapter 2 (secti on 2.6),
comparing the sudden expansion and sudden restri cti on cases.

T he sudden ex pansion (F igure 4 .4a) generates , in the shaded zone, a head loss
whose va lue depends on the cross-sectio n rati o:

[4.13]

(Bo rda's model, equation [2.3 0] in C hapter 2). T he most remarka bl e pro perty of
thi s re lati on is that it does not depend on v iscos ity. The sudden ex pansion causes a
s ubsta nti al, loca li zed energy loss, whi ch is consequentl y re ferred to as a s ingu lar
head loss . A large part of the fl ow ' s kineti c energy is di ssipated in the process.
If thi s energy loss is compared to the head loss ca used by fri cti on in a cy lindrical
pipe , simpl e nu meric appli cations (to be done as exerc ises) show that a substantial
length of pipe wo uld be needed to cause an energy loss of a leve l compara bl e to th at
generated by a sudden ex pansion.

Fo r th e sudden restri cti on (F igure 4.4b), the tlow separates on the ri ght-angle
edge and first goes through the restricted section Sc, be fore ex panding aga in to
occupy the w ho le cross-secti on S 1 o f the pipe . The ensuin g head loss results due to
th e expansion between secti on Sc and section S 1 (s haded area). O n the other hand ,
energy is conserved in the doma in (hatched area) w here the fl ow undergoes a
restricti on in ava il abl e secti on.
84 Fluid Mec hanics fo r Chemi ca l Engin eeri ng

s,

s,

a. S udd r n >x p a ns ion b. S tl(ldtn rcs lrit:tiun

Figure 4.4. Sudden expansion and res /riel ion. The/loll' area is 11 i1hin !he
dashed Cli/Tes. Head losses occur in !he colored areas. Ene1g 1 is consened
in !he ha1ched area of Figure 4. 4h

Bo rda's model gives th ree ge neral princip les fo r the stztng of singu lar head
losses:

- T he singular head loss prod uced in a hydraul ic circuit by vari ous elements
(va lves , be nd s, obstac les, etc.) is reg ul ated by kineti c energy. Any singul ar head loss
is there fore quantified in the for m:
U'
6..H =t; ~ [4. 14]
2
The dime nsionl ess parameter t; is the s in gul ar head drop coeffic ien t. It mainl y
depends on th e geo metrica l c haracteri sti cs o f the element considered. Its dependence
on th e viscos ity (or the Rey no lds number) is often seco ndary. Coe ffi cient t; is
determined to r each element . In th e Memento des pertes de charge [ID E 60], 1 one
ca n fi nd va lues of th e singu lar press ure drop coe ffi cient t; fo r all sort s of eleme nts
that di ffer in th eir functi on, geometry , and s ize. The ve loc ity U chosen to ex press the
singul ar head loss is spec ified (usuall y on a chart) to r eac h element:
Sin gul a r head losses de pend on the direction of th e fl ow.
- We ca n reca ll, in summary, th at s in gular head losses occ ur in areas wh ere th e
cross-secti on ava ilabl e to the fl ow is enlarged, whil e energy is conse rved in zones
where th e cross-secti on is restri cted 2

I Unfortunately, thi s book in Russian by I. E. ldel' cik has ap parentl y not been translated into
Engli sh.
2 Us ing th e tables in ldel'cik 's book, it can be esta bli shed by calc ul ati on that th e head loss is
identi ca l (( = 0.25), for a give n now rate, through a sudden ex pansion or a sudden restr icti on
such th at S / S2 = 1/2. This does not inva lidate the above statement , whi ch si mpl y means th at
dissipati on takes place in th e shaded areas of Figure 4.4 and th at energy is conserved in the
hatc hed area.
 Stea dy-S tate Hydrau li c C ircu its 85

Such different behav ior of fl ows is encountered aga in when consider ing a pipe
wh ose cross-secti on contracts or expa nds co ntinuously in th e directi on of the fl ow.
Bot h these configurat ions are illustrated in Figure 4.5 , returning to a situati on
already disc ussed in Chapter I (secti on 1.6) where th e boundary laye r concept was
first introdu ced. Th e important th eoreti ca l result regard in g boundary laye rs is th at
the press ure in th e boundary layer is eq ual to th at preva iling outside th e bo undary
laye r. In a converge nt pipe, (F igure 4.5a), the appli cati on of Bernoulli theorem
between A and B shows that the press ure decreases when followin g a particle in its
movement (? 13 = P 0 < P 4 = Pc). Hence, th e energy of a fluid parti cle located in the
bounda ry layer decreases when the particle moves from pos iti on C to pos iti on D,
beca use the pa rti cle's ve loc ity is very low near the wall and its pressure energy
decreases.

The sa me analys is when appli ed to the flow in a di vergent pipe presents a

diffi culty (F igure 4.5b). SA and S13 denote the fl ow secti ons containing points A and
B. Accordin g to Bernoulli 's theorem, the pressure in creases for a particle mov ing
from A to B, and the same holds for a parti cle in the boundary laye r movi ng
from C to D. The parti cle therefore has to increase head by the quantity
pU ~ (I -( SA I S B ) 2 ) I 2 , through a mechani sm of energy transfer fro m neighboring
particl es, in order to move from C to D, since its kinetic energy goes to zero at the
wa ll. This is onl y poss ibl e if the widening of the ava il ab le fl ow secti on takes pl ace
gradu all y. When thi s is not the case, the particle does not attain a suffi cient leve l of
energy to move fro m C to D. It is sa id that the parti cle in the boundary layer cannot
"trave l aga inst the adverse pressure gradi ent. " In th at case, a separati on of the flow
from the pipe walls is observed. This situati on is sketched in Figure 4.5c for the
cases of a divergent pipe and of the fl ow past a cy linder. The separati on produces
rec irculation fl ows and turbulence in th e fluid zo ne between the separat ion line and
the wa ll , indu cing head loss. For a circul ar coni ca l diffuser, the fl ow separates when
the in cluded angle of the cone exceeds a value of about 7.
('

Boundnry layer in a convergent pipe

Figure 4.5a. Flow and boundary layer in a convergent pipe. Th e boundmy

layer zone is shaded
86 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineerin g

Bound~r y htycr in a dive rgent piJ)C

c .~ .

N
/)
~ P
/)
u:,
+ p-- = N +p-
2 {
u;
2
11- (.-SH\'A)'f

Figure 4.5b. Flow and boundwy layer in a divergent pipe. Th e boundwy layer
zone is colored. Th e energy of a particle in the boundwy layer is bound to
increase when the particle movesfrorn C ro D

Boundary layer sep1tratioo in a diVUI(t'RI pi1>e

Se parat ion l 1nc

Separatto n past a (')' Iinde r

~~--__.__

~
Scpa ratum
line s

Figure 4.5c. Boundwy lmer separation in a divergent pipe and past a c l'linder
 Steady-S tate Hydraulic Ci rcuits 87

4.5 ~ '\l otion s on cavitation

Cav itati on is the loca l phenomeno n o f ph ase change th at takes pl ace in a liquid
w h ~n the pressure at a po int in the c ircuit becomes less th an th e va por pressure P,..
T hi:s phenomeno n, w hen it occurs, has numero us adve rse e ffects, namely:

- Substanti a l no ise. The ex istence o f cav itati on is eas il y detectabl e through its
noise.

- Vibration.

- Perfo rmance degradati on w hen cav itati on occurs in a hydrauli c mac hine.

- Eros ion of the wa ll s w hen cav itati on occ urs near th em. Damage is caused
by high-p ress ure impac ts on so lid surfaces. Dramati c deteri orati on, such as that
s how n in Fi gure 4 .6, ca n be observed .

Figure 4.6. Erosion due 10 cavitation on u propeller (lefl) and in a cenlrijitga/

p ump impeller (righl) (so urce: Wikipedia)

Preve nting cav itati o n is a permanent concern fo r engi neers. In water at a

temperature of 25 C, th e vapor pressure is P,. = 32 mb = 3200 Pa . Thi s low-pressure
leve l can be reac hed very eas il y. It is necessary for the e ngineer to identify the
pote nti al low- pressure zones in a c ircuit , as indi cated by press ure pl ots (for exa mpl e
in Fi gure 4. 1). Low-pressure zones are primaril y found :

- In th e upper parts o f a c ircuit, s in ce the press ure decreases with a ltitude due to
the e ffect o f g rav ity.

- In th ose pa rts o f th e circuit w here th e fl ow secti on is res tricted. Thi s is o ften

th e case, for exampl e, in va lves . Th e pressure may drop signifi cantl y if the flow
secti on of a pipe decreases from a va lue of S to Sc- Thro ugh mass conservation ,
th e fl ow ve loc ity U changes to Uc = U (SISc) in th e contracted secti on. Appl y ing
Berno ulli ' s th eo rem between secti ons Sand Sc leads to press ure decreases from P
88 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

to ?,. = P + pU 2 ( I - (S I S,. ) 2 ) I 2 in th e contrac ted secti o n. N umeri ca l appli ca ti ons

s how that th e pressure ra pidl y dro ps be lo w P,. (even beco ming theore ti ca ll y
negati ve) if th e contrac ti o n ra ti o, SIS" is hi g h e no ug h. Thi s tri gge rs cav itati o n:

- At the cente r o f vo rti ces, w hi c h a re lo w-pressure zo nes (as will be see n 111
C hapter 17).

- O n the sucti o n face of blades (the s ide o f a pro pe ll e r bl ade or w ing w he re the
press ure is lowest) in a hydra ulic mac hin e. Cav itati o n o n prope ll er bl ades is a
co mmon ph eno me no n .

Remedi es to cav itati o n ste m fro m the a na lys is o f the causes th at produce it. T hey
inc lude:

- Ra isin g th e ge ne ra l press uri zati o n leve l of a c irc uit w hen poss ib le .

- Locatin g cav ita ti o n-pro ne co mpo ne nts, s uc h as va lves. in th e lower parts of

c ircuits, and ge ne rall y avo iding locatin g e le ments in the uppe r parts of a circuit
unless it is necessary.

- Splitting press ure dro ps so as no t to lower the pressure too abruptl y , and
locating pumps (w hi c h ra ise the press ure leve l) far e no ug h upstream in the c irc uit.

4.6 Application exercises

Exercise 4.1: Regular head loss measurement and flow rate in a pipe

Conside r a c irc ul a r cy lindri ca l pipe of di amete r D = I m , descend in g fro m a

he ight o f /-/ = 200 m ove r a le ng th L = I km . At the to p (po int A). the pressure
is measured at th e lowest po int in th e cross-secti o n, w he re it eq ua ls P .1 = 1.94 ba r.
It is a lso meas ured at the bo tto m (po int B), a t th e hi g hest po int in the cross-sec ti o n,
w here the meas ured va lue is PH = 22.45 ba r.

Figure 4.1.1
 Steady-S tate Hydrauli c Circuits 89

I. From these measurements, derive the regul ar head loss in the pipe (the fluid
be in g water). In which directi on does the fluid flow?
2. Ass uming that th e pipe is made of bitumini zed cast iron , eva lu ate the area-
averaged strea mwise ve loc ity in th e pipe.

Exercise 4.11: Head loss and cavitation in a hydraulic circuit

The aim is to size a c ircuit for li ftin g water betwee n two basin s whose levels
di ffer by 20 111 . Th e two basin s are 2 km apart. The hydraulic circuit (Figure 4.11.1)
th at conn ects the two bas ins consists of cylindrical pipes made of bitumini zed cast
iron with a sq uare cross-sect ion whose side length is denoted by a, a pump, and a
va lve. The main constraint is the ability to convey a fl ow rate of up to I 00 1/s.

Figure 4.11.1

!1H (bar )

0.1 0.2 Q (m 3/ s)

Figure 4.11 .2
90 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Enginee rin g

Th e pump we co nsider for use has the head/capacity curve in Figure 11 .2. whi ch
ca n be mode ll ed by

6./-f pu mp = 410 5 - 10 7 Q 2

where 1'!..1-1pump is in Pa and Q in m1/s. The tlow rate is controll ed using the va lve,
which va ri es the head to be deli vered by the pump. It is envisaged to use a butterfly
va lve, whose pressure drop characteri sti cs are given by Diagra m 9.4 in Memenw des
pertes de charge (ldel' cik ), whi ch is reproduced below.

I. Write the head loss versus fl ow rate relati onship for the whole circuit. Head
variations oth er than the regul ar head loss in th e pipe, the sin gul ar head loss at th e
valve, a nd th e head increase produced by the pump will be neglected.
2. In com merciall y ava il ab le pipes, the dimension a of the secti on eq ual s 10 em ,
20 em, 30 em , 40 em, 50 em, 60 em, 70 em, 80 em, 90 em, I m, etc. State the
small est va lu e of a th at all ows for a fl ow rate greater than I00 1/s. For this
eva luati on, th e head loss assoc iated with the va lve can be omitted. Why is that? For
the different pipe di ameters considered, co mment upon the obtai ned variat ions in th e
regul ar head loss coefficient.
3. It is ass umed from now on that a = 0.3 m. Estimate the angle by wh ich the
va lve should ope n for a fl ow rate Q = 70 1/s. A first stage will consist in eva luating
the head va ri ati on ac ross the pump, the pipe, and th e va lve, and comparing the
values obta in ed.
4. For th e two openin g angles 5 = 70 and 5 = 15, determine the fl ow rate and
ve loc ity in th e pipe. Ca lcul ate the pressure vari ati on between the inl et and the ou tl et
of th e va lve, and between the inl et and the co ntracted section. Ske tch the pressure
c hanges in side the va lve. Is it possible to obse rve cav itati on in the co ntracted sect ion
w ithout cav itati on occu rring at the va lve outl et?
5. In Figure 11 . 1, the pump is located before the va lve. Sketch pressure changes
in th e c ircuit. Do the same when th e va lve is located before the pump. Which is th e
most judicious choice? In whi ch part of the circuit should th e pump a nd va lve
preferably be located?

NOTE.- The plate from ldel' cik 's book is intenti onall y reproduced on th e following
page w ith out further com men t. The onu s is on the user to train him se lf in decoding
co nventi ons by establi shing links between tab les, formulae , and diagrams.
 Steady-S tate Hydrau lic C ircuits 91

338 fl.tiMEl'ITO PES PI.!RTES D E CHARGE

C hapter IX
Butterfl)' vuln
--- ia2g_ra_m_9_.4_______
~-- ----------------------------------------~-----l)_

11 1 2
uorr;-
... ,_r- . (
I I
I I
II I
I

..,_ r-

r-
J
I
"''' """ ~
!.
II
I
I
Ill

.. ~
t
w I
- I h
--- I-- ...... I#
-,
I
10
lO
/_
v.-"'"'4 -<Y
._.,-, I ,
0 lO Jtl
It/
"' ( ; t:.tl, is determi ned based oo the ( ; j (S'' ) cu rve.
yw ~

2g
I -
6. Cin.: uhtr rlpC Rectangu la r pip.:
!.' !.' F,fF.
5 0,24 0 ,28 0,91
10 0,52 0,45 0,83
15 0 ,90 0 ,77 0,74
20 1,54 1,3 4 0,66
25 2 ,5 1 2, 16 0, 58
30 3,9 1 3,54 0,50
40 10,8 9,30 0,36
50 32,6 24,9 0, 23
60 11 8 77 ,4 0, 13
65 2 56 158 0,0 9
70 75 I 368 0,06
90 ~ ~ 90

Fig ure 4.11.3

Exercise 4.111: Ventilation of a road tunnel

To ensure the repl eni shment of air in a road tunnel, fan s are to be install ed in
order to produce an air stream between th e two ends of th e nmnel. The tunn el is
L = I 0 km long and its section is rectangular, with a width of 6 m and a height of
4 m. The tunnel is lin ed with concrete. The characteristi cs of the fluid flow should
be chosen so as to renew the air compl etely in I h. The density of air will be taken
equal to I kg/m3 and its kinemati c viscosity equal to 2 x 10- 5 m2/s.

I. State th e va lues of the mean streamwise veloc ity and of th e fl ow rate.

2. Ca lcul ate the overall head vari ati on required from the fan s.
3. What is the power of th e fan?
92 Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineering

Exercise 4.1 V: Sizing a network of heating pipes

The object is to heat differe nt shops in an industrial faci lity usin g a pulsed hot air
system. The air is heated in a centra l furnace, and th en co nveyed to the shops via a
trunk pipe cross in g the fa ctory, from whic h pipes (ca ll ed seco ndary pipes) branch
out to suppl y every shop. The dimensioning stud ied here should a ll ow th e provision
of an identical tl ow rate to eac h shop. whether it is located at th e beginning of the
lin e or at the far end of the pipe. It is ass umed that the pipes conn ectin g th e trunk
line to th e different shops are identi ca l, and U denotes the area-averaged streamwise
ve loc ity, which is the sa me in all such pipes (whereas it vari es in th e trunk lin e). For
simpli city, we denote by 6.?" th e regular head loss in the trunk line between th e
branching-o ff point leadin g to shop n- 1 and the one leading to shop n (see Figure
4.IV .I ). Whil e regul ar head losses in th e seco ndary pipes will be neglec ted
(ass umin g th eir length is short ). sin gul ar head losses in the secondary pipes wi ll be
taken into account and denoted by M / 11

t; P ,
r---.-----,r---- - - - - - ---.---..----
t;H l t;H, . J 6H,

Figure 4.1V.I

I. Write out the head variati on between the furnace outl et an d the in let of shop n.
Justify th at the sin gul a r pressure drop coeffi cient, c;,,.. defin ed by 6./-/ " = pr; 11 U 2 I 2 .
should decrease as the seco ndary pipe considered gets further away from the furnace.

Figure 4.IV.2
 Steady-S tate Hydraulic Circuits 93

2. Contro lling the fl ow rate in each secondary pipe is ac hi eved by adjustin g a pl ate
which partially blocks the cross-secti on of the secondary pipe (Fi gure IV .2). For
secondary pipe n, express th e sing ul ar head loss coeffic ie nt, (," as a function of
the blocked c ross-secti on S" of the pipe and the unbl oc ked cross-sectio n S, of the pipe.

3. Seco nda ry pipe n- 1 is blocked a t 80% (that is, S" 1/S"= 0.2) and th e reg ular
head loss in the trunk lin e between the branching-off points for secondary pipes n- 1
a nd n is I'>P" = 5 Pa. What shou ld th e blocking rate of seconda ry pipe n be? Use thi s
result to ex pl a in tha t we are usua ll y forced to block secondary pipes strong ly in
order to ma intai n the same fl ow ra te in a ll secondary pipes. The fluid is air (density
3
o-
I kg/ m , kin e m atic viscosity 2 x I 5 m 2/s). The ve loc ity in the secondary pipe is
U = 1. 5 m/ s .

Exercise 4. V: Head, flow rate, and output of a hydroelectric power plant

A pipe draws wa te r fr o m a mo unta in lake a nd c han ne ls it to th e turbine of a

hydraulic po we r pl a nt located 200 m be low. The (cast iro n) pipe has a length of 500
m a nd a diameter D = 0 .5 m . The turbine di sc ha rges water into the o pe n a ir throu g h
a n a pe rture of th e sa me di a mete r.

I . Ex press th e head va ri ati o n, I'>H turbtnc, between th e inlet a nd the outl et of the
turbine, tak ing into acco unt th e head losses in thi s hydra ulic c ircuit.

2. Ex press th e hydra uli c po we r of the turbine as a function of the a rea-averaged

strea mwi se velocity in the pipe .

3. De te rmin e th e strea mwi se velocity and the fl ow ra te throu g h the pipe unde r
th e conditi o n w here th e hydra ulic power of the turbin e is at its maximum . It will be
assumed that th e fl ow in the pipe is of ro ug h type, an ass umpti o n whose va lidity will
be c hecked a posleriori.

Ca lcul a te the theoretical max imum hydraulic power of the pl a nt. Provide an
orde r of mag nitude of the numbe r of hou se ho lds th a t co uld be suppli ed with
e lectricit y by th at plant.

In what pro po rtion do th e va riou s head losses reduce th e hydrauli c power of the
pl ant ?

4.7. Bibliograph y

[BON 94 ] Bo Nt\Z/ .1 A., Circuils hydrauliques, ENS HM G, lnstitul National Polytechnique de

Grenob le, 1994.
[I DE 60] ID EL 'C IK I. E. , Memento des perles de chmge (translated from Ru ssian}, Paris,
Editions Ey ro lles, 1960.
 Chapter 5

Pumps

This c ha pte r is bas ica ll y meant fo r pump users, i.e people w ho need
to se lect a pump for a spec ifi c use. T hi s requires an ability to ide ntify th e
c harac teri sti cs of the pumping work to be carri ed o ut ( like w hat fl ow rate'l what
head'l etc) , to c hoose a suitab le type of pump o f the req uired s ize and , las tl y, some
kn ow ledge of th e precautions and difficulti es in vo lved in o pe ratin g such devices in
order to o ptimi ze th eir usage.

Eng ineers w ill not find in thi s cha pte r the too ls required to des ign a pump.
Nevert heless, th e operatin g principles of eac h type of pump are described , as thi s is
necessary to g ras p the intri cac ies of the vario us iss ues me nti o ned above. 1

With refe rence to classical a ppli cati o ns of hyd ra uli cs, c he mi ca l eng inee rin g, and
process eng ineerin g, two categori es of pumps are presented in thi s c hapter:

I. Turbo pumps, w hich are devices compri sed of a ro to r provi ded w ith blades.
Within thi s category, centrifuga l pumps a nd ax ia l pumps are di sc ussed. T hese two
types of pumps li e at eith er end of the operat ing ra nge of turbo pumps. Axia l pumps
a ll ow for large fl ow rates in conditi o ns where the head to be imparted o n the fluid is
s mall. Centrifuga l pumps allow for sma ll e r fl ow rates w hile imparting a la rger head
o n the fluid.

2. Pos iti ve displacement pumps and pe ri sta lti c pumps, which a re mo re

particularly used in s itua ti o ns w he re it may be necessary to prov ide a la rge head
inc rease at low and contro ll ed fl ow rates .

I Chapters 5 and 6 we re written with the in va luab le help o f the lecture notes by A. Bonazzi,
Hydra ulic Circuits, ENS HM G, lnstitut Na ti onal Polytec hni que de Grenoble , 1994.
96 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

5. 1. Ce ntrifu ga l pumps

5.1.1 . Operating principle

Figure 5. 1 shows th e class ic layo ut of a centrifu ga l pump. The prime mover is

th e rotor, whi ch spins at an angular ve locity m. The rotor dra ws the fluid through th e
suct ion tube, impart ing a substant ial rotationa l speed on the fluid pa rticles that pass
through it. On ex iting the rotor, the fluid pai1 icles have a relative ve loc ity which is
tangent to th e rotor blades. The plan-vi ew sketch shows blades whose ce nter of
curvature is located on the rea r of the blade with respect to th e directi on of rotation.
Th e reverse situation may also occ ur. The abso lute ve locity of th e fluid part icles
leav ing th e rotor is the sum of th e relative ve loc ity and the rotational ve locity at the
periph ery of the rotor. Th e rotor mainly increases th e head of the parti c les by
increas ing their kineti c energy via the rotati onal co mponent. The pressure also needs
to be in creased, as there is a radi al pressure gradi ent which balances the ce ntrifuga l
fo rce. 2

O utlet
pipe

t
t
D
(t)

Figure 5. 1. Cenlrijilgal pump. Th e movable, rotating part is shaded.

Th e stator is hatched

2 The press ure at the outer periphery of the rotor is higher than on the rotor axis beca use of
the streamline curvature (C hapter 2, section 2.3). These properties are also di sc ussed in
Chapter I 7, which is dedic ated to centri ti.rga l separation .
 Pumps 97

Whil e the rotor is th e key element in a centri fuga l pump, th e stator (whenever
ex isting - all ce ntri fuga l pump are not eq uipped with a stator), th e vo lute and the
diffu ser, downstream of th e rotor, also have a dedi ca ted fun cti on. On leav ing the
rotor, th e head of the fluid part icl es ca rries a large proporti on of kin eti c energy,
whi ch needs to be converted into pressure energy whil e avo iding singul ar head
losses as much as poss ibl e. It is know n from Bernoulli 's theorem that converting
kin eti c energy into press ure energy requires expanding the ava ilabl e crosssecti on in
order to slow down th e fluid whil e maintaining th e fl ow rate. However, as we have
also see n in Chapters 2 and 4, sudden ex pansions promote singul ar head losses.
The stator, whi ch channels the fl ow at the rotor's ex it point, and the vo lute, whi ch
grad uall y widens the fl ow secti on of the fluid up to the point of pump di sc harge, are
des igned so as to reduce head losses as fa r as poss ibl e.

5.1 .2. Similarity laws and head/capacity curves

The operating characteri st ics of a centri fuga l pump are determ ined by an
appli cati on of th e momentum theorem, whi ch provides a conn ecti on between the
force exerted by the rotor blades on the fluid and th e pressures and ve loc ities at the
inl et and outl et of th e rotor. Such des ign work is not trea ted herein . We mainly wish
to prov ide elements of understanding fo r th e selecti on of a pump, with an emphas is
on th e dimensional forms of th e sizing laws fo r a centri fuga l pump.

5. 1.2. 1. Head capacity curve ofa pump

Considering two pumps of stri ctl y identical geometry, whi ch onl y differ from
eac h oth er by a sca le factor, th e size of each pump can then be characteri zed by the
diameter of its rotor, respecti ve ly D 1 and D2 . In both pumps, the angles shown in
engineering draw ings are identi ca l, and other lengths are proporti onal to D 1 and D 2
For exa mpl e, th e inlet and outl et di ameters are such that r/J" 1/ C/J,,_ 2 = (/J,_ 1/ r/J,. 2 =
D / D2 The pum p's operati on is fu rther characteri zed by angul ar rotati onal speeds w1
and U>z , which may be different.

The pum p's operating conditi ons are determined by the relatio nship betwee n th e
fl ow rate, Q, deli vered and th e head in crease, 6..Hp ump, between the inl et and outl et of
th e pump. The relati onshi p between these two quantiti es invo lves the angular
rotati onal speed and the geo metri ca l characteri sti cs of the pump (l ength s and angles,
denoted by a ). We can, therefore, write:

Q Q(tlH pump, p , (V, D , cD,, cD _,., a, ... .) [5. 1]

Viscos ity is ignored, under th e ass umpti on that centri fuga l pumps typically
operate in co nditi ons where th e fl ow is turbulent and , consequently, the Reynolds
98 Flui d Mec hani cs fo r C he mi cal Eng inee rin g

numbe r is large. The dime ns io na l a na lys is o f re lati o n [5.1] show s th a t thi s relation is
necessaril y written as 3 :

!1 /-/ pump . { Q CJ)., <D,

functi On - - ,- , - ,a , ....
} (5.2]
pw2D2 rvD 3 D D

The qu antiti es impli e d by th e e llips is a re oth e r le ng th rati os or a ng les

charac te ri z ing th e geo metry of th e pump .

Re lati on tc..H pum p ( Q) is refe rred to as th e ''head capac ity c urve" ' of th e pump . For
a centri fugal pump , it typi ca ll y di spl ays the sha pe sketc hed in Fig ure 5.2. For the
sa me pump , tw o head ca pac ity c urves, corres po ndin g to tw o ro ta ti o na l speeds , have
bee n pl o tted . In acco rdan ce with [5.2], th ese a re s imil a r, w ith a rat io that is
propo rti o na l to (V fo r th e abscissa ax is (tlow rate) and to w2 for th e head.

I
I

tc.. hpump. m a x ....

Best efficiency po nts

(I) = 0,7 (1)1

I (I) =0,7 (I) I
I I

Q
Qmax

Figure 5.2. Head capac itl ' curve:;(_ _ or .. .. .} and e(ficienc l' cw ves (-- ---) for a
centrijilgal pump operating at roTational sp eed s w =cv1 and rv =0. 7 rv1 .\ Tsfe/11
curFe (-. -. -.} indicaTes rhe hesr effi c ienc\' poinr of a head capac if1 C / 1/Te

3 It is esse nti a l to ex press the head de li ve red by th e pump in Pasca ls a nd not to con vert thi s
quantity into a wa ter-co lumn he ig ht s ince the g ravi tati o na l acce le rati o n does not intervene in
the o pera ti o n o f th e pump (see Exe rci se 3. 111 o f C hapter 3).
 Pumps 99

T he charac te ri sti c curve is assoc iated w ith two important va lues:

I . T he max imum head, 11H pum p. max, is th e largest head th at can be prov ided to a
flui d. In oth er wo rds, a pump will be un abl e to carry fluid to a he ight greater than
11H pump. max I p g . Th e fl ow rate through the pump reac hes zero w hen th e va lue o f th e
head reaches 11H pum p. max .

2. The max imu m fl ow rate, Q ma x, th at the pum p can de liver if the head change
becomes zero.

5. 1.2.2. Efficiency

The hydrauli c power de li vered by the pump is:

AJhyd raul = Q/1H pu mp [5.3)

T hi s quantity reac hes zero fo r both limiting cond itions of th e head capac ity
curve , where I1H pump = I'!..H pump . max or Q = Qmax In rea lity, the pump consumes an
additi onal power, s-a nwchine ' to dri ve the ro tor w hil e ba lancing mec hanica l fri cti on in
the beari ngs , an d the loss of energy process in the e lec trica l motor. Th e pump ' s
ove ra ll effi ciency is defi ned as:

Q !lfl pump
'7 = ---=--~~-- [5.4)
f.Y mac hinc + Q/1H pu mp

For both head capac ity c urves, the va ri ati ons of effic iency w ith th e fl ow rate are
pl otted in Figure 5.2. Effi c iency is zero fo r both the limiting conditi ons of operation.

The pump has an optim al operating po int, correspondin g to the fl ow rate and
head fo r whi ch effic iency is at its maxi mum. Th e operatin g cond iti ons depi cted in
Figure 5.1 roughl y co rres pond to the best e ffi c iency po int ; the abso lute ve loci ty of
th e parti cles leav ing th e rotor and entering the stator is a pprox imate ly para lle l to the
stator va nes . The fl ow is channe led into the stator un de r th e best poss ib le conditi ons
to avoid head losses . In contras t, if th e fl ow rate is low or if it is close to its
max imum va lue , the flui d parti cles almost collide head-on o nto the stato r va nes. The
head losses thus generated cause the fluid parti c les to lose so me of the head they had
built up in side th e ro to r.

It is reco mmended to operate a pump w ithin fl ow rate and head interva ls

around th e best effic iency po int. O utside th at range, effi c iency leve ls deteri orate.
In stabiliti es or diffi culti es in co ntro lling operation durin g start-up or shutdown
may a lso be e ncountered . Manufac turers de lineate a " perfo rmance range" on head
capac ity curves , de finin g th e reco mmended range of operati on. Thi s is re presented
I 00 Flu id Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engin eerin g

in Fi gure 5.2 by plottin g th e head capacity curves as a so lid line within th e

performance range and as das hed lin es outside it.

Dim ensional form [5.2] also all ows plott in g, from a kn ow n head ca pac ity curve
of a pump (for D 1 and (UJ ), th e head capac ity curve of another pump of simil ar
geo metri ca l des ign (for D 2 and rv2 ). The second head capac ity curve is deri ved tiom
the first by an in crease in the rati o rV}DI I rtJJD? along th e hori zontal ax is and of
rati o (Vi Di I rv12 D? along th e verti ca l ax is.
5.1 .2.3. Forces e.rerted on the rotor ofa centrifi,gal pump
The forces appli ed to the rotor blad es of a centrifuga l pump are large, beca use
the head increase is correspondin gly assoc iated with a ri se in press ure . One can
eva lu ate the order of magnitude of those forces by observ ing that the hydrau li c
power is related to th e torqu e C exerted on th e rotor:

\-)h ydraul = QflHpum p = C(V [5.51

We thu s derive th e torque and average force F exerted on the blades:

c ., .
F ~- ~ p(v-D' [5 .61
D

Thi s sca ling law ex plain s why large pumps are des igned with particular attenti on
being paid to th e forces exerted on th e structures.

5. 1. 2.4. Pump specific speed

4
A pump is characterized by its spec ifi e speed whi ch is de lined by

l /2
Qdesign
[5 .7 ]

where Qdcsigu and L1Hucsrgu are th e flow rate and th e head at th e best efficienc y point,
respectivel y, and n is the rotati ona l speed of the pump (usuall y given as a number o f
rpm: n = 30rv l Jr ). Us in g dimensional relati on [5 .2], the des ign fl ow rate and des ign

4 Ca uti on: th e specific speed is not a dimension less qu antity. The rotati onal speed is
expressed in rpm and the now rate in m3/s. Th e quantity pg appears in [5.7] to brin g in ,
follo wing common practi ce, th e design operatin g head ex pressed in meters of wa ter colu mn
height.
 Pum ps 10 1

head are ex pressed as:

Q,b 1g 11 = AcvD 3
[5.R]
tJ.H ,~csign = Bpcv 1 D1

Both A and B are dimensionl ess quantiti es that characteri ze the geo metry o f
the pump. In accordance with the dimensional laws, it is observed th at the spec ifi c
s pe~ d dep~nds nei ther on the size D of the pump nor on its rotati onal speed cv.
It characterizes the geometrica l design of the pump, as it de pends onl y on ang les a
and sca le rati os <!>"I D , c() , I D given in [5.2 ]. Centrifuga l pumps are typi ca ll y
characteri zed by spec ifie speed va lues betwee n 30 and 50.

5.1.3. Implementation of a centrifugal pump

5.1 .3. I. Priming of a centrifuga l p ump

Centrifuga l pump s have a well-know n drawback , namely th eir pnmin g for
pum pin g a liquid. It is diffi cult to start th e pump if the pump cas in g (a nd ,
therefore, th e rotor) is not fill ed with liquid. The operating prin ciple described in
sect ion 5. 1.1 helps us to und erstand th e reason behind thi s. Since the head
acq uired by th e fluid in side th e ro tor is proporti onal to th e rotati onal kineti c
energy per unit vo lume. pcv 1 D1 , the pump is unabl e to modify th e upstream
press ure fi eld suffi cientl y to suck in th e liquid if the rotor is fill ed with air, whose
density is much lowe r. So me ce ntr ifuga l pumps are prov id ed with a devi ce for
fillin g th e pump cas in g with liquid , eith er by manual pumpin g or by grav ity.

5.1.3 .2. Cavitation in a centrifi ,gal pump

In a circuit . pressure reac hes a minimum leve l at th e inl et of eac h pump, whi c h
mand ates preve nt ati ve acti on aga in st cav itati on. Let us co nsider th e exa mpl e o f
Figure 5.3 that shows a pump mov in g a liquid from a lowe r bas in to an uppe r
basin . The head in crease pgh101 betwee n point A, whi ch is loca ted at th e surface
of th e lower bas in , and point D, whi ch is located at th e surface o f th e upper ba sin ,
is prov id ed by th e pump, whi ch also has to co mpensate for th e regul ar head
losses in th e pipes and th e sin gular head losses (a t th e outl et into th e upper
bas in. for exa mpl e). Denotin g by tJ.Hc. 101 th e total head losses in th e circuit, we
th ere fore wri te :

p g htot = !:J.ff pump - tJ.f/ c. tot [5. 9]

(The bas in s are ass umed to have large dimensions, and the ve loc ity is zero at
their surface .)
I 02 Flu id Mechanics for Chemica l Engineering

f--- - - - A

Figure 5.3. Pumping between two basins whose water-level elevations differs hy a height h,,,.
To f orestall cavitation. the elevation hsue~ of the pump above the lower basin should not
exceed the critical heig ht h"'"' cril icat given b1 [5.12}

The pressure at a point C located in th e pump 's inlet is calc ul ated by eq uating the
head variation between points A and C to the head loss in the suction pipe, denoted
by 11!-fc. suet:

/-1 A - He = Patm - uz+

{Pc + P2 pghsuct }
= 11!-f c.suct [5.10]

Uc is the ve loc ity of the tluid at C and h"'"' is the height of the pump' s inlet relati ve
to the free sur face of the lower basin. Cavi tation is avo ided at the pump inlet if the
press ure Pc is greater than the vapor pressure Pv, at any point C in the vicinity of the
pump 's inl et , which translates into the following condition:

fum _ h _ _!:__ _ 8. /-1 u uct UZ,

suc l >- [5.11]
pg pg pg 2g

Velocity Uc is not the mean strea mwi se velocity, but th e loca l ve loci ty at point C
in th e vicinity of the pump 's inl et where it is at its max imum , and where th e pressure
is co nsequentl y at its minimum . Cav itati on, if it occurs, will start at that point. The
vari ati on of quantity net positive suct ion head NPSI-I (Q) = Uf: I 2g with the tlow
rate is determined ex perimentall y by pump manufacturers, by obse rvi ng cav itati on
onset threshold s. The va lue of NPS I-I (Q) ca n be easi ly estimated by determining the
va lue of the pump 's height h suc" relati ve to the free su rface of the lower basin, for
whi ch cav itat ion appears ; NPS I-I (Q) = U f I 2g corresponds to equality between both
 Pumps I03

te rms in [5. 1 I] . For the configurati on of Fi gure 5.3 , the NPSH va lue sets the
max imum height of th e pump, relati ve to the lowe r bas in , whi ch avo ids the
appearance of cav itati on at the pump inl et, since [5. 11] is equi va lent to:

P.1tm Pv 1:!../-1 c, suct

h suct < h suct. criti ca l = - - - - - - NPSH( Q) [5.1 2)
pg pg pg

If thi s condit ion is verifi ed, th is ri sk of cav itati on in th e inl et pipe to the pump is
avo ided. On th e oth er hand , enginee ring rul es for pos iti oning the sucti on depth h dcpt h
are prov ided in order to avo id drawing air in , whi ch may happen if a vortex is
generated in the lower bas in by the sucti on. Such rul es compare the sucti on depth
h dcpth to the di ameter of the pipe, the dimensions of the bas in, and the di stance from
th e sucti on port to the bas in wa ll s.

We emph as ize the need to take into account the head loss !:!.He. suc1(Q) in the
sucti on pipe, unless it is neg li gibl e, in order to estimate th e NPSH. The vari ati ons
of N PSH(Q) are often superimposed ont o th e head capac ity chat1 of a pump , as
depi cted in Figure 5.4. The head deli vered by the pump decreases with mcreasmg
fl ow rate, while the NPSH va lue in creases 5

(111}
pg

NPSH (111 )

Figure 5.4. Head capacity curve and variation of the NPS/-1 with
the flow rate supplied by a pump

5 NPSH stands for "net positi ve sucti on head." Its unit is meters. In most cases, manufac turers
also ex press the head increase suppli ed by a pump in meters.
104 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineering

For a ny configurati o n ot her than the one in Figu re 5.3 , knowing the NPSH(Q)
c urve makes it possible to assess the risk of cavita ti o n at the pump ' s inlet. For that ,
o ne needs to know the pressure Pi\ and ve locity UA at one point in the c ircuit, th e
head cha nge 6!-1 AE between point A and th e pump inlet E, and the e levat io n
di ffere nc e (::: A - z E) betwee n points A a nd E. T he head c hange between point s A
a nd E can be written in a s imil a r manner to [5.10]:

U2
!lH AE = PA + p _____i2_ + p g ( zA- z E)- Pr: - p g NPSH(Q) [5.13 ]
2

Cav itati o n is avo id ed if the pressure PE is grea ter than th e vapo r pressure P v at
that po int E in th e pump ' s inl et where the ve locity is at its max imum , i.e. if the
fo ll ow in g ineq ua lity is verified :

[5.14]

5.1 .3.3. Implementing pumps in parallel or in series

It is commo n practice, because a pump supp lyi ng both the required flow rat e and
head is not always comme rc ia ll y ava il ab le, to use severa l pumps in a network ,
installing them in series o r in parallel.

Two pumps a re in seri es if the di sc ha rge port of o ne of th em is co nnected to th e

sucti on port of the followin g one. Their tlow rates are ide nti ca l, a nd the head s
produced are added togethe r.

Two pum ps are in parall e l if their suc ti on ports a re directly co nn ected to ge ther
a nd the ir di sc harge pipes lead into a co mmo n man ifo ld. The ge nerated head is the
sa me for both pumps , a nd the tota l fl ow rate is the sum of the fl ow rates thro ug h
both pumps.

For para ll e l- o r se ri es-co nn ec ted associat ion s, it is recommended to e mpl o y

pumps w hose pe rfo rm a nce do ma in s are c lose to o ne a nothe r. It is obvio us th at
two pumps m o unte d in seri es s ho uld corres po nd to the sa me ra nge of fl ow rate.
Likewise , pumps th a t are m o unte d in pa ra ll e l s ho uld co rres po nd to compatible
ra nges of ge ne rate d hea d . S ig nific a nt di sc repanc ies betwee n th e o pe ra tin g
domain s of th e pumps ( in th e ir fl ow ra te range for pumps in sta ll ed in se ri es , o r in
th e ir head ra nges for pumps in sta ll e d in para ll e l) m ay g ive ri se to o pe ra tin g
co ndition s under which th e effi c ie nc y of o ne pump de te ri o rates , or eve n to
undesira bl e s itu ati o ns, s uc h as a bac kwa rd fl ow being observed in o ne of the
pump s m o unted in parall e l.
 Pumps 105

5.2. Classification of turbo pumps and axial pumps

The principle of an ax ial pump is depicted in Figure 5.5. As thi s is a lso a turbo
pump, the fl ow is generated by a rotating impe lle r whose inclin ed bl ades push the
fluid along the axial directi o n de fin ed by the o ri entati o n of the hub. On the upstream
s id e, th e nozz le c han ne ls the fl ow, a nd on the downstream s ide the stra ightener
se rves to avo id retaining a res idua l sw irl in the fluid a t the pump 's o utl e t. Both these
e le ments a re stationary.

Rotating impell er

Figure 5.5. Axial pump. Th e movable, ro ra1ing parr is lightly shaded.

The nozzle and srraig hrener are more darkly shaded

S imil ar ity laws for ax ial pumps a re of the sa me nature as for ce ntri fuga l pumps.
T he princ ipl es estab li shed in secti o n 5. 1.2 a lso ap pl y to a n axia l pump. However, the
o peratin g ranges corresponding to ax ia l pumps differ markedl y . A n ax ia l pump
s uppli es a larger fl ow ra te for th e sa me gene ra ted head . In other words, genera ll y
speakin g, a centrifugal pump sho uld be se lected if the purpose is to inc rease th e
fluid 's head , and a n ax ial pump if a g iven fl ow rate is required for a lim ited head
increase. This point is re fl ected in Figure 5.6, which classifies turbo-pumps based o n
the va lu e of the spec ific speed n, as defined by equa tion (5. 7] . Typi ca l va lues of n,
ran ge from 200 to 300 for ax ia l pumps, w hereas th ey vary between 30 and 50 for
ce ntri fuga l pumps. Mix ed-fl ow pumps have inte rmediate values . While we do not
trea t those in this c hapte r, the mix ed c ha racte r of th e ir design can be a pprec iated
from th e s impli sti c sketches lin ed up in Figure 5.6. Th e extreme case of an axial
pump is the marin e prope ll e r, which prod uces no increase in pressure but o nl y
kin e ti c e nergy and a mo mentum flu x that is used to pro pe l th e ship . A nother
common example o f a n ax ia l pump is the unde rg ro und car park fan , whose purpose
is c learly to produce a mass flow to replenish ambi e nt air. However, an ax ia l fl ow
pump is not a bl e to compress gas. Gas compressors em pl oy centrifugal pumps for
comm o n compress io n rati os (up to abo ut I 0 bars).
I 06 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

25 50 75 100 150 200 300

~----~--~---+----t--------+--------4-----------------~---+"'

Centrifugal Helico-ce ntrifugal Ax ial pumps

pumps pumps

Figure 5.6. Va ria/ion inlhe specific speed n, of a !Urbo pump with geomelrica l design

O ther di ss imilarities between axial and centri fuga l pumps result from the
differences between th e spec ifi c speed for an ax ial pump and a centri fuga l pump .
The force s exe rted on the blades of an ax ial pump are small er, and th e ax ial thrust
exerted on th e rotor of an ax ial pump is signifi cantl y lower th an in a ce ntrifu ga l
pump. Thi s res ults in different mechani ca l stress leve ls that have to be taken into
acco unt in term s of strength of the materi al with whi ch th e blades are co nstructed.

5.3. Positive displacement pumps

Pos iti ve displacem ent pumps cover a vast range of dev ices. whi ch differ greatl y
in th eir des ign layo ut, in th e pumped fl ow rates , and in th e energy (head) suppli ed to
the tluid . This ca tegory enco mpasses pi ston pumps (ax ial, rotary. etc .). gear pumps,
sliding va ne pumps, peristaltic pumps. etc. Whil e turbo pumps are systematicall y
used for pumping at hi gh fl ow rates, th ere are also positi ve di spl ace ment pumps
capabl e of pumpin g rates of the order of about I 0 m3/h. Some positive displacement
pumps are also well suited for pumping at low rates (e.g. assay operati ons), unlik e
turbo pumps. Moreover, some positive di spl acement pumps can brin g a fluid to a
very hi gh press ure (several tens or bars), well beyond the abiliti es of turbo pumps.
Lastl y, positi ve di splacement pumps can pump a variety of fluid s differin g in
rheology and nature ( fluid s that may or may not be loaded with particl es), and can
keep products out of direct contact with th e pumping mechani sm (peri stalti c pumps
for appli cati ons in chemistry, biology, or in med icine).
 Pumps I 07

The o pe rating princ ipl e of a pos iti ve di spl ace ment pump is shown in th e sketc h
of a pi sto n pump depicted in Figure 5.7 6 The prime move r of the pump is a pi sto n
dri ve n by a crank a rm system whi ch slides in side a cy linder enc los ing a cav ity . Its
o pe rati on is associated with tw o va lves. Th e move ment o f the pi ston pro du ces a
negati ve pressure in th e cav it y durin g the ha lf-turn throu gh w hi c h it is mov in g
up wa rds. As soo n as the di ffe rence betwee n press ure P suct in side th e cav ity a nd
press ure P; n in side th e inl et pipe reaches an optima l va lue, the va lve iso latin g
the inl et pipe from th e cav ity o pens and the fluid is drawn into the cav ity. The va lve
iso lating th e cavity from the o utl et pipe is closed durin g th e sucti o n stroke.
A sy mmetri ca l operat ion takes pl ace durin g the stage w hen the pi sto n is mov ing
downwards . The inl et va lve is closed, the va lve between the cav ity a nd the o utl et
pipe o pens, and th e fluid is di sc harged into the o utl et pipe.

Valve
open

Valve
Spring in Spring in
closed
compression extension
Suction stroke Discharge stroke

6
Figure 5. 7. Functional diagram o/operation(or a positive displacement piston pump

Th e pump o perates cyc li ca ll y. The amplitude H of the pi ston's vert ical mo ti o n is

eq ua l to th e di ameter of the c irc le described by th e po int o f attac hme nt of the
conn ecti o n rod onto th e rotary element. This determines the swept vo lume V = HS
durin g each cyc le , S be in g the area o f the pi ston in contac t with the fluid. The phrase

6 Figure adapted from R. Joulie, Mecanique des jluides appliquee, Editi on Elli pses, Paris,
1998 , Chapter X.
I08 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineerin g

"vo lumetric pump" used for such dev ices is thu s c lea rl y understood , s ince vo lume is
the prime qu a ntity used to c ha rac terize a positive di splacement pump , ba sed on
geo metri ca l va lu es.

The seco nd parameter determining th e o pe rati o n of the positi ve di splace ment

pump is th e rotat io na l speed, OJ, of the rotary e leme nt. Thi s determines th e durati on
T = 21fl w of a suction/ di sc harge cyc le. The ab ility of the apparatus to exec ute that
cycl e at a s p ec il~ e d speed depend s o n th e to rqu e app li ed to the cra nk arm assemb ly,
which impa rts on the pi ston a force F(f) that va ri es during th e cyc le. When the ro tary
e lement turn at constant speed ( Xp(t) = /-1 cos(rvl) ), the fundamenta l law of
dy na mi cs a ppli ed to th e pi sto n (th e mass of th e pi ston be ing denoted by Mp) ca n be
wr itte n as :

2
d Xp(l) ) { }
Mp =- M pf-f rv-cos(rvl) = F( l) + P(l) - Pum S [5. 15)
d! "

Thi s re lati o n link s th e forc e app li ed to the pi sto n with the pressure va ri ati ons P(l)
in the cav ity duri ng th e cyc le. Th e g reate r the a mplitude of th e fo rce variat ions, the
greater a re the unde r press ure P,l"' durin g th e sucti on stroke and the over press ure
P disch durin g th e di scharge stroke ins ide the cas in g. The va lues of P suc and P ctisch
should naturall y co inc ide w ith the press ures a ll owi ng for the opening and c los ing of
the valves. For hydro dyn a mi c purposes, th ey should al so a ll o w the spec ified
quantity o f fluid to e nte r the cav ity durin g the suction stroke and ex it it durin g the
di sch arge stroke. Thi s is dete rmined , a mo ng other factors, by th e head losses
assoc iated w ith th e va lves . Witho ut go in g into a de tailed modeling of thi s syste m 's
o pe rati o n, the present descripti o n of its prin c ipl e he lps us to understa nd the link
between th e fo rce cycle app li ed to the pi sto n, th e period o f o ne cyc le, and th e
a mplitude of th e pressure va ri ations produ ced . It is thus understood th at, if the
mechanica l o perating pa ram eters of the pump a re tailored to a give n nuid , the
pos it ive di spl ace ment pump w ill be ab le to s uppl y a large amo unt o f press ure energy
to the fluid , as indi cated in th e beg inning of thi s section.

As a lread y mentioned , th e re is a wide va ri ety o f pos iti ve di spl ace me nt

pumps. We have restricted o urse lves to a desc riptio n of the ir operating prin c ipl e,
e mphas iz ing the " volumetric" c haracter of such d evices. One should mainl y reca ll
th e ir ab ility to provide well-calibrated tlow rates, in c ludin g at low fl ow rates. The
use of pos iti ve di splacem e nt pumps w hen it is necessary to co mpress a tluid at ve ry
7
hi gh press ures, beyond what turbo pumps can ac hi eve, shou ld a lso be remembered

7 The book by Jouli e (ibid .) present s num erous dia grams and photographs, enabling th e
reader to apprec iate th e di ve rsity of th e dev ices belonging to th e category of positi ve
di splacement pumps.
 Pumps I 09

To conclude, Figure 5.8 depi cts th e operati on of a peri sta lti c pump. The se lecti on
of a pump is so metimes constrained by non-mec hani ca l co nsid erati ons. In a
peri stalti c pump, th e fluid fl ows in a fl ex ibl e pipe whi ch is independent from th e
pump mec hani sm. The hose is in serted into a circul ar cav ity again st whose surface it
is fo rced by cy lindri ca l roll ers attached to a rotating hub . Th ese ro ll ers squeeze th e
hose at regul ar interva ls. Th e fluid conta in ed in th e hose is dri ve n by th e rotati on of
th e rotary hub. One benefit of such an apparatus is that th e fluid is not in contact
with th e pumping mec hani sm. Aft er use, the hose can be repl aced if necessary.
Peristalti c pumps are ve ry simpl e to use. The use of small peri sta lti c pumps is very
comm on in chemi stry and bi ology, whenever product co ntainment is required fo r
sa fety reaso ns, or when th e products ca n prove harmful fo r th e mec hani ca l parts
(abras ion, corros ion, etc.) . Less wide ly know n is th e ex istence of peri stalti c pumps
of signifi ca nt size, whose fl ow rates can reach several tens of m3/h.

Figure 5.8. Operating principle ofa p eristaltic pump

 Chapter 6

Transient Flows in Hydraulic Circuits:

Water Hammers

Thi s chapter dea ls with the most comm on "water hammer" ph enomenon, which
refers to vibrati on and noise occurring when a va lve is abruptl y closed in a hydraulic
circuit. Thi s phenomenon results from a strong di sturbance in the press ure field
in the vicinity of the valve, which is generated when th e circuit is closed. Thi s
di sturbance th en propagates along the circu it in the form of a sound wave, creating
di scomfort due to the assoc iated noise. It may also have more significant
conseq uences, such as damage to, or failure of, the circuit.

In thi s chapter, we describe th e water hammer phenomenon and th e preventative

dev ices. We also obtain the estimates of the over-pressures and of the ph enomenon 's
characteristi c tim es usin g simpl e methods.

Basica ll y, thi s chapter introduces th e notion of waves , parti cul arl y considering
th e case of so und waves. Waves have a fundamental role in fluid mechanics,
irrespective of whether th ey are sound waves , surface grav ity waves, or internal
waves in oceanography and meteorology. Engineers ca nnot ignore wave propagation
processes in fluid mec hani cs, and the wave water hammer ph enomenon IS an
appropriate case study to introduce in thi s book on wave propagati on in fluid s.

6.1. Sound propagation in a rigid pipe

Let us consider the circuit depi cted in Figure 6.1 , co mposed of a straight rigid
pipe of len gth L, with one end terminating at a valve, whi le the other opens into a
tank of infinite volume. The initial condition is considered to be the steady draining
I 12 Fluid Mec hani cs fo r Chemica l Engineerin g

fl ow , in w hi c h the fluid fl ows w ith a ve loc ity U in s ide the pi pe . It is ass umed tha t
th e va lve is ins ta nta neous ly c losed a t a time 1 = 0. T he fl ow ve loc ity im med ia te ly
beco mes ze ro at x = L. A t th a t po int in ti me, the ve loc ity upstream of the va lve
re main s equa l to U, as it ta kes some time fo r the info rmati o n a bo ut the va lve c los ure
to reac h th e pipe inl e t.

Fluid e leme nt
co mp ressed a l r = 0

ll x(x.l) = U

x = L - d.r
---.-------------'--r----- .r
x=O x= L

Fig ure 6. 1. Compression ofthefluid brought about bv the closure

ofa valve in a straigh t pipe

T he di ame te r of the pipe is sma ll w he n compa red to its le ngth . Hence it is

cons ide red th at the o nl y no n- zero ve loc ity compo ne nt in the fl ow is alo ng the Ox
ax is. O ther ve loc ity co mponents are ass umed to be zero. De noting by u..(1, x) = 0 thi s
ve loc ity co mpo ne nt at a poi nt in the pipe a t time 1, th e initi a l co nditi o ns of the
pro bl e m a re th e refo re:

u , (I = O,x= L ) = O a nd u , (I = O,x< L) = U [6. 1]

A sma ll fluid e le me nt located be twee n L-dx a nd L is necessaril y co mpressed.

It is o nl y s li g htl y squ eezed in te rms o f vo lume, as th e coe ffi c ie nt of isotherma l
co mpress ibility of wa te r is sma ll ,

()'
X = _p_ = S x I 0- 10 Pa - 1
, (6.2]
p .5p

but th e co mpress io n o f the fluid vo lume in the vic inity of the va lve produces a s harp
pressure in c rease in side thi s e le me nt. The compressed fluid e le me nt th e n ex pa nd s.
gene ra ting a press ure wave th at pro paga tes in the upstrea m di rec ti o n. Depe ndin g
upo n the bo undary conditi o n at the junc ti o n between th e tank a nd th e pipe , th e
press ure wave will be re fl ected back toward th e va lve, tra nsmitted into th e ta nk ,
o r di ss ipated . T o stud y th e tra ns ie nt ph eno meno n we requi re a n unde rstanding
of the pro pagati o n of press ure waves. Thi s is equi va le nt to unde rstanding sound
propagati o n .
 Transient Flows in Hydraulic C ircuits I I3

To stud y so und propagation in a fluid we need to superimpose a disturba nce in

pressure, ve loc ity , and dens ity o nto the c ha rac te ri st ics of th e fl ow in its undi sturbed
sta te. This is determined w he n so und propagates in a ri g id pipe, whose le ngth is
la rge compa red to it s di a me te r, cons ide rin g the space and time va ri a ti o ns of velocity ,
pressure , a nd density to de pe nd o nl y o n time a nd o n the x space coordinate. The
o nl y non-zero ve locity compo ne nt is a lso a lo ng Ox. We therefore cons ider the
fo ll owing variab les :

p(x,l) = p,+ p(x, l) , p(x,t ) = p ,+ p(x,t ), u, (x ,t ) = u, +ii , (x ,t) . [6.3]

T he qua ntiti es p, p , and i"J , represent the disturbance associa ted w ith the
pro paga ti on of so und . Here , we co ns id er th e fluid at rest (i.e. u, = 0) as the
undisturbed state, w ith pressure Po a nd dens ity Po Although thi s case differs fro m
the o ne ex pl a in ed in Figure 6. 1, where the fluid is fl ow ing in its undisturbed sta te,
so und propagati o n is m ore basically introd uced in thi s s impl e r case , and the other
case of the water hammer phenomenon w ill th en be eas il y treated. The space a nd
time variati o ns of the three va ri ab les are linked by mass conservati o n (continuity
eq uatio n), the ve loc ity compo ne nt a lo ng Ox (E ul er's eq uat io n), a nd compress ibili ty
(Chapter I, Tab le 1. 1).

We , th e refore. w rite :

op
-+~
a {(Po +P_) u_, } = 0
Ul OX

(Po+ P- ){--+u oii,- }-- -o-p

oii , _, - [6.4]
01 OX OX
p
X = (p, + p) p

Linea ri z in g th ese eq ua ti o ns w ith the three quantities p, p, and ii , g ives

so luti o ns that are s impl e , easy to inte rpre t, a nd ve rifi a bl e in nature, provided th e
am plitude of the waves re ma in s sma ll . It leads to s implify in g system [6.4) into:

op o11,
-+ p ,--= 0
at ax
au, ofJ
p,--=-- [6.5]
01 ox
zp, f) = P
I 14 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi cal Engineering

It ca n be proved, through substituti ons, that the space and time va ri ati ons of
these three quantities are govern ed by the same partial differential equati ons. whi ch
can be wri tten, for exampl e, for the quantity p :

[6.61

By performing vari abl e changes c; = x - at and If = x + at , with :

I
a = -- [6.7]
JxPv '
we estab li sh that:

[6.8]

so that th e genera l so luti on is expressed in the form:

p( x, t ) = Fp(x - at) + C p(x + at) [6.91

Functions F" and C" are determined on the basis of the initi al and boundary
conditions of th e probl em.

The so luti on is of the undulatory type, in the most fundamental sense of the
noti on of waves. For fun cti on r~, for examp le, observin g the time signal at point x 1
from time t 1 (by ex press in g t = 11 + t ' ), the va lu e of th e function ca n be written as
F, (x 1 - a t) = F" (x 1 - at 1 - at'). It is readily verifi ed that the same signal wi ll be
observed at po int x 2 from time t 2 , if t 2 = t 1 + (x 2 - x 1 ) / a . In other words. the
phenomenon observed at one point in time, at a certain locati on. replicates itself in
id enti ca l fashion at a later tim e, further along in the direction of propagation of th e
wave. The tim e delay is related to the spacing between the two points through the
pro pagati on speed a of the wave. The two functions F" and C" remain unmodi tied .
respectively, if the obse rve r moves at a ve locity a or - a in th e Ox direction. /~,
describes th e propagati on of a sound wave in the directi on of increasing x, and C,,
the propagati on of a wave in th e oppos ite directi on. Eq uati on [6.7] enabl es a
ca lcul ati on of the speed of sound in water, which , in th e usua l ambi ent conditi ons on
earth ( Pu = I 0 3 kg. m- 3 ' X= 5 X I o - I O Pa- l), eq uals:

I
a =-----= 1 4 14m s- 1 [6. 10]
Jxp, '
 Transient Flows in Hydrauli c Circuits 11 5

6.2. Ove r-pressures associated with a water hammer: characteristic time of a

hydraulic circuit

Re turnin g to th e wate r ha mme r pro bl e m in th e geo me try de pi c ted in F ig ure 6. 1,

th e va ri a ti o ns o f qu a ntiti es /j , p , a nd ti, a re described by th e sa me parti a l
di ffe re nti a l equ a ti o n [6 .6]. At a ny po int in time , th e va lues of /j. p , a nd tix a re
lin ked thro ug h syste m [6.5]. In th e prev io us secti o n th e pa rti a l diffe re nti a l equ a ti o n
[6.6] was ex pressed considerin g p
to un de rscore th e fac t th at so und is a press ure
d is turb a nce w hi c h pro paga tes in space. In th e case o f c los ure of a va lve, de pi cte d in
Fig ure 6. 1, th e bo und ary and initi a l conditi o ns a re ex pressed in te rm s of ve loc ity.
T hi s leads to so lv ing th e pro blem by co ns ide rin g equ a ti o n [6.6] w he n de ri ved fo r
variable iJ ,. As is th e case fo r press ure (equ ati o n [6.9]), th e ve loc ity di sturba nce is
wr itte n in th e fo rm:

Li , (x,!) = F,,(x - at )+Cu(x+at ) [6 .1 I ]

For th e co nfi g urati o n show n in Fig ure 6. 1. th e initi a l co ndit io ns a re:

-,
II ( X, 0) = u a nd aaLitx ( , 0) = 0
A fo r x < L [6. 12]

T hi s m ea ns th at, at th e initia l po int in time, a ll fluid e le me nts located be twee n 0

a nd L, w ith th e e xce pti o n o f th e pa rti c le located a t x = L, a re not a ffected by th e
c los ure of th e va lve. a nd continue to fl ow a t ve locity U, w hi c h is th e ve loc ity o f th e
prev io us ly establi s hed reg ime. S ince th e va lve is c losed fro m time 1 = 0 o nwa rd s, th e
bo und ary condit io n at x = L is:

i] , (L,t) = 0 fo r t>0 [6 .1 3]

A sin g ul a rity is o bserved in th e so luti o n at x = L a nd time t = 0. T he second

bou nd ary co nditi o n, at x = 0, is w ritte n in th e fo rm :

8Lix (O, t ) = a 8zi, (O,t) [6. 14]

at a'(
T hi s mea ns, as w ill be di sc ussed be low , that c los ure of th e va lve ca uses a
di sturba nce, w hi c h escapes into th e ta nk whil e, conve rse ly , no di sturbance e nte rs th e
pipe fr o m th e ta nk . Thi s is th e simpl est case th at co uld be co nside red . The bo und ary
conditi o n at x = 0 (equa ti o n [6. 14]) leads to :

F,;(- at) = 0 fo r t > 0 [6 .1 5]

I 16 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineering

Function F, is therefore co nsta nt , a nd ~l , (x , t) can consequentl y be writte n as:

ii , (x , t) = C,(x + at) [6.16]

Bo undary condition [6.14] m ea ns that the so lution cons ists so le ly in a wave th at

trave ls up the pipe between th e va lve a nd the tank .

The initial co ndition s [6.12] s how that C , (x + at) is necessaril y a piecewi se-
consta nt function , i.e . it is consta nt except for certain points w here it is
discontinuous. That so luti o n is necessa ril y, with the bounda ry cond iti on at x = L
(equation [6.13]):

Li , ( x, t) =U for x + at < L
[6.1 7]
Lix(x,t) =0 for x + a t > L

Conseq ue ntl y, the so luti o n s impl y appears as a velocity discontinuity w hi ch

propagates from the va lve to th e reservo ir.

The press ure disturban ce is de termin ed based on the ve loc ity disturbance by
s ubstitutin g so luti o n Ll, (x ,t) = C , (x + at) into th e Euler eq uat io n :

3ti x ap
p,-- = - - [6.18]
at ax

so tha t

ji(x, t) = 8 - p oaLI , (.:r , t) [6. 19 1

The consta nt of integration, 8, is de term ined by co ns id erin g th a t th e pressure

disturbance is zero in those zo nes w here the velocity is th at of the draining fl ow (x +
a t < L). The re fore, th e press ure di sturbance is g ive n by:

j'J(x ,t) = O for x + at < L

[6.20]
ji(x , t) = P uaU for x + at > L

Functions jj and Ll, are plotted in Figure 6.2 at tim e 1= 0 and at a la te r time I.
The undul atory nature o f the so luti o n is illu strated, even th o ug h in the present
case we can see a significant change in the pos ition of di scontinuity in the ve locity
and pressure pro files . The speed of this displacement is the ve loc ity a o f the
sound wave .
 Transient Flows in Hydraul ic Circuits 11 7

ii, (X,/ = 0) i) (.r.l = 0)

paU
U--+-- -- -- ----,

x=O x=L x =O .r=L

ii, (.r.l) p (x. l )

paU-
u -+-- - ----.
(// a/

I I
.r=O x =L x=O x=L

Figure 6.2 . Propagation of velocity and pressure discol7linuity during

water hammer phenomenon

T he mai n adva ntage of th is mode l is that it arrives at an order of mag nitude

fo r th e over- press ure ge nerated by the instantaneous c los ure of a va lve. S impl e
nu merica l ca lcul ati ons show th at these over-press ures are very hi gh, because the
speed of so und is high. For a dra ining fl ow of ve loc ity U = I m s- 1, the ove r-
6
pressure obtai ned is P = p, aU = 1.4 x I 0 Pa, o r 14 bars. T hi s is a ve ry hi g h va lue,
fo r re lative ly ordi nary conditi ons. Hence , th e water hammer phenomeno n ca n
da mage pipes if th ey are not di mensioned to w ith stand s uch press ure variati o ns.

T he propagati on mode l for press ure waves in a ri g id pipe, presented m

sect ions 6. 1 and 6 .2, is rudimentary . It is observed (Figure 6.2) that a constant over-
press ure esta bli shes itse lf in th e pi pe, o nce the di sturbance is flu shed out of th e tank .
In rea lity, there occurs an expa nsio n. Furth e nno re, the di sturbance is ge nera ll y not
entire ly tlus hed o ut o f the p ipe into the reservo ir. The wave is parti a ll y refl ected at
the mouth and trave ls bac k toward the va lve in a rec iproca tin g move ment betwee n
the va lve and the opening, res ulting in a gradua l dampenin g of the pressure . T he
entire water hammer pheno menon sho uld , th erefore , be seen as a sequence o f
a lterna ting over- and under-press ure cycl es . Over-pressures ca n bring a bout a fa ilure
o f' the pi pe, w hereas under-p ress ures are like ly to generate cav itati on.
11 8 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

The characteri sti c time o f such reciprocating movements is:

2L
[6.2 1]
a

Thi s characteri stic time is use ful for determinin g the instantaneous or gradual nature
of th e va lve clos ure. It ca n usually be considered that th e closure of th e va lve is
instantaneo us, if the actual cl os ure time 11 of the va lve is less th an t, . Oth erwise, th e
over-press ure ge nerated is diminished, as compared to the in stantaneous case. Tabl e
6.1 summari zes the res ult s that can be appli ed in practi ce.

Closure Cond iti on Over-pressu re

Instantaneous < t ,. P = PoaU
'I
I .
Gradu al 'I > lc P = PoaU -'-
'I
Table 6.1 . Over-pressures generated during water hammer phenomenon /o r
an instanlaneous or g radual valve closure

6.3. Linear elasticity of a solid body: sound propagation in an elastic pipe

In practi ce, the theory presented above needs to be complemented by co ns idering

the deform ati on of the pipe in the over-pressure zone. As illu strated in Fi gure 6.3,
the over-pressure causes a swe llin g of th e pipe. Even if it is small (the di agram
exaggerates th e deformati on), thi s swe llin g increases the vo lume occ up ied by th e
fluid and reduces the leve l of the over-press ure. It is thu s readil y und erstood th at the
deform ati ons o f the pipe pl ay a part in the problem . Th e over-pressure P in the pipe
is balanced by a tension force T, whi ch stretches th e ribbon in such a way that th e
perimeter of th e pipe changes from rrD to rr D'. For a pipe whose materi al has an
elastic behav ior, the elongati on is related in a simpl e way to the tensil e stress CT
assoc iated with force T by a linear relati onship :

D '- D CT
[6.22 ]
D E
 Transient Flows in Hydra uli c Circ uits 119

T he pro portionality coeffi c ient E is re ferred to as the materia l' s Young's

modulus. It has the d imens io n of pressure .

....__ _ ej

D 1
---1---__.:0
::..v.:..:e::..r-Lp.:..:re=ss:.:u::..re=------~ x o
zone

rrD

rro --------~
-T T

Figure 6.3. Expans ion of a p ipe due to the effect of an over-pressure

T he wate r hammer principle is not a ltered w he n the effect of the pipe's e las ti c ity
is ta ke n into acco unt. But, the pro paga ti on speed of pressure waves is qua ntitati ve ly
dimini shed by the effect of e lasti c ity. The ce leri ty of the press ure waves is thus
g iven by:

[6.23]

w here D de notes the d iameter of the pipe and e its thi c kn ess (F ig ure 6.3 ). T he res ults
summarized in Table 6.2 re ma in va li d if the wave speed g ive n by [6.23] is appli ed.
It is poss ibl e, thro ugh simpl e nume ri cal ca lc ul ati o ns, to spec ify the conditi o ns in
w hi c h a pipe's e lastici ty cannot be neglected (see the exerc ise at the end of thi s
c hapter).

In Tab le 6.2 , we provi de the Yo un g's moduli of di ffe rent class ic materi a ls. 1

I The theory of elasti c bod ies also in vo lves Poisson's mod ulus, whi ch does not appear in this
problem.
120 Flu id Mec hani cs for Chemical Engin eeri ng

2
Material Youn g's modulus (N m )

Steel/i ron 2 X JQ 11

Cast iron lOll

Aluminum 7 X I0 10

Lead 2 X I0 10

Cop per J.2 X JQ11

111
Concrete 4 X !0

Glass 5 X 10 10

PVC 10~

Sti ff rubber s x 1o"

Table 6.2. Young .1 modu/us(or various common materials

6.4. Water hammer prevention devices

Water hammer preventi on dev ices serve two purposes:

I. Sa feguardin g again st stron g over-pressures , in order to limit th eir magnitude,

and again st under-press ures th at mi ght give ri se to cav itati on.
2. Di ss ipatin g di sturbances that propagate inside th e pipe. Disturbances shoul d
be lessened over time, and not be return ed with a certain tim e.

Figure 6.4 prese nts va ri ous dev ices whi ch prov ide protecti on aga inst th e water
hammer phenomenon. All th ese operate on the prin ciple of va ryin g the liq uid
vo lume to red uce pressure vari ati ons. Such simpl e dev ices should be placed near th e
va lve , so th at th ey ca n act as soon as it is closed.

Reli e f va lves and inl et check va lves are simpl e dev ices th at suppress th e
un steady e ffects of an over-pressure or under-press ure, respecti ve ly. Th e reli ef va lve
is fitted aga in st an aperture in the pipe by means of a sprin g whose stiffness is
chosen so as to all ow th e va lve to open, should the over-pressure exceed a limitin g
va lue. Some li quid is th en forced out of th e pipe, thu s dec reas in g the pressure in th e
pipe. Th e inl et check va lve operates in th e oppos ite manner. openin g in wards of the
pipe when th e pressure drops below a limitin g va lue. The mass of th e va lves and the
spring constants should be chosen in such a way that th e characteri sti c frequency of
the protec ti ve system differs from th e characteri sti c frequency li t, o f th e hydrauli c
 Transient Fl ows in Hyd rauli c Circuits 12 1

circ uit , in order to prevent a resonance betwee n the water hammer ph enomenon and
the protecti ve system's res ponse.

Relief va lve:
Protection agai nst over-pre ssures

Anti-surge tank :
All - ro und p ro lec lio n

Inle t check val\e:

Prot e~.: t ion
against unde r-press u re~

E l a s ti ~.: mem brane

Sprin g

Va lve

Va lve

Figure 6.4. Del'icesfor protecting pipes against water hammers

The ami -s urge vesse l consists of a se lf-contain ed protec ti ve dev ice, whi ch
safeguard s aga in st both over- and under-press ures. The elastic membrane in side
the tank , whi ch isolates th e liquid from a vo lume of air, moves under th e effect o f
press ure changes , converting th e pressure va ri ations in the liquid into co mpressed
ai r. At the sa me time, the membrane should be elasti c to res pond to pressure
variations, and qui ck ly contribute to the di ssipati on of pressure nuctu ati ons.

Ex erci se

A stee l pipe, I0 em in diameter with a wall thickness of 3 mm , suppli es to a

bas in at a fl ow rate of 30m 3 h- 1. The length o f the pipe is 3 km .

I. Do we need to consider the elasti city of the pipe? What is th e characteri sti c
time of th e pipe?
2. T he va lve closure time is 5 s. Eva luate pressure vari ati ons when the val ve
ISclosed. Should th e pipe be equipped with a protecti on system aga in st water
ham mers?
 Chapter 7

Notions of Rheometry

Thi s chapter is not dedi cated to rheo logy as a di sc ipline. We will not present,
therefore, the cl ass ica l rheo log ica l models, whi ch describe the mechani cal behav ior
of many materi als.

We shall dea l here with rheometry, whi ch concern s the tec hniques fo r
characteri zing the rheo log ica l pro perties of materi als. The phys ica l principl es
underl ying the des ign of rheometers are presented. Stating them here is justifi ed for
several reasons:

- It is important to be aware, within a fluid mec hani cs course, th at not all fluids
are Newtoni an.
- The use of a rheometer shoul d be famili ar to an engineer, even one who does
not spec ialize in rheology.
- The operatin g principl e of rheometers is independent from the rh eo log ical
mode ls whose co nstructi on they make poss ibl e.

7.1. Rh eology

Let us return to the loca l fo rm, in a Cartes ian coordinate system, of the
fundamental law of mec hanics fo r a continuum, already seen in Chapter I
(Tabl e I. I). The eq uations are reproduced below, omitt ing body forces:

DUx OUr OUx DUx } OIJxx OIJx DIJxz

p { - + ux -+u ,. - + uz - =--+--+ - -
DI OX . ay oz OX ay oz
124 Fluid Mechan ics fo r Chemical Enginee rin g

au1 Cl/1 au,. QU,. } C Cf.1T Q Cf\ T ?cr,.,

p - + u ,.--+ 11 ,--+ 11 , - = - - + - - + - - [7. 1J
{ 01 ox al'. ?::: ex cr. ?z

au, all, au,

p - + u ,.-+ u , - + u, - = - - + - - + - -
ou,} rJ cr ,., ocr,, rJ cr,,
{ at OX . 0)' a::: ax C\' i":::

They bring in th e stress tensor [I ] , whi ch is a symmetrical 3 x 3 matri x. Th e

mechanical behav ior of a materi al is determined by the math emati ca l ex pression of
the six terms in the stress tensor. The purpose of rheo logy is to estab li sh th ese
relations (called constituti ve eq uati ons) between the stresses appli ed in side th e
materi al and the strain s th ey ca use. As such. rheo logy appears as a di sc ipline
situated " upstrea m" of mechani cs. The eq uati ons fo r the fu ndamental la w of
dynamics can onl y be so lved after determining th e rheo log ica l behavior of the
medium.

We reca ll , from Chapter 1, that the stress tenso r [I] ca n be used to express th e
tran smi ss ion of forces in side the med ium. Considering a vo lume V bou nded by a
c losed surfaceS (F igure 7.1 ), th e forc e exerted by th e outside of the domain on th e

l
inside of the doma in through the surface element , ds , centered on M is expressed as:

dF = d ~,
[
dF,.

df ,
= ds [I] i7 = ds
[cr.. ,. cr.n
cr.n
cr ..,
Cf 11

cr , ~
cr ,. .
cr,.,
cr,,
:l l
nn,,.
n,
[7.2]

The total fo rce exerted by the outsid e environment on domain V is derived from
th e surface integral:

f = Jf([I ]ii)ds [7.3 1

s

II

Figure 7. I. Volum e V bounded hy a closed s urlace S. n is the outward

norma/to the domain at poi111 M
 Notions of Rheometry 125

The co ncept of the stress tensor is in separabl e from th e mechani ca l principl e of

act ion an d reacti on. Th e normal vector ii is ori ented toward th e outside of the
doma in on whi ch the force is exerted. The force exerted by th e domain Vo n the
o utside is in the oppos ite direct ion.

So far, we have merely recalled the noti ons introd uced in Chapter I. It is
important to rea li ze that a non-zero stress appli ed to a materi al impli es the ex istence
of a force capab le of deforming it. Determining th e stress tensor is onl y useful for a
deformable material. For a rigid body, the stress di stributi on within the medium is
unkn ow n (a nd undeterminabl e) to begin with , but that is of no consequence. The
move ment of th e body is described compl etely by the moti on of its ce nter of grav ity
and the rota ti on of the body. Describing these two movements only req uires th e
know ledge of the body forces and th e total forces appli ed to th e walls of th e body.

For a deformabl e materi al, let us consider, e.g. a sli ce of a material held between
pl anes ;;: = 0 and :: = h. Two situati ons are shown in Figure 7.2: one for a so lid and
one for a fluid. Whil e we rely here on the definition s th at are given herea fter to
defin e a so lid and a fluid , co mmon se nse enables one to analyze the similariti es and
di ss imil ariti es between both ty pes of material. In both cases. th e forces per unit
surface exe rted on the material are ex pressed as a function of th e stresses at th e
upper interface and at the lower interface :

[7.4]

1= 0 a ,( h) L _ cr.,(h) Solid
t =h

/.=0

L=h

Figure 7.2. Shearforces applied on a slice ofmalerial conlained be/ween lwo parallel
planes. and ollfline o_(1he varia/ion in lime of /h e slrain depending on
whelher !he malerial is a solid or afluid
126 Fluid Mecha ni cs for Chemical Engi neeri ng

T he di agrams in Fi gure 7.2 ass um e th at the magnitude of th e stress is identi ca l

at the top and bottom along both th e O.r and 0:: directions (i.e. CY -= (h) = CY c ( 0)
a nd CY:: (h) = CY:: (O) ) . Thi s pro perty is justi fied later. It serves as a bas is to
es tabli sh th at th e CY== stress can defo rm th e materi al by squeez in g it or stretchin g
it. and th at th e CY.c stress can deform it by shear in g it in th e Ox:: plane. An
initi a ll y rec tang ul ar vo lum e element defo rm s into a slanted parall elep iped when a
non-zero stress CY.c is appli ed. Lik ew ise, a non-ze ro stress CY, = produ ces a
shea rin g stra in in th e Oy:: pl ane. For thi s reason, th e eY e, CY.,.. , and <:510 stresses
are refe rred to as shear stresses.

Figure 7.2 shows that the stra in s produced by a shear stress are di fferent
de pendi ng on whether the materi al is a so lid or a fluid . For a so lid , the stra in is
fin ite; the rec tangle will qu as i-instantaneously turn into a slanted para ll elepiped , and
come to rest in th at state of strain. Consequently, to any stress state there is a
correspondin g strain state. The fluid , on the other hand , will tl ow . Thi s mea ns that
the para ll elepiped leans over even more as time goes on. To every stress state there
is not a correspondin g stra in state, but a rate at which the parall elepiped leans over.
T hi s is referred to as a stra in rate.

T he purpose of rheo logy is to estab li sh a lin k between stresses and strain s, for
a so lid , and betwee n stresses an d stra in rates , for a fluid . Rh eo metry conce rn s the
ex pe rim en tal tec hniques th at enab le th e charac teri za ti on of such re lati onshi ps. Th e
des ign o f a rh eo meter should first of all enabl e th e appli ca ti on o f uniform stresses
thro ughout a materi al. Thi s will res ult in a homogeneous strain . As we see
here in afte r, a rheo meter is sized in such a way th at unsteady terms and in ertial
term s in th e fundamental law of dynami cs (lefi -hand term s in [7.1 ]) are ze ro or
neg li gib le.

7.2. S train, s train rate, solid s and fluids

Let us conside r a point in a materi al, located at time 1= 0 at x. y . and ::. Th e

moti on of th at materi al point is described hy its trajectory:

X( l ,x , y,z) = X1 (/ , x 1 ). Y( l , x , y , z) = X 2(l ,x1 ) and Z (l , x,y , ::) = X J(I ,x 1 ) . [7.5 ]

In the fo ll ow ing di sc uss ion, we use tensor notati on X ;(I , x 1 ) . The strain s at a
given point in a materi al are characteri zed on the bas is of a compari son between the
trajectories fo ll owed by three neighborin g parti cles (F igure 7.3 ). Th e materi al is not
deformed if th e length s and angles between three arbitrary points are conserved
during th e move ment. Based on continuum mechani cs, we introduce th e 3 x 3 strai n
 Notio ns of Rh eome try 12 7

tensor, wh ich is written in tensor notati on as:

C;, =-
1 {ax; ax, ax; ax 1 }
--+-~-+---- [7.6]
2 ax1 OX; axk axk
The deri vati ve with respect to index k is summari zed in [7.6] fo r the va lues k = I,
2 and 3.

Therefore, a material is not deformed at x, y, and ::: if:

V i,j [7.7]

Likew ise, we defin e the 3 x 3 strain rate tensor:

[7.8]

wh ich invo lves th e ve locity u,. For small deformati ons, the stra in tensor and the
stra in rate tenso r are lin ked by:

DIf. -- ac;, [7.9]

at

Aft er displacement

Initial

Figure 7.3. Characterization of the deformation of u material hy the

displacements of three material points

The constituti ve equati ons of a materi al are the relati onships betwee n the stress
tensor and the strain tensor, or between the stress tensor and the strai n rate tensor.
128 Flui d Mechani cs for Chemi ca l Engineering

Of course, the nature of th e relati onship differs accordin g to wheth er the materi al is
a so lid or a fluid .

The asse rti ons by Couarraze and Gross iord 1 for de finin g a so lid or a fl uid
through their rh eo logical characteri sti cs are parti cul arl y clear:

- A substance is a so lid if, when subj ected to a constant stress th at does not cause
breakdown, it tends towa rd a conditi on of stati c equilibrium , fo r whi ch its strain
remain s constant.
- A substance is a flui d if, when subj ected to a constant stress, it never reaches
a conditi on of stati c equilibrium . Its strain in creases indefi nitely; and hence the
substance fl ows.

It foll ows from these definiti ons that strain tenso r [7. 7] characte ri zes the stra in of
a so lid materi al subjected to stress. For a so li d, the consti tuti ve eq uati on is a re lation
between the stress tensor and the stra in tensor:

CJu = functi on {11111} [7 .1 0]

For a fluid , strain ca nnot characteri ze the res ponse of th e materi al to stress, since
it kee ps evo lving in time. The constituti ve equati on is a relati on between th e stress
tensor and the strain rate te nso r [7.8]:

CJu = fun cti on {D11111} [7. 11]

These simpl e de finiti ons concea l a sometimes subtl er rea lity. The sa me material
ca n be a so lid under certain mechani ca l co nditi ons and a fluid under others.
Bingham pl asti cs are materi als th at are so lid as long as the appli ed stress re main s
below a critica l leve l (w hi ch is ca ll ed yield stress), and beco me tluid when the stress
exceeds that leve l. 2 Certain paints , as we ll as some pasta-type foods tu ffs, exhib it thi s
type of behav ior. In th e natural environment or in purifi cati on pl ant s, concentrated
sludge also fit s into thi s category. A thi xotropi c materi al modifi es its rheo logica l
behav ior over time even though th e shear stress appli ed to it re main s constant .
A very co mmon exa mpl e is yogurt. It is so li d when opened, and turn s to liqu id upon
stirring, when the shear stress exceeds a finite yield stress. It does not recover its
initi al state as soo n as the stirring ceases, but yeasts may, in time, recreate a so li d
structure if it is left to stand. Its behav ior thu s va ri es in time, dependin g on the stress
cyc le appli ed to it.

I G. Couarraze and J.L. Gross iord, 199 1, Initiation aIa rheo/ogie. Lavo isier.
2 Exe rcise I at the end of thi s chapter dea ls with the now of a Bingham fluid in a cy li ndrical
pipe.
 Noti ons of Rh eometry 129

7.3. A rheology experiment: behavior of a material subjected to shear

To elucidate the principl e of rh eometry, we return to th e ex periment sketched in

Fi gure 7 .2. A sli ce of materi al is in se rted between two parall el pl anes at z = 0 and
:: = h, whi ch are subj ected to stresses that are ass umed to be homoge neous in th e
z = 0 and :: = h pl anes (no quantity depends on space vari abl es x and r ). The
ex perim ent is th eoreti ca l in asmuch as the pl anes are infinite. There is no edge effect,
whi ch any rea l ex periment would require an yway.

The forces appli ed to th e materi al per unit surface in th e pl ane : = h and in the
pl ane: = 0 are given by [7.4]. We consider a case where stresses are kept constant in
time, and we analyze th e situation where the material 's res ponse is also independent
from time. In the case of a so lid , it will take a short whil e for th e strain tensor to
stabili ze. In the case of a fluid , it is the stra in rate tensor that wi ll become
independent with time after a short peri od.

Let us first consi der the case of a fluid . Ass uming th at all moti on is parallel to
the Ox ax is, the ve loc ity fi eld takes on th e form

u ,. (: ) and u,. = u: =0 [7. 12]

and the loca l equati ons for a co ntinuum (equati ons [7. 1]) reduce to:

8 0"..-: =0
az
8 0",.: = 0
[7. 13]
az
8 0":: =0
az
Stresses are, th erefore, homogeneo us throughout th e layer, as a consequence of
th e steady-state character and of the kinematic ass umpti ons. From thi s, it is inferred
th at th e stress fi eld is:

O" r: (z) = T , CY,~ (z ) =0 and O"::(z) =Po [7. 14]

th e constant va lue, T, is a re minder that stress O"x: is a shear stress, whil e the
notati on P0 of th e oth er constant value indicates that stress incorporates the pressure
force at the wa ll . It is verifi ed that the forces appli ed on the top and bottom of
the layer have the same magnitude and opposite directi ons, as had been shown in
Fi gure 7.2.
130 Fluid Mechanics for C he mi ca l Eng in ee rin g

Th e st rain rate ten sor is writte n, unde r th e kin emati c ass umpti o ns [7. 1::]
(see C ha pte r I , Tab le I . I) , as

Iaux
0 0
2 a::.
[D] = 0 0 0 [7. 15]
I aux
0 0
2 a::.
its dete rminati o n is prin c ipa ll y based o n th e calcul ati o n of D = ( I I 2)auxI a::.. The
rheometry ex pe rime nt e nab les th e esta bli shme nt of th e re lati o n

r = r(D) [7. 16]

In prac ti ce , th e move ment s of the surfaces tha t bound th e mate ri a l, rath e r th an

the stra ins o r stra in rates , are us ua ll y meas ured. If the bottom surface (a t ::. = 0) is
kept stati o nary, meas urin g th e ve loc ity uJh ) of th e top surface lead s to:

D = Ux(h)
[7. 17]
2h

Since stress is ho m ogeneo us w ithin the materi a l, the strain rate is necessa ril y
homogeneo us, too , w hen steady cond iti o ns a re reached, as a co nsequence of the
constituti ve equati o n (eq ua ti o n [7. 16]) . The rheo log ica l pro pe rti es of a ma teria l
s ubjected to the e ffect o f s hear stress a re readil y d e te rmined us in g the re lati o ns hip
between the shea r stress a nd the di splacement of a wa ll.

The same properties ho ld fo r a so lid . The rh eo logy ex pe rime nt cons ists in

meas urin g the stra in s produced by the shear stress, r, w hi c h is ho moge neo us w ithin
th e materia l. S tra in tensor [7 .6] is written as :

_!_ ( ax y 1 ax
0
2\ a::. 2 a::.
[ c: l = 0 0 0 [7. 18]
1 ax
0 0
2 az
w he n the mo t io n IS parall e l to th e Ox ax is ( i.e. X(::.) and Y = Z = 0 ). It is
dete rmined so le ly from th e va lue of ( I I 2)aX I az, which wi ll fro m now o n be
denoted by c. For a so lid , the rheome try ex pe rim ent d ete rmines th e re lati o n :

r = r{ c:). [7. 19]

 No ti o ns o f Rheo me try 13 1

The fundamental prin c ipl e of a rheo logica l ex pe rim ent is to gene ra te unifo rm
s tress within the materi a l. S ince stress is a function o f the stra in o r stra in rate,
th e stra in o r stra in rate is a lso necessa ril y unifo rm within the ma te ri a l, if the stress
is so . The strain o r stra in rate can be estimated thro ugh a measure me nt of th e
displacement s or ve lociti es o n the walls .

A rh eometry experime nt can be carried o ut in two wa ys:

I . In a "co ntroll ed stress rh eo me ter" , by applying a contro ll ed stress and

meas urin g the strain it induces. Th e rheo logica l curve is obtained by ca rry in g out
s uch an ex perim ent for va ri o us stress va lues .

2. In a "co ntro lled stra in rheo mete r", by prescribing a controlled stra in and
meas urin g th e stress it causes. The rh eo logica l c urve is o bta ined by carryin g out
suc h an experiment for various strain va lu es.

(Jij

rield ~--
srress
L_J.......____ __
Fluid

Figure 7.4. Diagrammalic represenlalion of /h e rheolog ical curves .for a solid

and a fluid. Th e s /ress is a shear s/ress ( i ~ j )

Figure 7.4 de pi cts th e type of curve obtained for a so lid o r a fluid ; thi s type of
c ha rt is re ferred to as a " rh eo log ica l c urve". The ex pe rime ntal procedure is ide nti ca l,
a ltho ugh for a so lid the stress depe nds on th e strain , whereas in a fluid it varies
with the stra in rate. The stresses gene rated in usual rheom eters are shear stresses
(i.e. i * j ). T he stress a-;; us ually produces a strain & ij or a strain rate D ij with the
same indi ces. The theory that we have prese nted is for steady states. Specialists in
rheo logy a lso carry o ut ex pe rim e nts in tra ns ie nt conditions.

- A c ree p test basicall y involves application of a constant stress from tim e t = 0,

starting from ze ro stress and strain . Th e displ ace ment or th e ra te of displacement of
the wa ll s is th e n measured ove r time.
132 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engin eering

- A stress- relaxati on tes t is carri ed out by impos ing a co nstant stra in from tim e
1= 0, startin g from ze ro stress a nd strain . The evo luti on of stress is th en meas ured
over time.

We do not describe herein th e poss ibl e interpretati on o f creep or stress-

re laxati on ex periments. Th e rh eometers used are des igned to contain th e materi al to
be tested in side very narrow gaps. so as to be abl e to rega rd th e strain (fo r a creep
ex perim ent ) or the stress ( for a relaxati on ex periment ) as homogeneous durin g th e
trans ient reg im e under ana lys is.

7.4. The circular cylindrical rheometer (or Couette rheometer)

Rheometers oft en have a circul ar geo metry. Their operatin g prin cipl e is identi ca l
to what has bee n described in th e prev ious sec ti on. Th ank s to th e circ ul ar geo metry,
it is poss ibl e to par1iall y avo id edge e ffec t probl ems and to eas il y produ ce a quas i-
uniform stress within the materi al. Figure 7.5 shows the layo ut of a circul ar
cy lindri ca l rh eo meter 3 Th e material is in se rted into th e ga p between th e cylinders
whose radii are R 1 and R2 Th e outer cy linder is held stati onary, whil e th e inn er
cy linder ca n rotate about its symmetri ca l ax is. Th e rheo metry ex perim ent is carri ed
out by appl y ing a know n rotati onal moment , parall el to th e cy linders' ax is , whi ch
ma kes the inner cy linder revo lve . Meas urin g the rotati on or the ro tati on rate of th e
mov ing cy linde r pro vid es an estimate o f the stra in or strain rate, res pect ive ly, for a
so lid and a fluid .

Th e height , f-1 , of th e apparatu s is suffi cientl y large , and the gap w idth R2- R 1
suffi cientl y small , to be ab le to neg lect edge effects at th e top and bo ttom in th e
force balan ce. Th e di splace me nts and stresses can be regarded as ax isy mm etri c with
respect to th e 0::. ax is a nd independent from ::. . Th erefo re, in the cy lindrica l
coordinate sys te m with th e 0::. ax is. th e diffe rent variabl es depe nd not on var iabl es()
and z , but onl y on r. Co nsequentl y, th e stress te nsor is written in th e cy lindri ca l
coordinate system (Chapt er I, Tabl e 1.2) a

a ,, ( r ) r ,o ( r ) f ,0 (r):
r ,u ( r) a ou(r) r o, (r) [7.20]
[
r ,= ( r) r u= (r ) CT:: (r)

3 In a simil ar fas hi on. the case o f a cone/plate rh eometer is treated in Exercise II at th e end of
thi s chapter.
 No ti o ns o f Rh eo m e try 133

z
S tatio na ry cy li nde r
Ro ta tin g c y lind e r

Figure 7.5. Ceomelrv of a circular c\'/indrical rheomeler

T he fo rce exe rted by the inner cy lind er o n the mat e rial through a s urface
e le ment , d: R 1 d B, whose o utward no rm a l is -e, , is w ritte n as:

CY,, ( Rt ) ]
dF(B) = - r,o( Rt) R,d Bdz [7 .2 1]
[
r,=( R,)

Th e c irc ul a r cy lindri ca l rh eomete r o nl y a ppli es stresses to ma ke the inne r cy linde r

rotate a nd keep th e outer cy lin der fi xed . No fo rce is exerted a lo ng th e 0::. ax is, a nd
consequently, r,= (R 2 ) = 0. Th e to rque exerted o n th e e ntire co ntact surface of the
inner cy linde r is:

M =

[7.22]
134 Flui d Mecha nics for Chemi ca l Engi neeri ng

The onl y non-zero component of th e torque is a rotati on moment abo ut th e 0::

axis, assoc iated with a shea r stress, r,. 11 . Its magnitude is:

[7.23]

The moment ap pli ed by the inner cy linder at th e bound ary of the materi al
produces di spl ace ments onl y in the az imuth al di recti on. For a tlui d, the ax isym metry
of the tl ow sim plifi es the ki nemati cs int o:

11 ,. = 0, uo(r) , and II : = 0. [7.24]

Of the loca l eq uati ons fo r th e fundamental law of dynami cs in th e cy lindri ca l

coordinate system (Tab le 1.2 of Chapte r I ), the onl y relevant one here is on the
az imuthal direction ( eo ), whi ch reduces to:

0
=_I_ il(r 2 r,.o) [7.2 5]
r2 ar

Integratin g it with [7.23 ]1eads to4 :

I M.
r,.o (r) =- ---
r2 2Tr H [7.26]

Unli ke what was obtained for th e pl anar geometry, stress is not homoge neous
ac ross the materi al, but its va ri ati ons re main neg li gibl e if the ga p width is small
compared to the radii o f th e cy linders, i.e. if ( R2 - R1 ) << ( 1? 2 + /? 1 ) I 2. The stress
within th e gap ca n th en be approx imated by it s average va lue:

[7.27]

For a tluid , th e ax isymmetric kinemati cs of the tl ow (equation [7.24]) leads to a

simpl e ex press ion of th e strain rate tenso r (Tabl e 1.2 of Chapter I):

4 Us ing re lati on [7 .26], it can he establi shed th at th e moment exe rted by th e inner cy linder of
radius R1 on th e materi al is th e exact opposite of th at exert ed on th e material by the outer
cyli nder.
 Noti ons of Rheometry 135

0
ar r))
~2 (r ~C'O 0

(D] = (r:,. c:~ )) 0 0 [7.28 ]

0 0 0

The onl y non-zero term in th e strain rate tensor is D,.0 =( I I 2)r8 (u 0 I r) l 8r .

The rheometri ca l ex periment enab les the determination of the relati onship between
D,. 0 and r,.0 , with both remain ing approximately homoge neous across the material.
The average va lue of the magnitude of the strain rate is ex pressed by bringing in th e
angu lar rotational ve loci ty, n, of the inner cy linder:

[7.29]

since the outer cy linder is stationary ( u 0 ( R2 ) = 0 ),the inner cy li nder rotates wi th

ve loc ity uo( RI) = nR1.

By studying the variations of the moment M: with the angular rotationa l ve locity,
n, of the inner cy linder, we can thus plot th e rheolog ical curve r,. 0 :: r,.0 (D,. 0 ) ,
usin g [7.27 ] and [7.29]. For a Newton ian tlu id, viscosity is simp ly determi ned by:

r ,o 4M: (R2 - RI )
p = -- = [7.30]
2D,.o ff( R1 + R2 ) 3 HQ

The ex press ions that have just been establi shed for determinin g th e D,.0 term in
the strai n rate tensor rely on kinematic hypotheses (equation [7.24]) that assume the
tlow to be laminar, without secondary tlow . It is within thi s fram ework that the use
of a rheometer is va lid . It should be emphasized that these hypotheses are not always
verifi ed 5

5 If the inner cylinder spin s fast enough, an in stability is tri ggered, which gives ri se to a
secondary fl ow made up of counter-rotating toroidal vorti ces stacked ve rticall y insi de the ga p.
The total solution is, therefore, not in the form given by [7.24); instead, it has non-zero u,. and
U : ve locity components. The Couette instabi lity has prompted a number of studi es to be

taken up.
136 Fluid M ec hani cs for Chemi ca l Eng ineerin g

7.5. Application exercises

Exercise 7.1: Rheometry and flow of a Bingham fluid in a pipe

A pipe o f length L = I 000 m and di ameter D = 0.2 m is bl ocked by a li quid th at

has beco me co ngea led ins id e th e pipe foll ow in g a pl ant shutdow n. We wish to
determin e th e head loss required between th e inl et and outl et to unblock the pipe.

Th e first step is to determine th e rh eo log ica l characteri sti cs of th e materi al,

whi ch has bee n samp led . The materi al is in serted into a circ ul ar cy lindrical
rh eo meter o f height H = 50 mm , inn er radiu s R 1 = 19. 5 mm , and outer radius
R2 = 20.5 mm . Th e outer cy linder is stati onary, whil e th e inn er cy linder ca n rotate
about its sy mmetrica l ax is. Th e rh eometer operates by impos in g a known and
controlled torque, M=, to th e inn er cy linder and measurin g its angul ar rotati onal
speed, D , in a stead y-state reg ime. Th e densit y o f the materi al is p = 2000 kg/i111 .

I. For di ffe rent values o f torque M=, readin gs have been taken o f th e angul ar
rotati onal speed, D . The results are g ive n in the tabl e below.

Pl ot the rheo logical curve o f th e materi al, i.e. the relati on hip between stress , r,(),
a nd strain rate, 0 ,0 . Show th at the rheo log ical behav ior is typical of a Bingham
material , namely:

D,o =0 if 0 ~ r,o ~ rc
r,u = r" + 2p D,o if

Wh at does thi s rheo log ica l beha vior mea n. in simpl e term s'! Determin e rc (th e
y ield stress ) and 1-' (th e vi scos it y) from th e data in the tabl e.

2. Returning to th e prob lem of the bl oc ked pipe, consider the fl ow in the

cy lindri ca l coordin ate system whose 0:: ax is, whi ch co incides with th e ax is of
the pipe (see Fi gure 1.3 o f C hapter I), is ori ented in the direc ti on o f th e ll ow . By
con sidering the non-zero component(s) in the ve locity vector, verify th at th e on ly
non-zero term in th e strain rate tenso r is D,=. Set out the form of thi s te rm ex pli c itl y
and expla in wh y D,, ~ 0 . Ex pl ain a lso wh y the onl y non-zero shear stress in the
pipe is r,=, a nd wh y r ,, ~ 0 . It will be dedu ced th ere from that the rh eo logica l
re lation for the Bingham fluid can be written, for the flow of th at fluid in a pipe, as :

D,= =0 if

r,.= = - rc + 2pD,=
 Noti ons of Rh eomet ry 137

(Deri vi ng the rh eo log ica l re la tion between r ,.= and D,.= fo r th e pipe fl ow from the
rheological re lati o n estab li s hed betwee n r,. 0 a nd D,. 0 in Question I by rh eometry is
not tri via l. W e w ill not dwell o n th at, being content with assum ing an isotro pic
behavior of th e mate ri a l and findin g that, in both cases, we are dea ling with shear
stresses a nd stra in rates.)

3 . By appl y ing the mo mentum theo re m , calculate th e minimum press ure

diffe rence , !J.P. tha t sho uld be applied betwee n the inl e t and o utl e t o f the pipe to set
th e fluid in mo ti o n. By applying th e momentum th eorem o n a do main to be
specified , de te rmine the variat ion of r ,.= (r) w ith ra nd tiP. Justi fy the fac t that the
mome ntum theore m can be ap pli ed for a Bing ha m fluid.

4 . A pressure differe nce is applied betwee n the in le t and o utl et of the pipe :
tiP = 1.2 bar. Ex pl ai n why the mate ri a l is so lid in the ce ntra l port io n of the pipe, and
wh y it is fluid in a n annular do main adj ace nt to th e wall. Dete rmin e th e radiu s Rc
within which the materi a l is so lid inside the pipe a nd beyond which it is liquid .
Determine th e ve loc ity pro fil e .

Exercise 7.11: Cone/plate rheometer

The purpose is to stud y th e principl e of the c irc ular co nical rheometer

rep rese nted in the Figure 7.11.1 be low. The mate ri a l to be studi ed is inserted be tween
a fl at pl ate, w hi c h is he ld fi xed , and a cone. The cone can rotate aro und the Oz ax is.
Th e apex of the cone contacts th e pl a ne.

It is co ns ide red here th at the rheom ete r is e mployed to stud y a fluid . The cone is
subj ec ted to a rotat io na l mo ment M= about the Oz axis, a nd consequent ly rotates
w ith a n a ng ular rotational speed Q.

Ro tatin g cone

Figure 7.11.1

I . Let us first cons ider a Newton ian fluid , whose dynamic v iscos ity , p , w e
wish to meas ure. Li st the parame ters on whi ch the meas ureme nt of the d y namic
viscos ity de pe nd s, makin g sure they are indepe nde nt. Based o n a dim e ns io nal
138 Flui d Mec hani cs fo r Chem ica l Engin eering

ana lys is arg um e nt , s ugges t dimensionless numbe rs that may be used to link the
dynamic v iscosi ty to the ot her pa rameters of the prob lem.

2. Settin g th e pro bl e m in a cy lindri ca l coordinate system . ex press the boundary

co nditi o ns and verify th at a fl ow of th e form

u , (r , {},:::) = O, u 0 (r,(} , z)= Qr - -- and u , (r,(} ,z ) = O

h(r)

fulfil s them. He re, h(r) denotes th e thi ck ness of th e ga p at a distance r fro m the ax is.

For thi s ve loc it y fi e ld , afte r express in g h(r). determine the di fferent te rm s in the
stra in rate te nsor. In th e case w he re angle a is ve ry s ma ll , justi fy that the D, 0 term
is do min a nt in th e stra in rate tensor. Any co mm e nt s'~

3 . The o utwa rd no rma l to the mate ri a l o n the surface of the cone is. in the
cy lindri ca l coordina te syste m

[ - s~n a l
cos a

and the surface e le me nt o n th e co ne is ex pressed as ( rd (}j cos a) dr .

Ex press th e fo rce by unit surface exerted by the cone o n the materia l at any po int
o n the surface of the cone. It w ill be postul ated tha t r, 0 (r,(}, z ) = 0.

Write ( in th e fo m1 of a n integra l) th e th eoreti ca l ex press io n linking moment M,

to the stress.

Justify tha t T:e is uniform w ithin th e ma te ria l a nd derive th ere fro m th e

relation ship betwee n th e momen t a nd the stress .

4. For a New toni a n fluid , d etermin e the re lati o nship between th e dy nami c
v iscos ity , th e mo me nt and the a ng ul a r ve loc ity, fo r a conica l v iscos imeter.

NOT E.- A lth o ugh th e geo metry o f the rh eomete r would encourage, as a matter o f
prin c ipl e, treatin g thi s probl em in a s phe ri ca l coo rdinate syste m. such a reso luti o n
requires setting the equa ti o ns in a sph e rica l coo rdin ate system (not covered in thi s
book), w hi ch d oes no t ma ke it a ny s impl e r e ith er.
 Part II

Mixing and Chemical Reactions

 Chapter 8

Large Scales in Turbulence: Turbulent

Diffusion - Dispersion

8.1. Introduction

A ll th e five c hap te rs in Par1 II a re devoted to th e phe nome no n of turbul e nce a nd

its a ppli cati o ns to mi x ing a nd che mi ca l reacti o ns. W e have a lready familiarized
ourselves to so me exte nt , in the first pm1, w ith the notion of turbul e nce, a nd
di sc ussed two o f its cha rac te ri stics:

I . Turbul e nce in creases di ss ipation of kin eti c e nergy in a fluid fl ow. We have
observed thi s in pipe fl ows (C hapte r 4); the regul a r hea d loss of the fl ow in s ide a
pipe is larger w hen the flow is turbul e nt than w he n it is la minar. It was a lso show n
(C hapter 2, secti o n 2.8) that the rate of kineti c e ne rgy di ss ipati o n pe r unit vo lume
depends on the square of its ve locity g radie nts. T he s trength ening of ve locity
g rad ie nts in a turbulent fl ow is , therefore, directly res po ns ible fo r thi s inc rease in
di ss ipati o n.

2. Turbu le nce spatiall y ho moge ni zes a quantity that is di spersed within a fluid.
This mi x ing property also impac ts the structure of ve loci ty fi e lds. For the turbul ent
flow in a pipe (C ha pte r 4 , section 4.3), th e ave rage profil e (o f a turbu le nt flow) is
more unifo rm than that of a lamin a r fl ow ( Po iseuill e so luti on). Converse ly, th e mean
ve loc ity gradi e nt in the vic inity o f the wa ll s is larger in a turbul e nt flo w th a n in a
lam ina r fl ow. The inc rease in fricti on fo rces of th e wa ll is correlated w ith th at of
head loss, in accorda nce w ith the mo me ntum theorem (C hapter 2) .

The a im of Part II is to introduce th e eleme ntary too ls of turbul e nce, wh ic h will

e nab le th e understandin g and mode ling of the effects we have just described.
142 Flui d Mechan ics for Chemi ca l Engineering

In thi s chapter, we provide a macroscop ic description of turbul ence, whi ch

correspo nds, for exa mpl e, to what is perceived by a person obse rvin g th e large
eddi es in the turbul en t wa ke downstream of an obstac le placed in a fl ow. We
introd uce th e roo/ rnean square (nus) tu rbulent velocity and the inlegral lenglh
scale. These two quantiti es characteri ze the large sca les, whi ch are naturall y
observed in a turbul en t flow. We shall add iti onall y note, in the prese nt and
subseq uent chapters of thi s second part, that oth er quantities int roduced to acco un t
for the effect of turbul ence are directl y determined from th e rms turbulent ve loc ity
and the integra l length sca le. This is the case for the rate of di ss ipati on of th e
turbulent kineti c energy and for the turbul ent diffusion coeffi cient. We present in
thi s chapter two elementary too ls for modeling turbul ence, the mixing length model
and th e k- c model. They basically make exp li cit the key role of the rm s ve locity
and of the integra l length sca le in turbul ent fl ow. Us ing these two mode ls all ows
mode ling turbulent di spe rsion in a fl ow ..

Large sca les in turbul ence and the process of turbulent dispers ion do not account
for all the phenomena effected by turbul ence. Dispersion is not eq ui va lent to mixing,
an important distinction whil e dealing with chemi ca l reactions. Di spers ing two
products in a vo lume does not mea n that th ey are mi xed at the molec ul ar sca le and
thus ab le to react togeth er. In Chapter I 0, we discuss mixing at molecular sca le,
which is due to the process of molecul ar diffusion. We show that turbul ence actu all y
acce lerates th e process of molec ul ar diffusion upon splitting th e fluid vo lumes
into sma ll- sca le entiti es. The distinction between large sca les and small sca les
in turbul ence translates into the terms macromixing and micro mixing, whose
signifi ca nce is discussed in Chapt er I 0. These concepts are extended in Chapt er II ,
where the size of the small est sca les within a turbul en t fl ow is quantified, using
Kolmogo rov's theory. We fin all y introd uce in Chapter 12, two class ica l mode ls that
are used in process engin ee ring for th e num eri ca l simul ati on of mi xin g and chemi ca l
reacti on in a turbul ent flow.

Chapter 9 is actuall y a kind of sidetrack within thi s second pa11. It disc usses
the connecti on between the tools of turbul ence introduced in Chapter 8 and two
commonl y used tools in chemi ca l engineering, namely the residence time di stribution
(RTD) approach, and the rules pe11aining to dimensioning a stirring process.

8.2. Concept of average in the turbulent sense, steady turbulence, and

homogeneous turbulence

In essence, any quantity (e.g. a ve loc ity co mponent or th e pressure) measured

in a turbul ent fl ow at any point (x , y , or:) is not constant. If the sa me ex periment is
ca rri ed out N times and that quantity is measured both at the sa me locati on in the
fl ow and at th e sa me time relati ve to the start of th e ex peri ment, th e meas ured va lue
 Large Scales in T urbul ence 143

will vary from one ex periment to another. Denotin g rp;(l ,x,y, ::) as the va lue
measu red at time 1 and at point (x , y, z) during an ex periment i , the ave rage va lue of
that quanti ty in the given locati on and time is defin ed by:

- I ,v
rjJ(l , x , y, z ) = - L ;(1, x,y , z) [8.1]
N i =i

The average va lue thu s defin ed is referred to as the "ensemble average" beca use it is
estim ated by carryin g out independent and identi ca l ex periments. It is necessary to
carry out a large nu mber of experiments in order to estimate a reli able average
va lu e. The turbu lent fl uctuati on measured during ex periment i at the sa me locat ion
and at time 1 is th en defin ed by:

(/J ', (I , X, y , Z) = (/J; (I , .r, )', Z) - rp( I , X, y ,::) [8.2]

In th e fo llowi ng di sc uss ion, a bar over a variabl e indi cates that the qu anti ty is
turbul ence-averaged and a " ' " as a superscript of a vari abl e means that it is the
in stantaneous turbul ent flu ctu ati on relati ve to the average va lue of th e vari abl e.
From these de finiti ons, it fo ll ows that the ensembl e average of a turbul ent
fl uctuat ion equ als zero, i.e. we necessari ly have:

rp'( x,y, :: , l ) = 0 [8.3 ]

The magnitude of turb ulent flu ctu ati ons is characteri zed by the variance of th e
meas ured quantity with respect to its average va lue:

I N
~ns (l, x ,v , z) = - L {r/J; (I ,x,y, z ) - (1,x, y , z)} 2
[8.4]
N i =i

Thi s quantity is ca ll ed the rms tu rbul ent average .

In rea lity, howeve r, th e ense mbl e ave rage of a qu antity is d iffi c ult to
determin e, as it requires ca rry ing out a suffi cientl y large number o f ex pe rime nts,
beyond whi ch it can be veri fied with a prescribed confid ence that the est imated
ave rage no longer depend s on th e num ber of ex periments. In th e ense mbl e-average
se nse, th e ave rage qu antity, (/5 , depends in principl e, with tim e and on th e space
coo rdinates. The ave rage va lu e va ri es with time when the dri ving fo rce of th e fl ow
(e .g. th e pump ge neratin g the fl ow) operates in a transient reg ime . It va ri es in
space if one co mpares th e va lu es obtain ed from the boundary laye r on th e wa ll s to
th ose obta in ed away from.

In practi ce, turbulence is often studied in conditi ons where it can be regarded as
"steady-state". Thi s means that the ensembl e averages of the di ffe rent quantities we
144 Flui d Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineering

are interested in (ve loc ity co mpo nents , pressure, etc.) are independent of the time at
w hi c h the ir ave rage va lue is estimated . Thi s is usua ll y the case in a stirrin g tank . if the
rotati ona l speed o f the stirrers is ke pt consta nt. Afte r a certa in pe ri od of time e la psed
fo ll ow ing th e sta rt-up o f stirring process, it is fo und th at the stirrin g process inside
the ta nk stabili zes at a constant leve l. Thi s is re fe rred to as steady-s tate turbul ence.
a ltho ug h veloc ity varies in both space and time. Thi s is because the e nsemble ave rage
o f the ve locity compo ne nts and o f the pressure is indepe nde nt o f tim e.

For steady-s tate turbul e nce , th e ave rage va lue and the rms va lue of the turbul ent
flu ctua ti o ns in a qu antity ({J can be estimate d us in g time ave rages co mputed o n a
reco rd in g of d urati o n T:

- I I+T
( x , y, z) = T J (t ', x, y .z)dt '
I

-
'(r, x,v , z ) = (t , x, y , z ) - (x, y, z) [8.5]

I I +T - 1
tPrms(x. y, ::) = T J{( t ', x,v ,z )- } dt '
I

Th e steady-sta te nature of the turb ul e nce can be ve rified by chec kin g th at th e

integra ls in [8.5 ] do no t de pend o n time t fro m whi ch th ey are ca lc ul ated . The
recordin g dura ti o n ofT sho uld be s uffi c ie ntl y lo ng fo r th e ca lc ul a ted ave rage va lue
to be inde pende nt fro m T. Fro m a n ex pe rim enta l sta ndpo int , stud y in g stead y-s tate
turbul ence co nstitutes a dra ma ti c s implifi cati o n. A ll th at is need ed is to ca rry o ut one
ex pe riment of s uffici e ntl y lo ng dura ti o n.

S imil a rl y, turbul e nce is sa id to be ho moge neo us w he n th e average va lues do no t

de pend o n the po int in space w here they a re measured .

W e find that turbul e nce is desc ribed by de te rminin g its stati sti ca l c ha rac te ri stics.
T he sta ti sti ca l pro perti es o f turbul ence can a lso be c harac te ri ze d by introdu c in g the
pro bability th at an in sta ntaneo us va lu e has a g ive n va lue . Th e pro ba bility de nsit y
fun c ti o n p(({J ) is de fin ed suc h that p()d is the pro bability fo r th e va ri abl e to be
betwee n - d I 2 and + d I 2 . It ca n be practica ll y de te rmin ed as fo ll ows:

"' d "' no . o f va lues meas ured be tween - d 1 2 and t/J + d 1 2

p(~) ~ = .
no. o f va lues measured
"' d "' = time durin g w hi ch the va lue is between - d 1 2 and t/J + d 1 2
p ( ~) ~ d" . [8.6]
recor mg t1me
 Large Scales in Turbulence I 45

The fi rst fo nn re lates to th e noti on o f ensembl e ave rage, w hil e the seco nd refers, for
steady-state tu rbul ence, to the time ave rage . Th e fo ll ow in g properties result from th e
definiti on o f pro babiliti es:

X;

f p ()d = I

= f p()d [8.7]

+-x>

rPnns = f{- }2 p()d

-00

8.3. Average velocity and RMS turbulent velocity

The ave rag in g noti ons introduced above can be directl y a ppli ed to de fin e the
ave rage va lue of a ve loc ity co mponent, its in stantaneous turbul ent flu ctuati on, and
the nns turbul ent ve loc ity in the ensembl e-average sense:

- I N
Ur(l , x ,y,z ) = - l: u r.1 (t, x , y,z )
N i=l

u 'x.i (! , x ,y, z ) = Ux.i (t , X , y, z) - iix(t , x , y, z) [8.8]

-u ,_ ,111 s(l ,x. y ,z ) = -I fL.. {u_,.J( t , x,y , z ) - -u r(l , x ,y,z )}-'

N i= l

For steady-state tu rbul ence, we can also w rite

I I+T
il, (x , y,z ) = T Jux(t ', x , y , z )dt '
I

Ur '(t , x ,y, z ) = u r(t , x , y, z) - ux(x, y , z ) [8.9]

Ur. rms(x, y ,z ) = yJ
t + l'

I
2
{ux(t ', x ,y, z ) - ux } dt'
146 Flui d Mechanics for Chemica l Engineering

The definition s written above for the ve loc ity component , 11 ., can be transposed
to u, and 11=. Turbu lence is sa id to be isotropi c if th e stati sti ca l properti es of the
turbul ent ve loc ity field are independent from the ve loc ity directi on co nside red.
In that case, ilx.nns = u,.nns = u=. rrns . Turbulence ofien does not depart much flom
isotropic conditions. We place ourse lves in such a situati on, denoting turbul ent
ve loc ity simply by U rm s , and also om ittin g the bar over that quantity. Turbul ent
ve loc ity, U rms, plays a major part in the theory of turbul ence. It characteri zes the
leve l of turbulence , the importance of which is appreciated by noting th at pu l,11 , is
proportional to the kinetic energy of turbulence per unit volume . When the fl ow has
a non-zero average ve locity u. the rati o ll m, s I u is ca ll ed the "turbul ence intensi ty."

8.4. Length scale of turbulence: integral scale

It is easily understood that a length sca le is also necessary in order to desc ribe
the properties of turbulence. In th e turbul ent wak e downstream of a bridge pi er in
a river. e.g. one can observe whirlpool movements whose size is of the same order
o f magnitude as the di ameter o f the bridge pier. Doubling the di ameter of the
bridge pi er roughly doubl es the size of the vorti ces . Fi gure 8. 1 attempts to depict
schematica ll y thi s fact by representing the turbulent state observed in an obstac le on
two different sca les. If meas urement points A and A' occupy an identi ca l positi on in
both th e cases, relati ve to th e sca le of the object, it is likely that the same ave rage
velocity and the same turbul ent ve locity at A and A' can be meas ured if th e ve loc ity
ii upstream of the cy linders is identical. Nevertheless, the fl ow visuali zation s will
be different, as vorti ces of very different sizes will be clearl y perce ived in both
cases. Therefore, a length sca le needs to be assoc iated wi th the turbul ent ve loc ity
sca le Unns in order to prov ide a minimum description of th e statistical properti es of
turbulence.

-
-II

- u

Figure 8.1. Skelch of 1he lrtrbulem wake downs/ream of an obswcle.for

two ohjec/ sizes
 La rge Scales in Turbulence 14 7

Th e length sca le of th e turbul e nce is linked to the no ti o n of corre lati on. If two
po ints a re very c lose togeth er, the ve loc ity flu ctuati ons measured s imultaneously
at those tw o po ints are a lmost ide nti ca l at any time. O n the other hand, if the tw o
points a re suffi c ientl y spaced apa rt, it is diffi cult to link the ve loc iti es measured at
the two po ints at the sa me time. The corre latio n sca le va ri es from o ne fl ow to
a no the r, depending on the geo me try o f th e system and the conditi ons in whi ch
th e fl ow is ge nerated. Fo r exampl e, fo r th e fl ow behind a cy linder ( Fig ure 8. 1),
th e corre lati o n of measure me nts ta ke n at two po ints va ri es greatl y depending o n
w heth e r the di stance betwee n the two po ints is sma ll o r large w ith res pect to the
di a meter o f the cy linde r. The sca le of turbul ence is assoc iated w ith th e noti on of a
"vortex". Literature on turbule nce o ft e n re fers to the concept o f " turbul ent eddi es ."

Severa l sca les fo r turbul e nce a re de fin ed by th e theori es of tu rbul ence. Here,
we in trod uce th e integra l sca le , based on the theory of homogeneous, isotropic
turb ule nce. The coordinate syste m is illu strated in Fig ure 8.2(a). Conside rin g two
po ints spaced apart by a di sta nce r a lo ng the Ox ax is, the long itudin a l components
of the ve loc it y flu ctuati o ns at x and x + r are res pecti ve ly the u, '(l ,x,y,z) and
u, '( l ,x+r,y,z) co mpo ne nts para ll e l to th e Ox ax is. The crossw ise compo nents are
u ,. ' and u: ',of whi ch onl y u , ' is shown . The long itudin a l corre lati on is de fin ed as
the fun cti on:

f(r) = u , '(l ,x,y,z )u, '(l ,x + r ,y, z)

[8.10]
u, '(t ,x,y,z)ux '(t ,x,y,z )

uy'( t, x+r, y, z)

X ux'(t , x, y , z) u x'(t, x+r, y, z)

L-----~~~~------------------~--~-.~--------------+ X
x+r

uy'( t, x, y, z)

Figure 8.2(a). lns/anlaneous velocity.fluclualions a/ /wo poinls and nola/ions

used.fiH computing the correla! ionfimclion
148 Fluid Mec hani cs fo r Chemi ca l Engineeri ng

0,9

0,3

0,2

0 ,1

05 25 35

Fig ure 8.2(b ). Correlationjimction of turbulent .fluctuations

T he numerato r is the ave rage va lue of the p rodu ct of th e a lge bra ic va lues of
the turbul ent flu ctuati o ns measured at both po ints. T he purpose of the de no min ator
is to rende r the fun cti o n f(r) dimens io nl ess . Whe n the turbul ence is ho mogeneo us,
the measured corre lati o ns are independ ent fro m the pos iti o n of the o ri g in of the
coo rdinate system . W e have pl aced ourse lves w ithin the fra mewo rk of steady-state,
homogeneous turb ule nce by w ritin g in [8. I 0] th at .fir) is indepe nde nt from /, x , y,
and z . By writin g that fi r ) depe nd s o nl y on th e di sta nce r betwee n the two po ints,
a nd no t o n the ori enta tio n o f the Ox ax is connectin g the m, we have a lso ass um ed
the turbul ence to be isotro pi c . We wo uld obta in th e sa me ve loc ity co rre lati o n
for any oth er ori entati on o f th e ( 0, x, y ) coo rdinate syste m re presented in Fi g ure 8 . I,
prov ided that the di stance betwee n the two po ints A' a nd B' is id e nti ca l. T he
property of isotropy in turbul e nce means tha t the re is no pre ferred direct io n for
turbul ence. It is common kn ow ledge to o pt fo r the framework of steady,
1
homogeneou s. and isotropi c turbul ence , w hi c h fo rm s the bas is fo r stati sti ca l
th eori es of turbul ence. A corre lati o n fun cti o n is re presented , in a n idea li zed fo rm . in
Fig ure 8.2(b ). By de finiti on, .fir = 0) = I (pe rfect corre lati o n, s in ce both po ints a re
merged into one ). The corre lati o n fun cti on te nd s towa rd ze ro as th e space between
the two po ints increases. The transverse corre lati o n fun c ti o n is de fin e d by
transpos ing [8. I 0] to the crossw ise component s u, ' o r u =' o f th e turbul ent ve loc ity
fluctu ati ons. Within th e bound s o f the theory of ho moge neo us, isotro pi c turbul e nce,

I Within thi s framework, numerous theoreti ca l developments have been estab li shed (see G. K.
Batchelor, The TheotJ' of Homogeneous Turbulence. 1953). We also recommend the book by
M. Lesieur, Tu rbulence in Fluid~ (S pringe r- Ve rl ag, 2007), the contents of whi ch are more
ge neral than a Bac helor's presentation.
 Large Scales in Turbul ence 149

the lo ng itudinal and transverse corre la ti o n functions are re lated to eac h other by a
mat he matical re lati on 2 In Fig u re 8.2(b), th e longi tudina l corre lati o n fun cti o n j{r) is
a lways po siti ve. Negative va lues of th e corre lation fun ction a re measured in
so me cases. This is eas il y understood for the crosswise corre lati on functi o n, as the
crosswise ve loc ity compone nts u ,. ' at x and x + r a re in o ppos ite directions
when the turbulent fluctuations are assoc iated with a turbulent eddy whose s tze
correspo nd s to the space between the two po ints, as shown in Fig ure 8 .2(a).

The integral sca le is defi ned by the integral of the corre lat ion fun cti on

-~

r, = f .!(r)dr [8.11]
0

Thi s quantity is ho mogeneo us w ith le ngth. The integral sca le pl ays a fund amental
part in th e theories of turbul e nce. Turbulent moti on in vo lves a wide range o f length
sca les, the bou ndari es of w hi c h are ofte n referred to as " la rge" a nd "s ma ll " vo rtices .
We di scuss thi s concept in C hapte r II . The integra l sca le prov ides an order of
mag nitude for the dimension of the most visi ble vo rti ces in the turbul ent flow. These
are th e la rges t o nes, w hi ch contain most of the turbulent kinetic energy.

La stl y, we introd uce the c ha racterist ic time of turbul ence, r, , based o n U nns

and r,:
f,
r, = - - [8. 12]
U rm s

Th is time is often re ferred to as the " eddy turn-over time" of turbul ence. It is
interpreted as the time tak e n by a particle to perform a full rotation w ithin th e eddy .

We have seen in C hapters 2 a nd 4 that tur bulence dram aticall y strengthens the
di ss ipatio n of kinetic e nergy . T hi s propet1y res ults fro m the de finition of the
in sta nta neo us rate of kinetic energy di ss ipatio n per unit vo lume:

[8. 13]

Here, we o mit the minus s ig n that appea rs in equation [2.45 ] of Chapter 2, in order
to use a pos iti ve rate of dissipation , as is customary in the studi es of turbulence.
De pending o n their s ize, turbul ence edd ies contribute ve ry diffe rent ly to di ssipati on.

2 See the book by G. K. Batchelor, ibid.

150 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

Large-sca le eddi es have a large amount of kineti c energy , but the assoc iated
gradi ents are small. Small -sca le eddi es, on th e other hand , produce very strong
ve loc ity gradi ents and acco unt for th e di ss ipati on, despite their lower energy .
Ex perim ental observati ons have establi shed that th e rate of turbul ent kineti c energy
di ss ipati on depends on th e rm s turbul ent ve loc ity and th e integral sca le, as ex pressed
by th e dimensional relati on:

3
ll nn s
= A- - [8 . 14]
(I

A is a constant of order 0( I )3

Ex press ion [8.14] of the rate o f kin eti c energy di ss ipati on encompasses with in it
the propert y whereby a turbul ent fl ow di ss ipates more than a laminar fl ow. For a
laminar fl ow with charac teri sti c sca les of ve loc ity Urrns and length r 1 , th e rate of
di ss ipati on deri ved from [8. 13] is Jam"= v( u rrns I f 1) 2 . Denotin g by E: turb th e rate of
di ss ipati on [8. 14] in a turbul ent fl ow leads to:

Cturb Um1s C
- - ;,:; - - [8. 15]

Th e quantity:

I~, e, -_ Unnsf l [8 .1 6]
v

is the turbul ent Reynolds number, based on th e sca les o f turbul ence. There is a
consensus in thi s rega rd, for va ri ous confi gurati ons, that a full y deve loped turbul ent
reg ime is reac hed if Re, > I 00. Thi s criteri on fo r transiti on to turbul ence is more
uni versa l th an any oth er criteri on based on th e ove rall characteri sti cs of th e fl ow
(such as Re = U,Di v > 2.000 for a fl ow with area-averaged streamwi se ve loc ity U"'
in a pipe with diameter D). For Re, > I 00 , relation [8. 15] indi cates th at di ss ipati on
is indeed larger in a turbul ent reg ime.

Relation [8.14] is of considerabl e importance for the phenomenon o f turbul ence.

It is very important to be aware that di ss ipati on does not depend on viscos ity .
The juxtapos iti on of [8. 13] and [8. 14] ex plains thi s paradox by indi cating th at the
squared velocity gradi ents in a turbul ent fl ow increase in in ve rse proporti on to the
viscos ity, if viscos ity dec reases.

3 Densit y does not appear in [8. 14] : c is the rate of energy di ssipati on per unit mass.
 Large Scales in Turbu lence 15 1

We see here inafte r that the turbulent di ffusio n coefficie nt is also determined
from the rms turbulent ve locity Unns and the integra l sca le r, . It is also be observed,
in other chapters of the second part, th at the properties of turbul ence are essenti all y
deSC ribed by the kn OWledge Of the tWO quantitieS U rm s and ( 1

8.5. Turbulent nux of a scalar quantity: averaged diffusion equation

We now look at dispersion over time, by a turbulent now, of a "passive sca lar
quan ti ty' ' introduced into the fluid . The quant ity is said to be passive if its presence
does not alter the flow. This could be, fo r instance, a dye, a pollutant, or a chemical
constituent that does not alter th e mechan ica l properties of the fluid (density,
viscosi ty, etc). Temperature is regarded as a passive sca lar quantity when its
variations in space are suffi cientl y small for viscos ity vari ati ons to remain negli gible
and for spati al variations of density not to cause movement within th e fluid (abse nce
of natural convect ion).

Considering here a chemi ca l constituent measured loca ll y by its concentrati on

c( r.x , y , .:) , the dispersion of that quantity in space and time is described by an
advect ion- diffusion eq uati on accounti ng for its conservati on:

ac d"Iv(cu)- = Ki1c
-+ (8.17]
ar
K is the coeftic ient of molec ul ar diffusion.

Assuming provisionally that th e flow has no turbulence-averaged component,

ve loci ty therefore accordingly gets reduced to turbulent fluctuations such as
Ux '(t ,x, r , .:) , u , '(l ,x,y,z), and U: '(t ,x,y,z ). Concentration , however, may be

represented as the sum of the turbulence-averaged concentration and the

co ncentration fluctuation :

c(t , X, )1, z ) = c( t ,x,y, z ) + c '(t , X, V, z ) [8.18]

In many cases, the aim is simpl y to determine the time and space evoluti on of the
average concen tration c( t ,x,y,z ) , as illustrated in Figure 8.3 for the case where, at
time 1 = 0, a product is introduced with uni form concentration C0 inside a cy linder of
rad ius R. Alth ough the details of the dispersion process are complex, when dealing
with a dye "spot" it is possible to view a mean area in which the product disperses
in time. In the absence of an average now, the position of the center of the spot is
stationary. If the turbulence is homogeneous, the average di spersion of the spot is
ax isymmetri c and the spot widens with time. Within the spot, turbulence-averaged
concentrat ion decreases as one moves furt her away from the center, and the
! 52 Fluid Mechanics fo r Chem ica l Engineerin g

max imum turbule nce-ave raged conce ntrati on (obtained at all times in the center of
the spot) decreases as a funct ion o f time.

y y

2RJ X X

t= 0

c( t = 0, r) = C0 si r <R
t>O c (t.r)
c( t = 0, r) = 0 si r> R

Figure 8.3. Characterization of the average axisy mmetric dispersion of a product in

homogeneous turbulence with zero average velocity

T he process may be mode led by s ubsti tuting [8 .1 8] into [8. 17]. Ex pandi ng the
same leads to:

ac ac a(cu, ') a(cu,. ') a(cu; ') a(c'u, ') a(c'u , ') a(c'u=')
-+-+ + . + + + +----''----'-
at at ax ay az ax ~y az [8. 19]
= KL'!.c + KL'!.c '
Takin g the turbul ence ave rage o f thi s parti a l differenti a l equati on results in de leti on
of a few terms s in ce, by de finiti o n, c' = 0 , u, ' = 0 , u,. ' = 0 , and u=' = 0. However,
the ave rages of do ubl e co rre lati ons u , 'c ' , u , ' c ', and u=' c' do not necessaril y
equa l zero . as we see later. Re introduc in g the turbul ence-average ve locity ( fo r cases
w here it does not vani s h), we thus de ri ve th e ave raged advec ti on- diffus ion equati on
for describin g th e space and time evo luti on o f th e turbulence-average conce ntrati on:

ac _ ac _ ac _ OC au, 'c' OU, 'c' 0 Uz 'c' ~A

- + u , - + u I - + U; - =- - - - - - - - - - - - + 1\DC [8.20]
0/ ox . oy az ox oy oz

Th e doubl e corre lati ons u, ' c ' , u, ' c ' , and u=' c' have a very simpl e ph ys ica l
meaning . Th ey are th e average turbul ent flu xes o f conce ntrati on per unit area ,
produced by th e acti on of turbul ence. ux 'c' is the turbul ent flu x per un it area
 Large Sca les in Turbulence 153

throu g h a surface perpe ndi cular to th e Ox direction . A s imilar meaning ensues for
u , ' c ' and u = 'c'.

The method used above to write o ut turbulence-averaged equation s is e ntirel y

c lass ica l. Whil e we ha ve applied it to the di s pe rs ion of a pass ive sca lar, it is a lso
used for o th er qu antiti es. Its application to Navier- Stokes equ ati o ns leads to
Reyno ld s equati o ns:

rfu, _ au.~ _ au.. _ aux

- - +Ur--+u ,. --+Uz - - =
ar ax . ay az

--- =p - -aU-x Ux
I U
- - a - a + vL'l.u x + x
U x u ,. Ux U: - f
p ax ax ay az
au ,. _ au ,. _ au,. _ au ,
- - + u r - - +u ,. - - +u 0 - - =
ar ax . ~y az
[8.21]
I Oj3 aux 'u,. ' au, 'u,. ' ou,.'u =' -
- --- + vL'l.u , + f,.
p ay ax ay az .

au= _ au= _ au= _ auz

- -+ux - - +u,- - - +u , - - =
ar ax . ~y az
I Oj3 aur'u =' au. 'u -' _
---- - - + vL'l.u=+ f =
p az ax az

The s ixdoubiecorre lation s u .~ 'u, ' , uy 'u,.', u='uz ', u_, 'u,.' , u .~ 'u z ',and u,.'u='
a re ca ll ed "Reyno lds stresses," and are turbule nt momentum flux es.

The a pproac h to turbul e nce modeling introduced above brings new turbul e nt flu x
term s into eq uatio ns [8.20] a nd [8.2 1]. A " closure probl e m" a ri ses for the system of
equati o ns, as it is necessa ry to mode l the u.. 'c ' , u, 'c' , a nd Uz 'c ' or Ux 'u x' ,
u,. 'u,. ' , u='u=', Ux 'u ,. ' , Ux 'li z ' , a nd u ,. 'u = ' terms in o rde r to so lve the di spe rs ion
of a pass ive sca lar o r the Reynolds equa tion s, respectivel y . W e dea l with thi s ste p in
the following secti o n, by presenting the mi xi ng le ngth m ode l. Modeling turbulent
flux es is the key step to eva luate turbul e nce-gene rated tra nsfers.

8.6. Modeling turbulent fluxes using the mixing length model

The mixin g le ngth mode l is the s impl est a pproac h to mode lin g th e turbul e nt flu x
of a g iven qu antity. The fundamental idea is that the turbulent flux of a quantity in a
given direction is zero unl ess the ave rage value of that qua ntity ex hibits a no n- zero
gradi ent in that direction. Let us illustrate thi s concept by cons idering , as de pi c ted in
154 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

Figure 8.4, that the average concentrati on is steady and onl y has a grad ient along
th e 0: direction. Therefore, e depends on ly on : , and we consider the case in
Figure 8.4, where de I d: > 0. For simpli city, we ass ume here that th e fl ow has
no tu rbu lence-average com ponent. The turbul ent flu x in the Oz directi on is known
through the u= ' c ' correlati on (the other co rrelations, ux ' c ' and u , ' c ' , eq ual zero).

; + r,
r,
u_' > 0

;:= 0

r,

de de
co' - c'i = 7 - >0 c 0 ' - c' i =- - <0
' d;: ~ d;:

Fig ure 8.4. Modeling o/turbulemjlux u , ' c ' by the mixing length model in the case where
de I d: > 0 . Th e diagrams on the left and right describe the change in concentration
flu ctuation for a .fluid particle carried downward or upward respectivelv

To ca lcu late 11 , ' c ' at a point z, th e co ntributi ons to 11 , ' c ' of particles from
above (for whi ch u, ' < 0) and of particles from be low (for whi ch u, ' > 0) are
eva luated separately. This eva luati on is performed using the probability dens ity
funct ion introduced in section 8. 1. Every value of the turbul ent velocity, u= ',
intervenes in average in proportion to th e probability density function'*' ='). The
di stributi on wi ll remain undetermined in the fo ll ow ing; it will onl y be assu med to be
symmetri ca l, i.e.:

p(u , ') = p( - u= ') [8.22]

The mixing length model invo lves a process whereby turbulence ensures
movement of particl es by a di stance ( , in the Oz direction with some of them bei ng
moved downward and others upward. In reality , mi xing occurs on different sca les.
 Large Scales in Turbulence 155

We do not take into account thi s complex ity, whi ch does not affect the general idea
underl ying th e model. The parti cles retain th eir concentrat ion during these random
moti ons, and subsequentl y mi x into the surrounding fluid .

Let us co nsider a parti cle passi ng through the:: = 0 pl ane from below (ri ght-hand
side of Figure 8.4). Th at parti cle is carried by a velocity u: ' > 0. Its initi al pos iti on z
was necessa ril y included in the interval [-r,, O] . Since no particular pos iti on wi thin
that interva l is IJreferred, the probab ility fo r the initial pos iti on of the parti cle to be
between :: - d:: /2 and z+ dz/2 is dz !f ,. Denoting by c; ' the difference between
the concentrati on in th e part icle and th e average concentrati on c ( z) when it was
initi all y at ::, and by c0 ' the difference with the average concentration c (O) when
the particle passes through z = 0, the va lues of c,' and c 0 ' di ffe r due to the gradient
of average concentration. The concentrati on fluctuati on, c 0 ', is determined by
assuming th at the parti cle retain s its concentration as it is being carried by the
turbul en t eddy. Thi s is represented in Figure 8.4 by the grayscale gradation
superimposed onto the variation of th e average concentration c(z) in the Oz
directi on, while the color remains unmodifi ed inside the parti cle. The concentration
flu ctuati ons, c, ' and c 0 ' , are therefore linked together by :

c (O) +c '0 =c(z) +c '; [8 .23 ]

Co nce ntrati ons c; ' and c 0 ' are easy to evaluate graphicall y in Figure 8.4, and we
deduce from [8.23 ] that:

c 'o(::)=c(z)-c(O) +c '; ::::c '; +zdc (0) [8.24]

dz

by using Tay lor's expansion to ex press the difference in average concentra tion
between z and 0.

AII parti cles pass ing with positive ve loc ity through z = 0 contribute to the
turbul ent flu x of concentration through th e stati stical average :

u: 'c '+ = fp(u : ')u: .J Jc 'o ~) du: ' = f p(u, ')u: ,J J [c ';+ de z] dz ) du , '
Lr, Lr,
0

" l
0
, ,
= f p( u: )u:
I,

- (, fI
0

J c ,; -dz ) du : , -f-
2 dz
, de- "'
dz
, ,
e
- fp (u : )u: du ,
O
I

,
[8.25 ]

Here. we have taken into account all poss ibl e ve loc iti es u, ' > 0 , with their
assoc iated probability. as we ll as all poss ibl e initi al pos iti ons of the fluid parti cle.
156 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Enginee rin g

A simil ar calcu lat ion for particl es go in g through z = 0 wit h a negati ve ve locity
provide a contributi on to th e turbul ent flu x o f co ncentrati on amoun tin g to:
1
r
-

ll :
, -

c _=
,

I p(u:
o
.
I

)11 :
I {
Ic, G
0
cL: }
, I

du : + l
- I f d-c o
dz p(u : I
- T
I

)11 :
I

du :
I
[8 .2 6]

Th e turbul ent flu x o f co ncentrati on ts the sum of these two co ntributi ons.
We obtain :

- , -,
U: c
--
, -,
= ll : c T
--
+ II :
, -,
c _
1 d-
=- - -_
f (' {fIp(u: I
)11 :
I I
du : -
0
I p(u: I
) 11 :
I
du,
I }

2 d.: () _,
[8.27 ]
1, de ,I p(u: .)iu= .i du : .
= ---
2 cL: _,

In thi s ex press ion, we have used th e symmetry (equation [8.22]) of th e probab ili ty
density function p(u: '). Th e co ntributi ons of c; ' vanish , sin ce we must also
consider all poss ible va lues o f c, ' , whi ch cancel eac h oth er out because the
flu ctuati ons of u: ' and c, ' are uncorrelated. The res ult for the mi xing length model
is therefore written in the form :

-- de
II : ' c '( ::) =- K1 - (::) [8.28]
dz

Th e properties underl yin g thi s re lati on are emphas ized as fo ll ows:

- The ex istence o f a non- ze ro turbul ent tlux o f co ncentration depend s on the

ex istence of a gradi ent in the ave rage conce ntrati on. Whe n the average co ncent ra ti on
is homogeneous in space, obvious ly ll : ' c ' = 0, since th ere is nothin g to mi x.

- Relati on [8.28]. with its minus sign. is of th e sa me nat ure as Fick' s diffusion
law: th e directi on of transfe r is oppos ite to the directi on o f th e gradi ent, so as to
homogen ize concentrat ions in space.
- Th e constant K ,, ca ll ed turbul ent diffusion coe ffi cie nt , has th e dimension of a
diffusion coeffic ient (m 2 s- 1). It has th e order of magnitude of the product of th e
rm s turbul ent ve locity by the integral sca le ofturbul ence. 4 We write:

K r ::::linus( 1 [8.29]

4 The concept of molecular diffusion is similar to the mi xin g length model. In statistica l
phys ics, the molecular diffu sion coe fli cient is proponional to th e prod uct of a ve locit y deri ved
from the stirring ve locity and a length give n by the distance trave ll ed by a parti cle before a
colli sion with anoth er parti cle.
 Large Scales in Turbul ence 157

Turbul ent diffu sion is mu ch faster than mol ec ular diffusion.

The mi x in g length mode l, there fore, leads to the fo ll ow in g relations:

U, C
,, =-K, -az: , u ,.
,, =-K, -az: ,a nd
C U- C
,, az:
=- K 1 - [8 .30]
0X . oy - OZ

By substitutin g re lati ons [8.30] into [8.20] , the averaged advection-diffu sion
eq uati on fo r the turbul ence-average concentratio n becomes :

~c +(17. v)c = di v{(K+ K , )Vc} [8.3 1]

at

Th e turbulent 2nd mol ec ular diffusi on coefficients add up together. The former is
mu ch larger th an th e latter, when th e fl ow is turbul ent 5

8.7. Turbulent dispersion

The elementary modelin g o f turbulen ce presented in thi s chapter associates

turbul ence with a diffus ion process, which is quantifi ed by th e turbulent diffusion
coeffic ient Ki which is added to th e mo lecular diffu sion coefficient K . An analysis
of th e diffusion eq uations enabl es us to distin gui sh the main properties of th eir
so luti ons. From these , we deduce an eva luation of the characteri stic time needed to
perform a diffusion process up to a know n length sca le.

We present in secti on 8.9 an exact so luti on to th e diffusion eq uati on for th e

axisymmetrical diffusion of a dye spot and, in C hapter 9 (sect ion 9.2), another exact
so luti on for a unidirecti ona l diffu sion confi guration. Th ose so lution s substantiate th e
properti es stated in the follo w in g.The first observation that can be eli cited from
exa minin g [R.3 1] is th at conce ntrati o n varies with tim e, under th e e ffect of diffusi on,
only in those zones where there ex ists a concentration gradient (incidentally, a
constant gradi ent is not suffi c ient, since th e Laplacian is a second deri vati ve) . One is
thu s led to in vesti gate th e gradi ent zones. which are found to widen with time .
Fi gure 8.5 depicts a concentration gradient zone a long a direction Ox, at two
con secutive po ints in time, t 1 and t2 . Co nsiderin g time t 1 , for which the width of the

5 (K + K 1 ) is pl aced in [8.3 1] ins id e th e div e rge nc e term beca use, in ma ny cases, turbulence
is no t ho moge neous, so that U nns , P1 , and K1 vary in space. The frame work o f
ho moge neo us turbul e nce re main s va lid as lo ng as th e th e spati a l va ri a ti o ns o f u ,111 5 and C are
sma ll over a di sta nce of th e o rder o f th e integra l sca le. Th e k- t: mode l introdu ced in section
8.8 mode lS the Spa ti a l va riati OnS Of U nns a nd ( 1.
158 Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engi neerin g

gradient zone is c:X rJ), the diffusion process is quantifi ed by the concentration flu x at
the center .rc of th e gradi ent zone, which tran sfers concentrati on from th e area
located to the left of xc to the area located to th e ri ght o f xc. The co nce ntrati on
di stributi on in th e grad ient zone changes with time , bein g link ed to th e diffusive flux
through mass co nse rvati on:

2/:;C d I /:;C(Y( t2) I c 6 (1 1) + A(' (6( 12) - 6( 11))

(K, + K ) -- I ::: - - +------'--'-'- D [8.32]
6( 11) 2 2 2 2 2

The left-h and term is th e order of magnitude of the amount of matter transferred
during th e tim e interva l cit = 12 - 11 from the left to the ri ght through th e x c plane,
whereas the ri ght-hand term is th e vari ati on, between time points 11 and 12, o f th e
concentrati on integral over interva l [xc, x c + 6(12 ) 12] , ass uming th e gradient to
be homogeneo us. The 26C ri se in concentrati on through th e gradient zone re main s
constant in tim e, so that :

--
01
-8
o6(11) _ K, + /(
---
6 (1 1)
[8.33 ]

- K + Kr

8 (II)
C(x, t )
~ 8(1 2)

L_-----~~-~--~~------------+ x

Fig ure 8.5. Time e1olurionunder rhe effecr uf dij(irsiun. ber >~een rim e poinrs r1 and rc. rf rhe
CO IIcenrrarion within a zone where the concenrration varies wirh a homogeneous gradient.
Th e solid arrow represenrs the dif/itsil'e (lux. while the harched arrows show rh e
displacement Pelociries of the boundaries of'the conce/1/ration gradienl zone
 La rge Sca les in Tu rbul ence 159

The rate of ex pansion of th e gradi ent zone is th erefore proporti onal to

( ,._ -, + K) ! 6(11) , as represented in Figure 8.5 . Integratin g [8.33] leads to the
wid enin g law fo r th e gradi ent zo ne:

[8. 34]

where ~ is the width of the gradi ent zone at t = 0. The constant A depends on the
criter ion used to defin e th e width of th e gradi ent zone. Furth er, A = 16 when 5 is
defi ned based on th e concentrati on gradi ent, as was th e case when deri vin g [8.33].
The boundary of a dye spot is also often defin ed by the contour lin e along whi ch
th e co ncentrati on equals a fracti on of the max imum co ncentrati on at th e ce nter
of the spot (i n the exampl e presented in sect ion 8.9, Ccontour I C""" = ex p(- I) , and
A = 16, too) .

When ~ = 0, we obtain:

5(t ) = JA (K + K1 )t [8.35 ]

Thu s, we recover the ex press ion obtained fo r the parti cul ar so luti on presented in
sec ti on 8.9. The squ are-root growth law of relati ons [8.34] and [8.35 ] is a general
property o f the so luti ons of diffusion equati ons. Taking the rec ip roca l of [8.35 ]
yields an estim ate of a di ffu sion time, whi ch is the time required to di ffuse a sca lar
quantity up to a length sca le L:

Tct;n , __
u [8.36)
K + Kt

Thi s relati on is used in the foll ow in g chapters to analyze the mi xing process in the
context of a chem ical reac ti on.

8.8. Th e k-c mod el

The rms turbul ent ve locity and th e integral length scale are the two elementary
vari abl es that describe the mixing and transfer processes bro ught about by turbulence.
In practi ce, Urms and rt may vary in space (in the case of inhomogeneous turbulence)
and time (in the case of un steady turbul ence). Consequently, tools are needed to
describe their evolution in time and space. The k- c; model is the most widely used
model that dea ls with thi s probl em. It is used in numerous computational fluid
dynami cs codes.
160 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

Vari abl es k and r; are directl y related to the rms turbul ent ve loc it y and to the
integral sca le. Vari abl e k is the turbul ent kineti c energy per unit mass, whi ch is of
the same order of magnitude as the squared rms turbul ent ve loc ity:

>
~ Urins [8.3 7]

Variabl e r; is the rate of turbul ent kineti c energy di ss ipatio n per unit mass, whi ch,
based on [8. 14 ], can be written as :

[8 .38]

Describing th e evo luti on of k and r; in tim e and space is th erefore equi va le nt to

determining th e variations of Unn s and fit .

The evo luti on equati ons for va ri abl es k and r; are obtained from the evo luti on
equati on fo r the kineti c energy (C hapter 2, secti on 2.8), by performin g vari ous
modeling steps on whi ch we will not elaborate here. We merely write out th e result
and comment on the ph ys ica l meaning of the di fferent term s:

ak + u1 ~ = c~~ k2 {au; + au au; + _j_ {cJI k2 ~} _ c

1 }

at axj [:; ax, ax; axi axj O"k [:; axi

[8.39]
ac + Uj.!!.!__ = c~c~~k {a~, +au}} au; + _j_ {C~~ ~ a~}- c 2 r;2
at axj a);. j ax; axj axi a-. [:; a);. i k
~ "--y----1 '--y----1
Advecti on Producti on Diffusion Diss ipati on

In these eq uati ons, II ; denotes th e components of th e tur bul ence-average

ve loci ty. Equati ons [8.39] are summed over indices i and ). The k- r; model uses fi ve
constants CJI, C , C2, a-, , and a-,,., whose va lu es were ca librated on the bas is of
reference ex periments 6 The quanti ty :
k2
lit = CJI-::::: Unn sfl t [8.40]
E:

is ca ll ed the "turbul ent viscos ity.'' It brin gs back the noti on o f a turbul ent diffu sion
coe ffi cient , appli ed to momentum of the fluid particle.

6 The usual values of the constan ts in the k- t: model are C11 = 0.09. C1 = 1.44 .
C2 = I .92 . a-, = I , and a-" = I .2 1. Exerc ise II at the end of th is chap ter employs the k- c
model on a gri d-turbulence confi gurati on. The exercise leads to a disc ussion on the va lue
of c 2 .
 Large Sca les in Turbulence 161

T he Reynolds stresses appearin g in the Reynolds equati ons [8 .2 1], whose

so luti on determines th e turbul ence-average ve loc ity fi eld, are modeled via th e
mi xing length model (equati on [8.28 ]) such as:

-u u
1
I
j
I [au + -ou-
= - vI -- I 1 ]
[8 .41]
ox j OX;

The eq uati ons fo r k and & are similar in their form. The ph ys ica l mean ing of the
diffe rent terms is eas il y set out :

- The left-hand terms in th e equat ions are the advecti on terms fork and &.

- The fi rst term on the ri ght-hand side is a term of energy produ cti on by the
gradi ent of the turbul ence-average fl ow. Considerin g th e equation fo r k, for a
sheared, unidirecti onal averaged fl ow ux(z) , the producti on term reduces to
cl' (k 2 I& )( du,Id= ) 2 . Thi s quantity is positive, meaning that any gradi ent in the
average ve loc ity generates turbul ent kineti c energy. Thi s term is parti cul arl y acti ve
in boundary layers , where the ex istence of a stro ng ve loci ty gradient produces
tu rb ul ence.

- In th e seco nd term on the right-hand side, we recogni ze a turbul ent diffu sion
term , since it takes th e fo rm di v( K V'k ) or di v(K'ii'&). Di ffusion is linked to the
ex istence of gradi ents in turbul ent kineti c energy and in the rate of turbul ent kinetic
energy di ss ipati on, depending on the qu antity co nsidered. The diffusion coeffi cients,
whi ch are pro porti onal to k2 I c = Urms f 1 , are dimensionall y linked to the turbulent
viscos ity (equati on [8.40]).
- The last tenn is always negati ve. It corresponds to di ss ipat ion. Rega rding the
equat ion fork , the di ss ipati on term is simpl y the definiti on of the rate of di ss ipati on.
Rega rding the equati on for &, di ssipati on takes place with the characteri sti c time of
tu rb ul ence [8. 12], since & 2 I k = &! r, .

It is important to note that the equati ons of the k-& model are entirely gove rned
by th eva luesof urms and r,.

The sim ple mechani sms of the k- & model prov ide fo r some qualitati ve
un dersta nding of the role pl ayed by turbul ence in a circul ar cy lindri ca l pi pe (Figure
8.6(a)), at a suffi cientl y large Reynold s number. Th ey also ex pl ain how turbul ent
ki neti c energy is di stributed in an estab li shed regime, where, suffi cientl y fa r from
th e pipe entrance, the fl ow and turbul ence properti es no longer depend on the
strea mwise coo rdin ate and they onl y vary with the radi al coordinate r . In the central
part (lightl y shaded in Figure 8.6(a)), the average ve loc ity of the fl ow is uniform .
162 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi cal Engineerin g

As a res ult, th e production of turbul ence therein is ze ro. In additi on , d iss ipati on is
non-zero. The leve l of turbulen ce is maintain ed by a process of diffusion of
turbul ent kin etic energy from the boundary layer zo ne near the wa ll s (da rkl y shaded)
to the ce ntral zone , as indi cated by th e arrows. Turbulence is co ntinu ously produced
in th e boundary layer, wh ere it stabili zes at a level for whi ch producti on balances
di ss ipation and diffusion toward the central zone. The diffu s ion o f turbul ent kin eti c
energy from the near-wall zone towa rd th e ax is of th e pipe req uires a radi al gradient
of turbul ent kineti c energy such th at 3k I 3r > 0. Th e k(r) pro fil e is depicted on the
ri ght in Figure 8.6(a). Experimen tal measurements are prese nted in Figure 8.6( b).
The turbulent kin etic energy is pl otted in dimensionless form , using the friction
ve loc ity u. defi ned on the bas is of the friction stress at th e wa ll , r(r = R) = pu"l .
Figure 8.6( b) also illustrates a very important res ult , name ly that th e friction
ve loc ity , in an establi shed reg ime, sets th e leve l of turbulen ce in a pipe .

I "., -"'' .,

Producti on P
Boundary layer Diffusion D
(a) 1
Dissipati on

0
o 0, 1 0.2 0,3 0, 4 0,5 0 ,6 0,7 0,8 0,9

(b) r/R

Figure 8.6. (a) Sketch of the turbulence production. dijji1sion, and dissipation processes
within a pipe flow, in an established regime. (b) Radial profiles of turbulent kinetic
energy, based on Laufer 's experimental data (1954)
 Large Scal es in Turbul ence 163

Equati o ns [8 .39] o f th e k-& m od e l a re transpo rt equati ons for th e turbul ent kineti c
e nergy and its rate of di ss ipati o n. The ir reso luti o n depe nds on initi a l and bo undary
co nditi ons fed into the ca lc ul ati o n. Fo r a stead y-state fl ow regime, with the fl ow
fo rc ing be ing ke pt co nstant, so lv ing th e equati o ns o f the k- & mode l with tim e brin gs
o ut a trans ie nt reg ime durin g which th e pro pe rti es o f turbulence evolve until they
adju st, at a ll po ints in space, to the conditi o ns o f equilibrium betwee n ad vecti on,
produ cti o n, di ss ipa ti o n, and diffus io n . Such a trans ient regime can las t fo r a long
t ime if th e init ia l conditi o ns a re fa r fro m th e equilib r ium conditi ons. For ex ampl e, if
the initi a l leve l o f turbul e nce is hi g h as compare d to the steady-s tate va lue, it is
necessary to wa it till di ss ipa ti o n e ffects th e des ired change before fin a ll y adju stin g
to th e stead y-s tate conditi o ns . Whil e the initi a l conditi o ns. in principl e , pose no
d iffi c ulty, sett ing bo unda ry conditi o ns re ma ins a de li cate task. Wh en fluid is
introdu ced into th e computati o na l do ma in , if the turbul ence leve l at the inl et does
no t corres po nd to th e actua l conditi o ns to be s imulated , th e so lution co mputed
w ithin th e do main in a steady-sta te reg ime w ill be a ffected .

8.9. Appendix: solution of a diffusion equation in cylindrical coordinates

In a s implifie d case where a produc t is introduced at time t = 0 a lo ng an ax is Oz ,

it di spe rses over time by diffu s io n fro m th at ax is . A ss uming that the di stributio n is
initi a ll y ho mogeneo us a lo ng th e Oz ax is, di spe rs io n w ill be tw o-dimension a l (at no
time does it de pend o n the value of the z coordinate) and axi symmetrica l around the
a xi s . The concentrati o n va lue at an y g ive n po int d epends o nl y o n the di stance r
from that po int to th e Oz ax is and o n time. Further, C (l , r ) is a soluti on o f the
di ffus io n equati o n written in the cy lindri cal coordinate syste m:

ac
-=Ki'!.C = K -1 - a (rac)
- [8.42]
3t r ar ar
Fo r the initi a l co nditi o n C( t = 0 , r) = m u5 ( r) ,7 th e so luti o n is ex pressed as :

m { ,.. 2 }
C( t ,r ) = - "- ex p - - [8.43]
4 ffKI 4KI

7 The delta tim ction ~r) refers to th e Dirac "functi on", whi ch is infinite for r = 0, equal to
zero for r * 0 , and th e integral of which from r = 0 to r = oo equ als I. In addition, mu is th e
amo unt of dye per unit length .
164 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

Th e simp lest proof consists in chec king that [8.43] is a so lut ion of [8.42] and th at
C(t , r) -t m, 5(r) when 1 -t 0 8

0,9

0,8

0.7

0,6
"2
~ 0.5
()
0 .4

0,3

0,2

0,1

0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 5

Figure 8. 7. Axisvmmetrical diffusion o/a dve initiallv introduced un an axis Oz.

Solid line. 4Kl 1 = I; dashed line. 4Kl 2 = 2

So luti on [8.43] is plotted in Figure 8.7 for two consec uti ve points in time.
Further, m, I Kl has the dimension of a co ncentrati on. The term I I 4 JrKt all ow s for
mass conse rvati on ove r time, as the amount of dye con tain ed between two pl anes
perpendi cul ar to the Oz ax is and spaced apart by a un it di stance is:

f'-21rC( t r )rd r = m, [8.44]

J) '

In add iti on, J;/ has the dimension of a length. Th e form of so luti on [8.43 ] suggests
that D{l) = -J i 6K! co uld be regard ed as a meas ure of the size of the dye spot at
time /. Th e rati o of th e concentrati on over the circ le of radius r = D(l) I 2 to th e
co ncentrati on on th e ax is is C{l . D(t) I 2) I C( t , 0) = ex p( - I) .

8 It is very diffkult to obtain analyti ca l soluti ons, except for a few sets of simp le initi al and
bou ndary conditions. The use of Laplace 's tran sform is, in principl e, appea li ng. However. it
can only be recom mended if one can entrust some pal with th e in ve rse Laplace transform of
the solution, in order to revert to th e real space, or if th e case is simple enough for th e in ve rse
Laplace transform to be li sted in ava il able textbooks .
 Large Sca les in Turbul ence 165

Whil e the analyti ca l so luti on for the initi al co nditi on whereby th e dye is
di stributed eve nl y insi de the cy linder of radiu s r = I is deli cate to deri ve, its
evo luti on in tim e is eas il y desc ribed with the help of the properti es stated in secti on
8.7. For short tim e spans, th e thickn ess of th e diffu sional zone (conce ntrati on
gradi ent zo ne) in creases according to th e fo ll ow ing law

b(t) = AJ;;/ [8.45 ]

as show n di agrammat ica lly in Figure 8.8. When o(t ) reaches a size of th e order of
th e initi al radius of the cy linder (r = I), th e dye distributi on takes on a Gauss ian
fo rm approaching so lut ion [8.43] . The max imum concentrati on at r = 0 then starts to
dec rease. and the diameter of the spot subsequentl y grows according to a law such
that D( t )"' J l6Kt .

0,8
---
8(11)

I
I
I
I

I \
8(11)

\
I
I
1
I

-;:::-
~ 0,6
''
I
I
i I
I
I
I

0
I \
I I
I I
0, 4

I
0.2

l
"
f I
. I
I
II.
I \
I .
I \

0
/ I \ '
-5 -4 -3 -2 I 0

Figure 8.8. Dif/itsion o(w1 inilially homogeneous dl'e "spol " in a n linder of radius r = I.
Solid line: inilial crmcenlmlion: ---- : concemmlion profile for a shan lime: and
-.-.-: concemralion prufilefur a long 1in1e

8.10 App lication exercises

Ex ercise 8.1: Dispersion of fluid streaks introduced into a pipe by a network of

Cllpil/ary tubes

Consider a circul ar cy lindri ca l pipe of di ameter D = 2R in which water

Oows with an estab li shed ve loc ity profil e li: (r) whose area-average ve loc ity is W .
166 Fluid Mec hanics for Chemica l Engineerin g

A substance is introduced into pl ane : = 0 by a network of ca pillary tu bes o f

di ameter d., = I mm, di stributed over a sq uare grid hav ing a mes h size M The goa l is
to eva lu ate the mesh size required to prov ide a hom oge neous di spersion of th e
substa nce in the fluid at the pipe 's ex it(: = L).

We study the di spersion of the substance by laminar diffusion . and th en by

turbulent diffusion. in seq uence. The molecular diffusion coeffi cient of the
substa nce in water is K = 10 5 cm2 s- 1.

--- M) :. . . . . . . . . . ..
- ---_+j;_r~L_:; :::::::::::::::-f-1--d-(r. ~)
z=O z =L
Figure 8.1.1

I . The substance introduced by th e capi ll ary tubes di spe rses in side the pipe in th e
form of streaks that expand as they move down strea m in the pipe (increasing z) . A
homoge neous co ncentrati on di stributi on is reac hed when th e diameter of the strea ks
becomes signi ti ca ntl y greater th an the spac in g M between two adj acent streaks.
Prove th at th e ex pansion law for th e streak whose ax is is at a di stance r from the
ax is of th e pipe is written as

d(r . :) = d,; + J6(K + K , ) - - -

if: (,.)

u=(r) is th e ave rage ve loc it y of the fluid on th e ax is of the respec ti ve strea k, a nd

K , is th e turbul e nt diffu sivity. Whi ch hypoth es is is required in order to write thi s
res ult "

2. The following numerical va lues are se lected: D = 0. 1 m, W = 0. 1 m s- 1 , an d

L = 20 m. A !though the Reynold s number is Re = WD I v = I 0 4 , it is assumed that
the fl ow has been kept lamin ar. Express the ve loc ity profil e insi de th e pipe. What is
the thi ck ness. at the outl et (z = L) of the streak located on the ax is of the pipe?
In which part of the pipe is dispersion the least effect ive?
 Large Sca les in Turbu le nce 167

3. The following numerical va lu es are se lected: D = 0.4 m, W = 0.5 m s- 1, a nd

L = 20 m. The Rey nolds number is Re = WD I 11 = 2 x I0 5 , and th e fl ow is turbulent.
We wish to eva luate th e thick enin g of three streaks located at distances
(R - r) = 0.051? , (R - r) = 0.5 1? , and (R - r) = R from th e pipe wall.

- Determine the friction stress r exerted by the flow on the pipe wa ll , in orde r
to de ri ve there from the fr icti on ve loc ity u. defined by the relation r = pu } .

- Evaluate th e ve loc ity of the turbul ence-average flow in eac h of the three
streaks, using the logarithmic law (derived from boundary layer theories not covered
in this book) :

_ (r) = u. { 0.4ln
u: I ( u. ( R - r) ) + 5.5}
11

Comment on th e resu lts.

- Eva luate th e rms turbulent ve loc ity in th e three dye streaks, using the
turbul ent kinetic energy profile measured by Laufer ( 1954) (F igure 8.6(b) of thi s
chapter).
- It is ass umed that the integral sca le varies linear ly between the wa ll and the
ax is of the pipe according to the relati on P1 (r ) = O.l(R - r). Determine the turbul ent
diffusion coe ffi cient for eac h of the streaks. Is it justified to neg lect th e molec ular
diffusion of the co nst itu ent?
- What is the di ameter of the three streaks at their ex it from the pipe? Suggest
a va lue M for the capill ary tube spac ing providing a homogeneous dispersion of the
substance over the crosssecti on at z = L.

Exercise 8.11: Grid turbulence am/ k-c modeling

Consider the situat ion (see Figure 8.11 . 1) where turbulence is generated by
channelin g a fl ow through a grid . Turbul ent energy is produced in the wake
dow nstream th e grid bars. Beyond thi s turbulent prod ucti on zone ( x > X a ), th e
turbul ent energy carried by th e fl ow decreases due to th e effect of dissipation. The
mean fl ow 1/., = U is a uniform flo w along the Ox direction , and the turbul ent
ve loc ity Unns ( x ) and integral sca le fl 1(x) vary onl y with the x coordinate. The aim
of this exe rcise is to describe such variations by studying the way th ey are modeled
by the k-c mode l. The va lues Urms (xa ) = Uo and P1 (xu ) = f o are ass umed kn own at
the begi nnin g of the di ss ipati on zone.
16l:l Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineerin g

grid

- x

. .
Turbul ence : Turbulence
produ cti on di ssipati on zone
zone

Figure 8.11.1

I. Write the equations of the k- r; model for thi s situation , retaining onl y non- ze ro
term s. For the remainder of thi s exe rcise, diffusion terms in the Ox direct ion will be
neg lected (it wi ll be eas il y verifi ed, at th e end of the exerc ise, th at these tenl1S are
indeed neg li gibl e).
2. The equati ons of the k- r; model are coupled and nonlin ea r, whi ch makes thei r
reso luti on non-trivi al. Prove that the two equations of the k- r; model can be
co mbined to establish that :

0
(k r;" ) = Oforn =- I I C2
81

Thi s res ults in .c(x) I ~;" = ( k( x) I k, (' . Use thi s re lati on to integrate the
evo luti on equati on for k(x) and prove that :

II ( I - <" )
8
k(x) = I + (C2- I) "x
{ }
k, k, U

3. Adapt the results obtained in Question 2 to determin e th e va ri ati ons with x of

th e turbul ent ve locity llnns (x) , of the integral sca le r, (x), and of th e turbul ent
Reynold s number Re, (x).
 Large Scales in Turbul ence 169

4. Co mment upon the so luti on obtained when C2 = 2. Why is it necessary that

c2< 2 fo r th e so luti on of the k- c model to be physicall y mea ningful ?
For the usual k- c model , C2 = 1.92 . Determine the variations with x of the
turbul ent ve loc ity u,111 , (x), of th e integral sca le f ,(x), and of th e turbulent
Reynold s number Re, (r) in thi s case, and comment on th e so luti on.

Does th e integral sca le in crease or dimini sh as the energy of turbul ence

dec reases''
 Chapter 9

Hydrodynamics and Residence

Time Distribution- Stirring

We di sc uss in thi s chapter the link between the theory of turbulent diffusion/
di spersion presented in Chapter 8 and two class ica l too ls of chemical engineerin g.

The first of these is the res idence time distribution (RTD ) method. This
tec hnique allows us to class ify the dispersion propert ies of a consti tuent in a
chemi ca l reactor, with refe rence to idea l behaviors of simple reactors. The RTD
th eory does not ex plicitl y assoc iate a RTD with a tl ow configurat ion in side the
reactor. We exa mine thi s parti cul ar issue when the fl ow is turbul ent, by considering
success ive ly the cases of a tubul ar reactor with ax ial di spersion and of a continuous
sti rred tank reactor (CSTR). Matching up the dimensions of the reactor with the
mean res idence time and the velocity and length sca les of turbul ence allows the
determination of the hyd rodynamic cond iti ons assoc iated with eith er type of reactor,
for whi ch th e RTD laws are recovered, using the turbul ent dispersion concepts
introduced in Chapter 8.

Section 9.2 of thi s chapter addresses the iss ue of stirring in a reactor.

We introduce the primordi al elements, from a mechani ca l point of view, fo r
dimensioning a st irrer:

- The characterizat ion of a st irrer by its powe r number and the link between thi s
quantity and the rate of turbul ent energy dissipation.
- The link betwee n the mixing time and the rate of turbul ent energy di ss ipati on.
172 Fl uid Mechani cs for Chemi cal Engineerin g

Both these concepts are recurrent in th e dim ensioning of stirrers, as observed by

reading spec iali zed tex tbooks. 1

In thi s chapter. as in the previ ous one, we stress that the notion of mi xing remains
at the turbulent di spersion leve l. Mi xing at the molecul ar sca le, which enabl es
chemi ca l reactions to occ ur, is not necessaril y carri ed out. We are thus dea ling with
"macromixing", as opposed to " mi cromixin g", where mi xing at the molecul ar leve l is
ca rri ed out. M icromi xing is di scussed in Chapters I 0- 12.

9. 1. Turbulence and residence time distribution

9. 1.1. Notion of residence time distribution

The RTDs are a tec hnique for analyz ing th e behav ior of a reactor pertaining to
th e ex perimental protoco l given in Figure 9. 1. We consider a reactor of vo lume V in
which chemica l substances are introduced in a steady-state reg ime through one or
more port s, and tapped via a single di sc harge pipe. A simpl e RTD ex periment is
carri ed out by inj ecting, at the reactor' s inl et, a product over a very short peri od at
time 1 = 0. If co ncentrati on is measured as a fun cti on of time in the zone of inj ecti on,
its time variati ons assume the form of a delta fun cti on, as th e product is ca rri ed away
by the fl ow.

E Tubular readur with

J
a x i~l dispers ion

o" -
J
o" -.-
v

Dc vile fur
mea:->u ri ng t r~u.T r
' - - - \ - - - - - - - ' concen tratiOn
at the outk t

Inj ec tion of
T raL"cr aT r = 0
c
/ CSTR

Figure 9. 1. Principle/or de1ennining I he RTD oj"a reactor. and pl01s o/

three classical RTDjimclions

See edited book Agilalion and Melange, by C. Xuereb, M. Poux, and J. Bertrand (Dunod,
Pari s, 2006 ).
 Hyd rodynamics and Res ide nce Time Distribution 173

T he RTD ex periment consists of meas uring the time variati ons of concentrati on
C(t) in the outl et secti on of the reactor. Experimentall y, th e products inj ected are
oft en ions, and the measurement of concentrati on leve l is performed by measuring
the electri ca l conducti vity at the reactor's outl et. Wh at is actuall y plotted is the
norma li zed concentrati on:

E(t ) =
r C( t )
C(t ) dt
[9. 1]

whi ch is th e probabili ty density functi on of th e mass frac ti on of constituent leav ing

th e reactor at time t after bein g introduced into the reactor (it can be verifi ed
th at r
E( t )dt = I ). The average va lu e, TreSidencc = r
tE(t )dt ' is th e mean res idence
time ins ide th e reactor. The term res idence time di stri buti on (RTD) attached to E(t )
foll ows from these facts.

Three cl ass ica l RTDs are pl otted in Figure 9. 1. Generall y speaking, it is expected
th at th e product will start leav ing the reactor after a certain time, and th at not all th e
inj ected product will leave the reactor at the same time. When th e RTD vari es with
time as a Ga uss ian functi on whose max imum va lue is shi fted with respect to the
time of inj ecti on, it is recogni zed as the RTD of a tubular reactor with axi al
dispersion. We study thi s case in the foll ow ing secti on. The other two class ica l RTD
show n in Figure 9. 1 co rrespond to the so-ca ll ed " idea l" reactors, inasmuch as they
represent simpl e limiting behaviors. Th e RTD of a "plug- tlow reactor" is a delta
fun cti on th at is shifted in time with respect to th e ti me of inj ecti on. All the parti cles
that pass through the reactor have an identical hi story. Thi s is th e limiting behav ior
o f a tubul ar reactor with ax ial di spersion, when ax ial di spersion beco mes zero.
In a "co ntinuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)", the stirring is idea lly sufficientl y
effecti ve to homoge ni ze the ave rage concentrati on inside the reactor after a very
short tim e in compari son to the res idence tim e. It can th en be shown (thi s case is
also di sc ussed in secti on 9. 1.2) that the RTD dec reases exponenti all y with time.

9.1.2. Modeling RTD via a turbulent diffusion approach: cases of a tubular

reactor with axial di.~persion and of a CSTR

Co nsider a cylinder-shaped reactor (F igure 9.2), of length Land di ameter DR. By

re ferrin g it as tubul ar, it is assumed that DR << L . Thi s reactor operates in a
continuous reg ime with a steady-state tl ow rate, Q, go in g through it. The reactor
is not necessaril y empty. It may contain a packing, made up of so lid elements,
between whi ch th e fluid fl ows. Th e hydrodynamic regime is ass umed to be
turbul ent. Wh en th e reactor does not contain a pac king, turbul ence is onl y generated
174 Fluid Mechan ics for Chemical Engineering

by th e sudden expan sion at the reactor's inl et and by fri ction due to the tlow on
the reactor wa ll . A packin g se rves to produ ce turbul ence, through th e head losses
that it effec ts in the flow . We analyze a situati on where turbu lence is homogeneo us.
The turbul ent ve loc ity, ll rms, and the integral sca le, f ,, have identical va lues at all
points in the reactor, and the turbulent diffu sion coeffici ent K , = UnnJ, (equati on
[8.29] of Chapter 8) is th erefore also homogeneous within the reactor. As a res ult ,
th e tl ow in side th e reactor spreads rapidl y to beco me uniform ove r a throu gh tl ow
section of the reactor. Similarl y, a vo lume containing a constituent, inj ec ted at the
reactor's inl et, di sperses in side the reactor in the form of a "spot," which is ca rri ed
by the mean fl ow whi le ex panding.

Figure 9.2. Ceomelrical definiliunsfur a 1uhular reac!Or

Both these phenomena are depi cted in Fi gure 9.2. The draw ing is stretched in the
lateral direction relative to the Ox direction , to better represe nt the deta il of th e fl ow
in the through fl ow secti on. We denote by 11 the peri od of time after whi ch the dye
spot and the flow ha ve di spersed over the through fl ow section of th e reactor. When
turbul ence is homogeneo us and isotropi c, th e size of the spot is th e sa me at tim e 11 in
the streamwi se directi on (a long Ox) as in th e cross-w ise direction (perpendicularly
to th e Ox directi on) , whi ch is not th e case in Fi gure 9.2 beca use of di storti on in th e
drawin g. At a later tim e 12, th e spot would be ca rri ed along the Ox directi on and
ex pand in th e streamwise directi on. Th e time peri ods required to disperse the
product in both the latera l (cross-wise) and ax ial (streamwi se ) direction s of the tube
are evaluated usin g th e results obta in ed in Chapter 8 (equati on [8.36]):

D2
fDi sp.lat eral =- '
K,
[9 .2]
TLJi sp.axial
c
= -
K,
 Hydrodynam ics and Res idence Time Distri bution 175

In these ex press ions, molec ul ar di ffusion has been neg lected relati ve to turbulent
diffus ion. When th e reactor is suffi cientl y long, (D R << L ), the di stance aft er whi ch
th e spot has di spersed laterall y and the fl ow has beco me uniform ove r th e ava ilabl e
fl ow sec ti on is small co mpared to the length o f the reactor, and the main process
observed in side the reactor is the transport of th e spot in side the reactor and its
gradual ex pansion along the ax ial directi on. It is thi s phenomenon th at we model by
em pl oy in g th e concept of turbul ent di spersion introduced in Chapter 8. Fo r thi s
reactor, the mean res idence ti me is related sim ply to ve loc ity U of the mea n fl ow:

L
r rl''ldl'rH.:l' =- [9.3)
u
The situati on we are about to examine co rresponds to the conditi on:

T!Jisp,lat cra l << frl'Sitkn ce << roi sp.a.xia l [9.4]

The res idence time in the reactor is suffic ientl y long for lateral di spersion to be
regarded as instantaneous, but it is too short to give the produ ct enough time to
disperse over the whole length of th e reactor. Conditi on [9 .4) obviously requires the
hypoth es is DR << L .

Figure 9.2 shows th e geometri ca l characteri sti cs of the evo luti on over time of the
trave l and growth of the spot. We denote by X111 (1) th e middl e pos iti on of the spot at
time t, and by D(t) its thi ckness. Beca use of [9.4], the space and time evo lution of
the ave rage conce ntrati on c (x ,t ) inside th e reactor depend onl y on time and on the
x coordinate. It is govern ed by th e averaged diffusion equati on (equati on [8.3 1] of
Chapter 8):

ac
-- + U -- =
ac a2c
Kr - - [9.5]
CI ax ax
2

where molec ul ar diffusion is neglected. The so luti on is required for th e initi al

co ndition:

c (x, l = 0) = Cno(x) [9.6]

(5 is the delta fun cti on and x = 0 coi ncides with th e reactor' s inl et.) With the
va ri ab le change ( t' = 1 , x ' = x - Ut ), [9.5 ] becomes :

[9.7)
176 Fluid Mec hanics fo r Chemica l Engineeri ng

The so luti on is determined by a method s imil a r to th e one desc ribed in sect io n

8.9 of C hapter 8. For the initi a l conditi on [9.6], it is written as 2 :

2
c (x,t) = -. A- exp { - - - = -ex
A x'2}
(x-U1) }
p { - -'-------'--- [9.8]
JI' 4K11' fi 4K11

To determine the RTD by substituting c (x ,l ) into [9.1], it is not necessary to

know th e constant A. T he integra l in the denominator of [9. 1] is evaluated by
observ ing that the tota l amo unt of constituent is equa l to the flu x of constituent
integrated over time :

+ :0 + 'l

f c (x ,l)dr =U f c(L, I )d l [9.9)

0

Exp li c it ca lc ul ati on of the left-hand-side integra l for so luti on [9.8] leads to:

+oo A
J c (L ,I )dl =-J4TrK, [9 .1 OJ
0 u
The RTD is then ex pressed as:

2
(1) = --U e x p { (L - U1) }
[9. I I ]
J 4TrK11 4K,I

We recover the classic fom1 of the RTD for a tubu lar reactor with ax ia l dispers ion:

()
1 =
J Pe ex p { - p(Trcsidcncc-
e
2
1) } [9 . 12)
41fT rcsidcncr.:: / 4 T rc~ idcncc l

us ing the res idence time de fin ed by [9.3] and the Peclet num ber 3,

2 Soluti on [9.8] mainl y differs fro m so luti on [8.43] obtained in Chap ter 8 in th at, in th e
present case, th e max im um concentrati on decreases as I I fi , whereas it decreases as I I 1 for
th e solution give n in Chapter 8. Thi s difference ens ures mass conservati on in both cases.
Here, diftusion is unidirecti ona l along th e Ox axis, whereas it is ax isymmetri c abo ut an ax is in
Chapter 8.
3 The Pec let number thus defined is the one class ically used in RTD mode ls. It differs from
the one more commonl y introd uced in turbulence theori es, Pe, = Kr I K ~ (unnJ, ) I K ,
where K is the mo lec ular diffusivit y of constituents.
 Hydrod ynamics and Residence Time Di stri but ion 177

UL
Pe=- [9.1 3]
K,

The hypothesis [9.4], under which we have just recovered th e RTD law for a tubular
reactor with ax ial dispersion , can be restated in th e form of a bounding of the
turbul ence intensity between two va lues co mparin g the dim ensions of the reactor to
th e integral sca le of turbul ence:

D2
_R << Urms f resid~nce = linn:-.<< _L [9.14]
(, L L U f,

Cons ider now the case of a CST R. As indi cated in sec ti on 9. 1. 1, the behavior of
an ideal CSTR is observed when the dispersion inside the reactor is very fas t with
respect to the residence time. The average concentrati on, c, is thu s kept
homogeneo us irrespect ive of time inside the reactor. For a perfectl y stirred reactor,
we do not distinguish the ax ial dimens ion, L, from the lateral dimension , DR, as we
did for the tubular reactor (D R << L ), beca use the two sca les are usuall y
comparab le. Us ing the di spersion time (eq uation [9.2]) for a single dimension L of
the reactor, the hydrodynamic regime of a perfectly st irred reactor therefore
correspo nd s to the following condition:

L urms r residence
fD~:-. p << Trcsidl' nce, i.e. - << - - - - - [9 .15]
f, L

1 nder th is conditi on, the average concentrat ion , c, of the inj ected product

becomes homogeneous in side the reactor after a transient process, whose duration is
of the order of r Disp, and then decreases with time as the product leaves the reactor.
The variations c (t ) are derived from th e mass balance for the amount of product
present inside the reactor:

[9.16]

whi ch ca n be readil y integrated to establish the exponen ti al decrease of the RTD in

an idea l CST R:

E(t) =- I- exp ( - -I - ) [9. 17]

r residell Cl' T rcs id~nce
178 Fluid Mecha ni cs for Chemi ca l Engineeri ng

The res idence time depends on vo lume Vo fth e reac tor and fl ow rate Q th ro ugh:

v [9. 18]
f n: siJl:llC (' =:- -
. Q

Co nditi on [9. 15], whi ch is assoc iated with the reg ime o f a CSTR , imp li es a hi gh
leve l of turbul ence and/or a long res idence time. If turbul ence is onl y produced by
th e mea n fl ow (fri cti on on wa ll s or head loss), th e turbul ence leve l produced is
usuall y in suffi cient to veri fy (9. 15]. Fo r thi s reaso n, perfec tl y stirred reactors usuall y
embody stirrers as th e main so urce of turbul ence, as ex pl ain ed in the follow ing
section.

We have determined in thi s secti on th e hydrod ynami c co nditi ons on a turbul ent
fl ow that lead to the RTD laws of a CSTR or a tubul ar reac tor with ax ial di spersion.
Th e reve rse anal ys is, for deri ving turbul ence charac teri sti cs of a fl ow from the
measureme nt o f a RTD , should be used with cauti on if it ca nnot be pos iti ve ly
asse rted th at the fl ow is turbul ent. A lamin ar fl ow (e.g. a Poiseuill e fl ow) in a
tubul ar reactor also produ ces an axial di spersion measured by a RTD, because the
produ ct injected on the pipe ax is is ca rri ed fas ter than that injected near th e wa ll s.
C learly, it would be mea ningless to deri ve turbul ence characteri stics from th e
meas ured RT D law.4

9.2. Stirrin g

9.2.1. Mechanical characterization of a stirrer

By stirrer, we generall y mea n a mov in g system (consistin g of a rotor equipped

with bl ades) whi ch, wh en rotatin g, produces in a reactor a mean fl ow and so me
turbul ence. Suc h a dev ice obviously differs from a stati c mixe r, wherein a co mpl ex
geo metri ca l co nfi gurati on of the reactor fo rces the fl ow to acq uire kin emat ics th at
promotes th e mi xin g or fluid parti cles 5

4 The rea der is referred to Chapter 15 of the book by J. P. Coude rc, C. Gourdon. and A. Line
(Phenomenes de transfer/ en genie des procedes, Lavo isier, 2008) and in parti cul ar to its
secti on 6, whi ch ex pl ains how th e non-unifom1it y of ve loci ty profil es contributes to th e
di spersion of a trace r. Thi s effect i less sign ifi cant in turbul ent fl ow th an it is in laminar tlow.
as turbul ence tends to render th e ve loc it y profile uniform (see Exerc ise 8. 1of Chapter X).
5 l'or stati c mi xe rs, Chapters 12- 14 in Agitation et Melange. edited by C. Xuereb. M. Poux,
and J. Bertrand (Dunod, Pari s, 2006) might be perused.
 Hydrodynamics and Residence Time Di stributi on 179

Ru shton turbine: Radial fl ow Propeller: Axi al fl ow

Figure 9.3. Flow pattems generated in a reactur according to the

type of moving stirring body

T he geo metry (shape and dimension) of a stirrer and its insertion into a reactor
influence the cha racteri sti cs of a stirring system 6 We limit ourse lves here by
indicating th at the different stirrers are di stingui shed prim aril y by the nature of th e
flo w produced inside the reacto r, and underscoring the co mmon features between
st irre rs and pumps (Chapter 5). The st irrer produces a rec irculati on fl ow within th e
vessel. An ax ial tl ow is produ ced by a prope ll er-type stirrer, as with an ax ial pump.
When th e pl ane containing the bl ades of th e stirrer is parall el to th e stirrer' s ax is of
rotati on, th e rotati on generates a centri fuga l force , wh ich ejects the tluid rad iall y, in
a simil ar fa shi on to a centrifugal pump. Figure 9.3 depi cts the rec ircul ati ons
produced by a stirrer in a closed vesse l, acco rding to the type of mov ing st irring
body. The rotation of th e st irrer also generates a so lid-body rotation move ment of

6 C ap ter 3 in Agitation et Melange (ibid) presents a synthes is of the various stirrin g devices
class icall y implemented.
180 Fluid Mec hani cs fo r Chemi ca l Engi neerin g

the fluid in side the vesse l, whi ch is generall y undes irabl e. First, the producti on of
turbul ence is linked to the diffe rence between th e rotati onal speed o f th e blades and
the mea n ve loc ity of the fl ow. The rotati on of the fluid redu ces thi s differe nce.
Additi onall y, th e so lid-body rotati on o f the fluid produces a radial press ure gradi ent.
Wh en th e reactor is not entirely fill ed, th e free surface may be dramati ca ll y
deform ed by the rotati on of th e fluid , and so metimes go down to th e leve l of the
stirrer7 Th e stirring system is, therefore, often assoc iated with th e prov ision of
baffl es aga in st th e vesse l wa ll s (Fi gure 9.3), th e purpose of whi ch is to reduce the
so li d-body rotati on of th e fluid .

The dimensional analys is desc ribin g the operat ion of a stirrer is ak in to th at

perfo rmed fo r a pump (C hapter 5). Fo r a stirrer whose mov in g body has a diameter
D, arranged in sid e a tank of height H and di ameter c/J, the differen t quantiti es
characteri zin g th e mov in g body in mec hani ca l term s (mec hanica l power
consumpti on, torque, or fo rce exe rted on th e bl ades) depend exc lu sive ly on th e three
geo metrica l para meters cited previo usly, to whi ch shoul d be added the angul ar
rotati onal speed {JJ = 21rN of the mov in g body, the density p, and the viscos ity v of
the fluid . The mechani ca l power is th e first quantity of interest to the engin eer,
as it determines the energy cost of the mix ing meth od. The Vasc hy- Buc kingham
theorem (C hapter 3) states th at th e power p vari es accordin g to :

[9. 19]

We use the rotati onal speed, N, of th e mov in g body (in revo luti ons per second)
rather th an the angul ar ro tati onal speed, (1}, as is customary in th e literature. The
parameters impli ed in the ellipsis onl y in vo lve other length rati os characteri zing
th e geo metry of the mov ing stirrin g body and of the vesse l. The Reyno lds num ber
is based on the di ameter of' th e mov in g body. The quantity Nr is cal led the power
number. Figure 9.4 shows , fo r a stirrer, th e as pect of the power num ber's variati ons
with th e Reynolds number. The turbul ent reg ime is reac hed fo r a Reyno lds number
Re > I 0 4 , a conditi on eas il y exceeded for a typi ca l stirrin g system in a low-viscos ity
liquid such as water. In th e turbul ent reg im e, th e power number is ind ependent fio m
th e Rey nold s number. Its value depend s on th e geometry of the mov ing stirrin g body
and of th e vesse l (di ameter, height , and baffl e geometry).

7 A descri pti on of these phenomena is given in secti on 17.2 of Chapter 17.

 Hydrodynamics and Res idence Time Di str ibuti on 18 1

NP La min a r regime Rc < I0

T urbul ent r egim e . Re > I 0~

Transition
regime :

with ba fll cs

without baiTies

10 Re

Figure 9.4. Variarion oj"rhe power number o/a slirrer wirh the R eynold~ number
(fig ure reproducedfiom Agitation et Melange, edited by C. Xuereb. M. Poux.
and J Bertrand (Dunod. Paris, 2006))

Figure 9.4 ind icates th at th e power number is large r if th e stirrer is rotating

ins id e a vesse l prov ided with baffl es th an in th e abse nce of baffl es. As we have
desc ribed ea rli er, th e baffl es serve to reduce th e rotati on of th e flui d in th e vesse l.
The d iffe rence in ve loc ity between th e ro tating bl ades and th e fluid is large r if th e
baffl es are adequately dimensioned, and head losses and kin eti c energy di ss ipati on
are greate r then. The mec hani ca l power consum ed fo r th e rotati on of th e stirring
body is di ss ipated as hea t within th e fluid by turbul ence. In a steady-sta te reg ime,
th e kin etic energy in th e vesse l is maintain ed and th e energy balance equating th e
mec hani ca l powe r co nsumed with th e integral of th e diss ipati on rate ove r vo lume
V of the vesse l prov id es an estimate of the average va lue of the kin eti c energy
dissipat ion rate:

[9.20]

For large Rey nolds num bers, we therefore obtain ""N rN 3 D 5 ! H ct> 2 . A
relati onship between th e power consumpti on and the characteri sti cs of turbulence
in the vesse l is thus establi shed, albeit a mere average estimate for idea ll y
homogeneous turbul ence.

The mec hani ca l power di ssipated by a stirrer res ults from th e head loss
ph enomena assoc iated with the rotati on of th e stirrer in the vesse l. It is pertinent to
corre late the as pect of the vari ati ons of the power number with th e Reynolds number
182 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineerin g

(dec rease of Np with Re in a laminar reg im e, independence of tYr from Re in

a hi ghl y turbul ent regi me) with va ri at ions pl otted on the Co lebrook diagram (Figure
4.2 of Chapter 4) for th e head losses in pipe nows. These phenomena are s imilar.
Kn owing the power number enabl es us to ca lcul ate the di ss ipated power usin g:

[9.21]

In a turbulent regime , a simpl e hi erarc hy appea rs among th e power numbers

accord ing to the nature of the stirrers. Rushton turbines. which produce substa nti al
head loss, have a power number of th e order o f 4- 5, whereas the power number of
propeller-type stirrers is of the order of0.3- l.

For reasons of mec hanical strength of the movin g body, it may be use ful to
determine the torque C exerted on th e mov in g body or the average force F exerted
on th e blades. As we have establi shed for pumps (C hapter 5, sectio n 5.2). th ese two
quantities are derived , for large Reynolds numbers, from the power number. sin ce :

[9.22]

[9.23]

The first relation is exact since th e powe r is equal to the product of th e torqu e by the
angul ar rotational speed. The second relation provides an order of magnitud e, as the
torq ue is th e product of the force by a length but the rad iu s of the stirrer is onl y an
estimate of th e di sta nce to th e axis of the point of appli cati on of the force.

9.2.2. Stirring and mixing tim e

The dimensiona l dependence of th e mixing time, r"' , is simil ar to th at [9. 19] of

the mec hani ca l power consumed , except th at the molec ul ar diffu sion of products is
added th ought the Schmidt number Sc = v/ K. We, therefore, write:

2
v Re = -ND- ,-,-,
. {Sc = -,
Nr"' = function D !-/ ... } [9.24]
K V Cl) Cl)

The mi xin g tim e, r"' , is defined by a crit eri on st ipul atin g th e leve l of mi xin g that
will be dee med sufficient . It is in general co nsidered that th e constituents are mi xed
if th e variance of the concentration is less than a certain value. By in cludin g the
diffu sivity of products, formul ati on [9.24] is very general. It takes into acco unt the
 Hyd rodynami cs and Resi dence Time Di str ibution 183

sca le on whi ch th e mi xin g is performed: th ro ugh turbul ent di spersion at the leve l of
the small est sca les of turbul ence as analyzed in Chapter 8, or at the molecul ar level
as di scussed in Chapter I 0.

9.2.3. Emulsions and foams

A class ica l and important app li cat ion of stirring methods is the formation of
foa ms and emul sions. The most common exa mples are in food process ing. To
prepare whipped cream, a beater is used to incorporate air into a liquid, in the fom1
of mi cro bubbl es. The preparati on of a mayonnaise sauce is so mew hat subtl er. First,
a small quantity of oi l is incorporated into an aq ueous liquid (th e egg yo lk and
mu stard) . The oil is di spersed by th e beater in th e form of droplets. When the leve l
of oil exceeds a certain vo lume fraction, an in vers ion occu rs. The oi l becomes the
continu ous phase, while the water becomes the di spersed phase, beca use the vo lume
of water is no longer suffi cient to contain all the oil droplets.

T he term emul sion refers to a mixture of two non-mi sc ibl e liquids, one of
which is di spersed within the other in the fo rm of dropl ets. Foam is a mi xt ure of
microbubbles in a liquid . The phys ico-chemi ca l properties of th e products are
important for stab ilizing emul sions and foams. If the emul sion is not stab ili zed, the
dropl ets coa lesce when the stirrin g ceases and the emulsion grad uall y subsides. It is
the fu ncti on of the egg yo lk to stab ili ze the mayonnaise. Anyo ne who ever prepared
a mayo nnaise or whisked egg whites will have understood th at the beater is a
preciou s utensil for achieving an emul sion or a foam/mousse. It is for thi s reaso n
that we di scuss thi s issue here.

From a mec hani ca l point of view , understandin g emul sion phenomena req uires
th e introduct ion of important ph ys ica l concept s suc h as surface te nsion between
two fluid s8 and th e notion of contact ang le, whe n the interface between two fluid s
ts in co mact with a so lid wa ll . These th eo reti ca l elements are summ ari zed in
section 9.3 of thi s chapter. We limit ourse lves here with presentin g th e th eoretical
noti ons of mec hanics involved in emul sion and foam phenom ena, with out
touc hin g upon considerati ons rega rding the ph ys ico-che mi ca l aspects of the
ph enomeno n or th e utili zati on of emul sion phenomena in process engin eer ing 9
The fun cti on of a bea ter for preparing an emul sion or foam is first a nd foremost to
provide energy to split a gas or a liquid , formin g bubbl es or droplets. It is show n
in sec ti on 9.3 of thi s chapter (eq uati on (9.39]) th at the equilibrium o f a bubbl e or

8 More prec ise ly, surface tension refers to a gas/liquid pair, and interfacial tension to a pair of
non-miscible liquids.
9 Chapter II in Agirarion el Melange (ibi d.) mi ght be of use.
184 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engin eering

drop with radi us a wi thin a liquid requires an excess pressure in sid e th e sph ere
relative to the outside press ure

2y
!:J.P = ( flntcrnal - fl: .xtcrnal ) = - [9.25]
a

which ba lances the surface tension force . y, between the two phases. The small er the
bubb le or drop is, the greater the energy provided needs to be. The gas in side the
bubb le needs to be more compressed, in relati on to the small er the diam eter of the
bubb les is. The surface tension between a liqui d and air is of th e order of several
times I o-2 m- 1 (7.28 X I 0 2 N m- 1 for water and air, and 2 X I 0 2 N m- 1 for oli ve
oil and air). For these fluid s, the excess pressure in side th e bubb le is modest (40 Pa
and 400 Pa for an air bubbl e in oli ve oil for respecti ve radii of I 111111 and I 00 J-Lm ).
The energy req uired to produce foam is far greater than th e energy per unit vo lume
used to compress a gas, because a significant frac ti on of the mechanical energy
consumed by th e process is di ss ipated by the turbul ence.

The important co nclu sion from emul sion and foam theory is th at the more
energy is provided, the small er the radius a of the mi crobubbles or droplets is. In a
turbul ent flow , a bubble or dropl et is deformed by eddi es whose size is of th e order
of a. The shearin g of th e velocity fie ld at that sca le is likely to lead to splittin g of th e
drop let or bubbl e if the kin etic energy of the edd y is greater than th e energy that
needs to be brought in to sp lit the bubble and hence dec rease its rad iu s. This
translates, in order-of-magnitude term s, into the in eq uality:

[9.26]

It is necessary to anticipate the resu lt s o f Chapter II in order to eva luate the

turbulent veloci ty u(a) . It will be estab lished (eq uati ons [ 11.18] and [ 11.1 9] of
Chapter II) that the average kineti c energy per unit vo lume in a turbul ent eddy of
dim ension a is fi xed by the rate, t:, of diss ipati on per unit mass of th e turbul ent
kin eti c energy:

[9.27]

Equations [9.26] and [9 .27], th erefore, indicate that a bubb le of radius a can be
broken by turbu lence if:

[9.28]
 Hydrodynamics and Residence Time Distribution 185

Th is relati on prov ides the order of magnitude of the min im um di ameter of

bubb les or drops generated when preparin g foa m or an emul sion 10 :

.1 / 5
-
d nu n -
(
py
)
c-'- 5 [9.29 ]

The charac teri stics of an emul sion depend to a large ex tent on the ph ys ico-
chemical properties of the flu ids in vo lved, and also on the chemi ca l additi ves used.
Em ul sify ing surfactant produ cts perform two functions. When they reduce surface
tension, they help reduce the size of th e bubbl es and dropl ets. They also serve to
stabi lize the em ul sion to prevent it fro m coa lesc ing as soon as the stirri ng ceases.
The firs t characteri stic parameter of an emul sion is th e vo lume fraction of eac h fluid.
When a fluid is graduall y incorporated into another whi ch is being stirred, the
in corporated fluid constitutes necessaril y the dispersed phase and th e rece ivin g fluid
th e continuous ph ase, since the vo lume of the di spersed phase is small er than th at
of the continu ous phase. An inversion ph enomenon may occu r when the vol umes
of both phases become comparab le. Surfactant add iti ves also act to control phase
111 versto n processes.

9.3. Appendix: interfaces and the notion of surface tension

9.3.1. Interface between two non-miscible fluids am/ surface tension

We consider an interface between two non-mi scibl e fluid s at rest. The forces
exe rted at the interface include a surface tension force parall el to th e interface. Its
intensity is quantified by the surface tension y, whose dim ension is a force per unit
length (N m- 1) . Figure 9.5 represents the surface tension force along an arbitrarily
closed line C lying on th e interface and bou nding the surface element S. The tension
fo rce per unit length along C is:

T=y b=y t x i1 [9.30]

The tension force is exe rted on surfaceS, whi ch, like a drum skin held by its rim,
res ists de fl ecti on. Further, b is th e normal to curve C whi ch is tange nt to surface S
and ori ented outwards rel ati ve to surface S. The direction of the normal n to th e
surface is linked, by co nventi on, to the directi on of travel along curve C, given by

I 0 This re lati on is owed to Kolm ogorov A.N. (Oak/. Akad. Na uk. 1949 , Vo l. 66, pp. 826- 828)
and Hinze J.O. ( 1955, A!Ch J , 1955 , Vo l. I(3), 289- 295) . Experimental wo rk has
confirmed thi s dimensional dependence (C hen H.T. and Middleman S. , 1967 , A!Ch J ,
Vol. 13(5), 989- 994) .
186 Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineering

th e orientati on of tangent 1 . such that I . i1 ,and h is a direct orthonorma l

coordi nate system. The tension fo rce per unit length is of co nstant magnitu de, bu t its
direc ti on depends on th e defl ecti on of th e sur face. For a planar surfaceS. it is easy to
show that the total ten sion fo rce, obtain ed by integrati on along cont our C, is ze ro. A
non-zero total tension force is link ed to the ex istence of a detl ecti on of the interface.
It s mag nitude depends on the radii of curvature charac terizin g the deflection of th e
interface.

d8

Figure 9.5. Tensionfim e at the inlel./c!ce hetween I H'o non-111iscihiC' jluicl.\-

For a spheri ca l eleme nt of th e surface whose center of curvat ure is at point 0

and whose rad iu s of cu rvature is R, the tens ion force at different point s of th e curve
C is represented in Fi gure 9.5. The surface is in mechani ca l equi li brium when the
total force du e to surface tension along cont our C is balanced by the pressure forces
exerted on S on eith er sid e of th ~:: interface . Denotin g respective ly by Pco"' "' and
Pcunc'"" the pres sures on the convex and concave sides of th e surface, the eq uilibrium
between the torces is written as:

( Pconcacc - Peonvex ) Sk - y L sin( d B)k = 0 [9.31]

For the spherical element give n in Figure 9.5 , S = 2Jr R 2 ( 1- cos( dB)) and the
perimeter of lin e Cis L = 2Jr Rsin(d8). The sin e of angle dB in the ri ght-hand term
in [9.31] correspond s to th e projection of the tension forc e onto th e vector k normal
 Hydrod ynamics and Residence Time Distributi on 187

to the apex of th e surface element. For th e limiting case of a small surface eleme nt
(d B -7 0), [9.3 1] reduces to:

2y
!SP = ( Pconcave - Pconvc., ) = R [9.32]

The spherical surface element is in equilibrium if the defl ecti on of the interface
IS assoc iated with a rise in pressure through the interface that is in verse ly
proporti onal to the radius of curvature. The pressure is greater on the concave s ide
than on the convex side of the interface. For a non-spheri ca l surface , relation [9.32]
ca n be genera li zed by bringi ng in the rad ii of curvature along th e principal directions
of the surface 11:

!'J.P = (?concave - Pconvcx ) =y (~ + - 1 ) [9.33]

R1 R2

The literature often provides an energy-based interpretati on of surface tension ,

as y has the dimension of an energy per unit surface (N m- 1 = J m- 2). While thi s
interpretati on is meaningful as a rule, beca use the increase in the interfaci al area is
ac hi eved under ex penditure of energy, the interpretation in terms of energy IS
sometimes ambiguous, as discussed hereinafter with the exampl e of Jurin 's law.

9.3.2. Equilibrium in the contact line between three phases, .furin's law

We now consider a line of co ntact between three medi a. This case is co mmonl y
of interest when it is considered that medium I is a so lid and media 2 and 3 are
two non-mi sc ible fluid s, such as , e.g. a liquid and air, or water and oil. The surface
tensions y12 , y13 , and y23 betwee n th e different medi a pairs are associated with three
surface tension forces per unit length onto the line of triple contact, whi ch in Fi gure
9.6 (where med ium 3 is a gas) is the line perpendicul ar to the plane of fi gure and
pass ing through point A. Each interface naturall y tri es to retract, and pull s the tripl e
point, which ex pl ains the orientation of th e vectors in Figure 9.6 . If there ex ists a
situati on of three-ph ase equilibri a for which the interface between th e two fluid s is
attached onto the so lid walL the contact line can onl y move in the direction given by
vector k in order to stabili ze at a certain locati on. In that position , the equilibrium
between th e surface tension forces per length element of that line, proj ected onto
direction k , should be verified. It is written in the form:

Y12 + Y2.1 cosB = Yl3 [9.34]

II Thi s relati on is ca lled Laplace 's formula , among other ' Laplace law or rel ations. '
188 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Enginee rin g

Th e equilibrium contact angle B. determin ed by th e va lu es o f th e three interfac ial

tensions, charac teri zes the respecti ve affinit y of bo th tluid s for th e so lid . If
y 12 < ru, then th e affinit y of th e so lid for fluid 2 is greater than th at of the so li d fo r
fluid 3. Th at confi gurati on is represented in Fi gure 9.6. The tension fo rce y 13 pull s
th e tripl e line in th e directi on of vector k . Two cases may th en ari se: ( I) th e surface
tension between the two fluid s is too weak ( rn < Y1J- Y12 ), and th ere ca n be no
three-ph ase eq uilibri a. Tension fo rce Y1J pull s th e tripl e line until the wa ll is entirely
covered by fluid 2; and (2) ifthe surface tension between th e two fluid s is suffi cient
( Y23 > Yl3- Y12 ) , th en th ere ex ists an equilibrium co nfi gurat ion such that 0 < () < 1[/2.

Fluid 2 covers the so lid better than fluid 3 does (a liquid will be sa id to be "wetting
th e wa ll ") . Th is situati on can be adapted to the reverse case (if y12 > y 13 ) where the
affi nity of th e so lid for fluid 3 is greater than the one it ex hi bits for fluid 2. Flui d 3
tend s to cover the wa ll . If the sur face tension between th e two fluid s is too wea k
( y 23 < y 12 - y 13 ), th en fluid 3 covers the wa ll entirely. Three-ph ase equ ili bri a is
poss ibl e if the sur face tension is suffi cient ( Y23 > Y11- ru ); the contac t angle is such
th at m2 < () < 1[. Lastl y, in th e case wh ere Y12 = y 13 , both fluid s have the sa me
affinit y fo r the so lid . The equili brium config urati ons are such that the in te rface
betwee n th e two fluid s is normal to th e wa ll (B = 1[/2).

Ga s~

Li qui d 2

Yu k

Solid I

Figure 9.6. Sur/c1ce 1ensio11 a11d colllacl angle he/H'een/H'o/luid> on a solid \\'all

Re lati on [9.34] is known as the Ya un g-Dupre law. Whil e th e va lu es of sur face

tension between two fluid s ( (23 in [9.3 4] ) can be found for usual fluid s in phys ica l
propert y tabl es for th ose fluid s. data on th e va lues of tensions y 12 and y 13 between
each fluid and the so lid are less access ibl e. Such quantiti es are diffi cult to meas ure.
Th ey depend o n th e surface fini sh of the so lid wall , and va ry dramati ca ll y in the
presence of chemi ca l additi ves depos ited on th e so lid surface (an effect termed
" polluti on" ).
 Hyd rodynami cs and Residence Time Distri buti on 189

Writing the Young-Dupre law in th e form :

case = Y1 .1- Y1 2 [9.35 ]

Y23

shows more clearl y th at th e contact angle e depend s not onl y on the difference
y 11 - y1 2 , indi cati ve of th e relati ve affini ty of the so lid for either fluid , but also on
the in terfac ial tension y 23 between th e two fluid s. It is important to menti on thi s
beca use, in practi ce, th e interfac ial tension betwee n the two fluid s is often a ltered
in order to mod ify the wettability properti es of a wa ll . If the affini ty o f the so lid
is greate r for fluid 2 th an fo r fluid 3 ( Yu > Y1 2 ), a dec rease in surface tension y2 3
between the two fluid s effects an increase in the va lu e of cos e,wh ich means th at
ang le e dimini shes. Fluid 2 will then cover the so li d better, or even cove r th e wa ll
entirely if th e surface tension is suffi cientl y reduced. Th is is typi ca ll y ac hi eved by
surfac tant products, whi ch are chemica l molecul es th at pos iti on th emse lves on
the interfaces due to radicals hav ing an affini ty for both fluid s. Their prese nce at
th e interface alters the surface tension between the two fluid s. Co mm on surfactant
prod ucts in clude dete rgents, whi ch reduce sur face tension betwee n water and oil. If
th e affinity of the so lid fo r wate r is co mparati ve ly better than it is fo r the oil , th en
the detergent enabl es water to better cover the so lid surface, repelling the oil.

The Yo ung-Dupre relati on is the boundary condition that all ows the
determinati on of th e shape of the surface between two fluid s in contact with a so lid
wa ll , such as a liqui d drop on a so lid wa ll within a gas (dew) or an air bubble
adhering to a so lid wa ll within a liquid . It is important to emphas ize that th e Ya ung-
Dupre law is appli cabl e onl y to the case where the tripl e lin e is at static equilibrium
on the solid . When the tripl e line moves (if for exampl e th e dew drop slid es down
the wa ll ), th e concept of dy nami c contact angle should be substituted fo r that of
static contac t angle for better results. 12

One appli cati on of th e above noti ons is th e ph enomenon of capill ary ri se of a

liq ui d inside a thin tube of radius a immersed verti ca ll y in a bas in , as depi cted in
Figure 9.7. It is observed that the liqui d ri ses in side the tube un til th e gas/liquid
interface stabil izes at a certain height H. When the radius of the tube is small
compared to th e capill ary length :

[9.36]

12 See E.B. Dussan V. , 1979, On th e spreadin g of liquids on so lid surfaces: Static an d

dynam ic contac t li nes, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. , I I: 3 7 1-400.
190 Fluid Mechanics for C hemical Engineering

(a << ( c ). the effe ct of grav ity in th e vicinity of the interface betwee n a ir and the

liquid is neg li gibl e. The interface ca n be ass imil ated to a sp herical meni sc us for
which th e contact ang le (), a characte ri sti c of th e tube material, air, and the liqui d,
sets th e radiu s of curvature R through a simpl e appli cati on of th e tri gonome tri c
relations ai R = sin a = cos(). The press ure below th e meni sc us is lower th an th e
atmosph eri c press ure that preva il s above it. Appli cati on of Laplace' s law [9.33) in
such a situati on res ults in :

2y 2y
6.? = ( P atm - P .l ) = - = -COS() [9.37]
R a

Hydrostatic equ ilibriu m ( f 11111 = P1 + pgf-1 ) of the liquid between po int A, whi ch
IS located immed iate ly below th e meniscus , and a point B on th e free surface of
the bas in , all ows th e determin at ion of heigh t /-1 to whi ch th e li quid will ri se in side
the tube :

!-/ = l:.Lcos() [9.38]

pga

Thi s relation is known as Jurin 's law. Such a simple experiment helps to ex plain
physicall y the capi ll ary ri se phenomenon, whi ch can be observed in a poro us medium
(e.g. a wa ll ). The liner the pores in the porous med ium. the higher the liquid ri ses.

/-~
..... ~. /

;. A

H a = rr /2- e

2a
B~

Figure 9. 7. .!Ill' in .1 law characteriz ing !he ris e of' a liquid inside a capillan Ill he
 Hydro dyna mi cs a nd Res id e nce Tim e Di stri buti o n 19 1

An e ne rgy-based inte rpretati o n of Jurin' s law is a ttrac ti ve , as it is fo und that th e

surface ten s io n fo rces th e liquid to ri se by a ce rta in he ig ht. Ho we ve r, th e increase
in th e pote nti a l e ne rgy o f a fluid pa rticle is co mpe nsated fo r by the dec rease in
pressure. In oth e r wo rd s, th e ri se of th e liquid ins ide the tube is not associ ated with
an in crease in th e ene rgy of the liquid pa r1icl es w ithin th e tube. Jurin 's la w actua ll y
emph as izes th e ba la nc ing o f th e we ig ht of th e wa te r co lumn in s ide the tube
( pgH rra " ) by proj ecti o n o nto the ve rti cal ax is o f th e surface te ns io n fo rce appli ed
on th e co nto ur o f th e liquid 's contac t line w ith th e tube ( 2rray cos(} ). Thi s is a
ba lance betwee n forces. Th e confi g urati o n lead ing to Jurin 's law shows th at th e
no ti on of interfac ia l e nergy, assoc iated w ith s urface te ns io n a nd th e a rea of the
interface , does not a lways lead to a s impl e inte rpretati o n of the ph e no me na.

O n the oth e r ha nd , the e ne rgy-based inte rpre tati o n of surface te ns io n ts

mea ning ful if we co ns ider a mi crobubbl e of ra diu s a w ithin a liquid at rest. Th e
press ure ins ide th e bubble is g reate r th a n that preva ilin g in the liquid, by v irtue of
[9.32 ]:

2y
f1P = ( A nternal - .R~x terna l ) == - [9.39]
a

So me e ne rgy, the re fo re, needs to be prov ided to co mp ress the gas . The sma ll er
the bubbl e is, th e mo re th e e ne rgy is needed. 13 Th e excess press ure e nergy in s id e th e
bubbl e:

~ 4na 3 2 .
E = - - ;:'o,P =- y 4rra " [9 .40]
3 3

is pro po rti ona l to the product of surface te ns io n by th e a rea o f the inte rfa ce .

13 In ter face mode lin g as presen ted in thi s sec ti on ap p li es ri g ht dow n to bubbl es a nd d ro ps o f
a very sm a ll s ize. O ne ca n va lidl y rega rd surface tensio n as indepe nd ent fro m the de fl ecti o ns
o f th e s urface as lo ng as th e size o f th e dro ps o r bubbl es is grea te r tha n a few int e rm o lecular
d istances, a dim e nsion w hi c h has the sa m e o rd e r o f ma g nitud e as the thi c kn ess o f the
int erfac e (se e G . Bruhat, Thermodynamique. Masso n. 1968 , pp . 363- 364 ).
 Chapter I 0

Micromixing and Macromixing

IO.I.Introduction

In thi s chapter and in th e foll ow in g chapters of the second part of thi s book, we
di sc uss the mixing of chemi ca l co nstituents by turbul ence and their chemi ca l
reacti on. The foc us is first on th e case of a reactor fill ed with a Ouid in whi ch two
chemica l constituents are present (F igure I 0. 1), but we assume provisionall y that
they do not react together. Initi all y, constituents A and B are di ssolved in two
distinct vo lumes separated by an interface; they are in contact onl y through th at
interface. We denote by VA and V13 th e vo lu mes containing A and B, respec ti ve ly,
and by CAo and C130 the assoc iated initi al concentrati ons.

At time t = 0, stirring is initi ated in the vesse l using a mov ing bod y. Idea ll y,
stirring is assumed to be homogeneous. Thi s means th at the mi xing is performed
in the sa me way at the center of the reactor as at its comers. It also means that, after
a whil e, constituents are di spersed in identi ca l fashion throughout the reactor. The
concentrati on of constituents A and B, measured in a sa mpl e, is the sa me wherever
th e sa mpl e is taken in the reactor. !f the conce ntrati ons of constituents A and B are
represented by the ye ll ow and blue co lors, we would ex pect to see, at th e
macrosco pi c level, a green co lor in th e reactor . However, thi s observati on does not
mea n th at th e two products are in fact mi xed, as illustrated in Figure 10.1, using
vary in g grey leve ls. It is necessary to exa min e the di stribution in space of products
A and B at the molecul ar leve l in order to check that the mi xin g has actua ll y taken
place. Zooming in on a small vo lume element shows th at, in so me cases, vo lumes of
Ouid contai ning exc lusive ly constituent A or constituent B are fo und to coex ist
therein . That is the case when constituents are initiall y in two di fferent non-mi sc ible
Ouids (such as so me oil s with water), for whi ch the arrangement takes on the form
194 Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineerin g

of an emul sion where droplets co ntaining one of th e prod ucts are di spersed within a
cont inuous ph ase con taining the other product. Fi gure I0. 1 also illu strates another
type of arrangeme nt where both nuids stack them se lves in th e fo rm o f sheets
resemblin g puff pastry. Such "non-mixing" charac teri stics ca n also be observed for
mi sc ibl e nuid s, when the products have very low diffusivity, as wi ll be seen later .
Fi gure I 0. 1 depi cts th e fa ct that a macroscopic percepti on of mixin g does not mean
that the prod ucts are mixed at a mol ec ular leve l. An analogy with an inkj et print er is
helpful : the green co lor is produced by a relative density in blue- or ye ll ow-co lored
pix els in a given area.

Stirred but

.
(@
9
Figure I 0. 1. No!ions of" d ispers ion and 111i.ring in a pe1.fi:C1h slirred rea c /Or

These ideas have important conseque nces wh en a chemi ca l reac ti on is now

co nsidered. In th e case where th e products are mi xed at th e mol ec ul ar sca le. th ey are
in contact with each other at any point in th e reactor, and the concentrati ons of
products A and B become C Ao VA /(vi\ + Vn) and c ,, oVI\ /( v,~ + Vtl)' respectivel y.
due to diluti on. In non- mi xin g situ ati ons, the products are onl y in contact at
the interfaces between th e two ph ases, and the concentrati ons remain equ al to th e
initia l values.

Dealing with mi xin g raises two preliminary questions:

I. What the mec hani sms producing th e mixing? Th e answe r to thi s question
needs to be prov ided with regard to chem ica l reactions.
2. How can the degree of mixing of constituents in a nuid be characterized? Thi s
entail s introducin g too ls for its characteri zati on.
 Micromixing and Macromi xin g 195

We have to answe r th ese questi ons before we presum e to desc ribe th e dynamics
of mix ing and predict, for exa mpl e, the durati ons req uired to mi x two products.
We shall herea ft er exc lusive ly di sc uss mi xin g produced by a deve loped turbulence.
We will not dea l with mi xi ng in a laminar fl ow, although the basic concepts are
id enti cal.

10.2. Characterization of the mixture: segregation index

Suppose we can determine or meas ure, at all times an d at any poi nt .r, the
concentrati on C, (i,t) of a constituent A . Since the fl ow is turbul ent in side the
reac tor, the ensembl e average concept introduced in Chapter 8 to desc ribe
turbul ence can be used to defi ne the probab ility density (PDF) 1 P( CA . ~r ,t).
P( C 1 ,.\',t)dCA then denotes the probability of measuring at .\ ', at time 1, a
co nce ntrati on between CA - dCA I 2 and CA + dC." I 2 . When th e concentration
distribution is homogeneous in the vesse l, P( CA ,.i:,l) does not depend on .r , and
we simpl y write P(CA,I). Thi s is th e case th at is presented in thi s chapter.

The genera l properties of probab ility densiti es appl y, namel y:

r P( C, I)dC" = I (I 0. 1]

(1 0.2]

(10 .3 ]

where CA (I) is the average concentrati on of constituent A and 0" 1~ (I) the va ri ance
attached to product A.

When two co nstituents are presen t in a tluid , and more parti cul arl y when they
are likely to react with one another, it is necessa ry to introduce, in a simil ar way ,
the probability density fun cti on P( C11 , C13 ,t) . The properti es given by equation s
[I 0.1 ]- [ I 0.3] ca n be immedi ately transposed. For example, to eva luate an average
conce ntrati on, we write:

[ I 0.4]

I PD F stands for " probability dens ity funct ion".

196 Flui d Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Enginee rin g

Las tl y. th e segregation index refe rs to fun cti on:

0" 2 (t )
I (I) = --'-'- A_:_:__ [I 0.5 J
(]" ~ (I = 0 )

Let us now appl y these noti ons to the case o f th e stirred reacto r rep rese nted in
Figure I 0.1 . Wh en co nstitue nts A and 8 do not reac t. eac h product is co nse rved and
the time evo lut io ns of P(C..\ ,1) a nd P(Cn. l ) can be descri be d ind epend entl y. For
th e case where product A is initi all y contain ed within vo lum e VA with co nce ntrati on
CA""..' and in vo lume V11 with conce ntrati on C.,.,mn>. th e proba bility dens ity fun cti on
P(C,\,1 = 0) at th e initi al tim e co ns ists o ft wo de lta functi ons:

P ( CA , I = 0) = 0 if CA * CAilllll and

. VA
P(C Amax , I = 0) = - and ( .Allllll ' I
PC = o) = I -v"-
v v
with V = V,.\ + Vn. It foll ows th at:

c,\ ( I = 0) = c.~ lll lll P(C,.\llllll ,I = 0) + CAma' P(C.~ m"' ,I = 0)

= c + (C
A n11n
c )V
A ma .\ -
VA
A mtll

In Figure I 0.2 , P( C,\ .I = 0) has bee n pl otted and the evo luti on over ti me or
P ( C\ . I ) is depict ed in the absence o r a chemi ca l reacti on. T he average conce ntrati on
is conserved. so that C..\ is independent fio m time. It can be ass umed th at constitu ent
A will be compl etely mi xed and diluted in th e vo lume at time t ~ X> .

Co nsequ entl y, P(C.\, t =<Xo ) is simpl y:

P<c\ , = co ) = o
P ( CA , I = X> ) = I

It can be observed th at CY,~(I= co ) = O . so th at / (l =co ) = O whereas

/ (1 = 0) = 1 .
 Mi cromi xin g and Macromix ing 197

-,
I : \
I '
I
'
CAmin CAnnx

Figure 10.2. Tim e evoluriun o.frhe prohabilirv densiry.fimcrion P(CA ,t)

during a mixing process in a srirred vessel.
__ . P(CA.I = O). ----- P( CA, I > O) . P( CA .r ~ oo )

T he aspec t of the probability density fu nction P(CA ,t) represented in F ig ure

I 0 .2 a t a n intermediate time during the mi x ing process is on ly indi cati ve ; many
othe rs mi g ht be e nvi saged . as we will see in C hapter 12. Neve rthe less, it fu lfil s
certa in properties:

- The in tegra l of function P(CA , I ) ove r a ll conce ntra ti o ns s hou ld eq ua l 12

- Function P(CA, I) ve rifi es P(CA ,/) = 0 outs ide the inte rva l [ CAmin,CAmax ]-
1f th a t wa s no t the case, o ur process wo uld sepa ra te rathe r th an mix.

Function P( CA, 1) va ri es in suc h a ma nn e r as to te nd asy mpto tica ll y towa rd

the delta fun c ti o n in CA = CA for 1 = oo . The varia nce decreases with time . The
segregation ind ex is a dime ns io nl ess function which decreases continuo us ly from
a va lue of I at time 1 = 0 to the va lue 0 w he n the mixture is obtain ed . It i th e re fo re
a good representati o n o f th e d egree to w hi c h th e mixin g has been achieved.

Figure I O.J shows th e evo lution in time of th e proba bility de ns ity fun cti o n
P(CA , I) obta in ed by direct numerica l s imul a ti o n. The initi a l conditions a re s imil a r
to those co ns ide red in the present secti o n, a ltho ugh tec hnica l constraints on direct
numerical s imul at io n require a n initi a l PD F th at is smooth e r than the doub le de lta
function cons idered prev io us ly. It is found th at the PDF varies in the fom1 o f
a co ntinuous function , a pro pe rty w hi c h we w ill di sc uss in C hapter 12.

2 At r = 0 and at I = oo , the representati on shows th e integral of th e delta fu ncti on.

I 9R Fluid Mechani cs fo r Chem ica l Engi neeri ng

Figure I 0.3. Evolu rion over rime u/ rhe probabilifl ' densi fl j imcrion P( CA, I )
deril edfrom rhe resulrs o/a direcr monerical simularion o/mixing in a srirred
\'ess e/ (Es warm1 and Pope. Pln sics ojF/uid1. Vol. 31 (3). 506- 520. /988).
r I r, = 1122:--- : r I r, = 0.42: - +- : 1 I r, = 0 83:
-o- : 1 I r, = 1.28: -x- : 1 I r, = 1.49

I 0.3. The d y namics of mixing

Th e mi xin g of a produ ct into a fluid fl ow res ults from two mec hani sms: stirring,
whi ch rega rd s to th e advect ion of fluid parti cles, and molec ular diffusion. whi ch is
characteri zed by a molec ul ar diffusion coe ffi cient D11 . In th e abse nce of a chemi ca l
reacti on, th e evo luti on in time or the co ncentrati on fi eld C 1 (.\', t ) o f a produ ct A
inside a fluid do main is gove rned by th e transport equati on:

[I 0.61

Thi s is a co nservati on equati on. The quantity is conse rved over the reactor as a
wh ole. if th ere is no exchange with th e outside environment.

Equati on [ I 0.6] enabl es us to pinpoint th e fund amental role of molec ul ar

diffusion in mi xing processes. In th e absence or molecul ar di ffusion ( DA = 0 ).
equati on [I 0 .6) reduces to:

dC, _ 0CA _ "C _ O

- - - - -+u.v 11- [1 0.7 ]
dt at
 Mi cromi xi ng and Mac romi xin g 199

whi ch mea ns that co nce ntrati on is conserved in a fluid parti cle th at is be ing fo ll owed
du rin g its movement. Consequentl y, there ca n be no mi xing. The PDF P(CA ,t) is
independent of time. The fl ow merely advects fluid parti cles without chang ing their
compositi on. We are therefore in a " non -mixing" situati on as represe nted in Fi gure
I0. 1, where the fluid fl ow causes the fluid vo lumes contained in th e domain to
stretch, fo ld back, split up, or fragment, with out howeve r leading to mi xin g at th e
molec ul ar sca le.

We shall not di scuss here th e conditi ons that led to th e two config urati ons
illustrated in Figure I 0.1 . Rath er, we wi sh to dwe ll on two co ncepts:
I. Th e first is th at one should di stingui sh, wh en referring to mi xi ng, the
hyd rodynami c process of dispersion, whi ch in it se lf does not produce any mi xing,
from the mi xing process, whi ch requires mol ecul ar di ffusion to bring th e
constituents into co ntact at the mol ecul ar sca le. The term s tirring mea ns di spersion
and the term mixing is used to desc ribe the actual mi xin g through diffusion at th e
molecul ar sca le.
2. Th e second concept, whi ch we have intended to depi ct in Fi gure I 0. I, is that
advecti on of fluid parti cles by turbulence (s rirring ) ca uses a significant decrease in
the characteri sti c sizes of th e volumes co ntaining constituents A and B. This
property will acce lerate mi xing by dramati cally reducing the diffu sion times
required to perform it.

Th ese arguments are illustrated by Fi gure I0.4, whi ch reproduces three fi gures
from th e out standing boo k by Ottino 3 The first illustrati on (Fi gure I 0.4( a)) is an
ex perimental obse rvati on4 by laser-induced flu orescence of the in stability at the
interface betwee n two superimposed fluid layers in parall el move ment at different
ve lociti es. The Kelvin- Helmholtz instability results in the roll -up and stretching of
fl ow threads th ro ugh th e ge nerati on of vorti ces at the interface. Th e second
illu strati on (Figure 10.4(b)) reproduces the cover of thi s boo k, whi ch shows a
situ ati on where the roll-up and stretchin g of flow threads end up occupying the
entire space in side a cav ity. Th ese two illu strati ons, obtained experimentall y,
demonstrate th e va lidity of th e concepts described. The third illu strati on
(F igure 10.4(c)) summari zes the different processes we have described. The initi al
mechani sm is a stretching of fl ow thread s, which leads to a "puff-pastry-like"
striati on of the domain Case (a). Case (c ) depicts the way thi s process can
subsequentl y lead to a fragmentati on of the domain . Case (b) indi cates the way the
eli ffu sion process is combined.

3 Ottino, J.M., The Kinematics of' Mixing : Stretching, Chaos and Transporl. Ca mbridge texts
in appli ed mathematics, Cambridge Uni ve rsit y Press, 1989.
4 Kooches fani and Kim otaki s, 1986, J. Fluid Mech., I 70, 83- 112.
200 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineerin g

(c)

..
( olfl<l'nfr,lfln pnf1k

Figure I 0.4. 11/uslrulions o(lhe mixing processes ini1ia1ed b1 1he s/relching and(oldi11g back
offluid 1hread1 in aflow. Th ese lhreejig ures are exce!pledfmm !he hook b1 Oll ino ( 1989).
(a) S1re1ching h1 Kelvin Helmholtz ins1ahilit1 a11he illlerface he/weenllHJj/uidlj/owing in
parallel wilh a velocitr ralio U/ Uc = 0.45 . (b) Slrelching of a dl'e spol in a closed Cal'ily
ll'herc llluvemell/ is generated hr sinusoidal displacements a/ the boundaries. (c) 1/lus/ra lion
o(slrelching: (a). diffiision phenomena (h). andfiagme/1/alion (c) during a mixing operation
 Micromix ing and Mac rom ixing 20 1

I 0.4. Homogenization of a scalar field by molecular diffusion: micromixin g

Mo lec ul ar diffusion is th e onl y mec hani sm that can achi eve the mi xin g by
modi fy in g the conce ntrati on of constituents in side fluid parti cles. It is thi s process
th at we exa mine now, with th e aim of desc ribing the way it occ urs, but more
importantl y of determinin g the time span required to obtain it. We consider the
situ ati on depi cted in Figure I 0. 1 where th e stirring process has already fragmented
the fluid domain s containing prod ucts A and 8 into mi cro-elements of size f K .
St irrin g moves elementary ce ll s relati ve to one another, without bei ng abl e to
mod ify their size , as this would require the ex istence of turbul ent structures smaller
th an rA' , or the ability to transfer products between elementary ce ll s.

l. .,. . -;-
., ......... ,,
, \ I
X ., -,~
.. . ----- -------
,, -
" ~- .' . . , ,
/
X
\

I= 0
,....,--
\
I / ~' .
'
\ ........ _,
/
X

I = oo

Figure 10.5. Evolution in time ufreugent concen;rations under the ejf'ect ofmulecular
dif/itsiun. Products A and 8 are initially contained in streaks of thickness f K , and
ther are only in contact at the inter(i.1ce between streaks. Molecular diffusion transport
the products along the Ox direction. producing their mix ing while concentrations
(dark greyfor A and light grev fo r B) homogenize

In order to characteri ze the tim e-dependent evo luti on of th e spati al vari ati ons in
concentra ti on under the effect of molec ular diffusion, we pl ot in Fi gure I 0.5 th e
vari ations in the concentrati ons of products A and 8 along an ax is Ox. Initi all y, the
latter are peri odi c square fun cti ons with a characteri sti c sca le PK . Th e evo luti on in
tim e of th e spati al va ri ation s in concentrati on under the effect of molecul ar diffu sion
is also represe nted in Fi gure I0.5. In the first stage, the concentrati on fi eld va ri es at
th e vicinity of the di scontinuity surfaces in the form of a gradi ent whi ch dec reases
with time. The concentrati on leve l at th e center of the elements decreases in the
second stage, with spatial vari atio ns of co ncentrati on graduall y taking on the shape
of a sin e wave whose amplitude decreases with increas ing time. Thi s class ical
behav ior is obse rved when so lving for the diffusion equati ons, as described in the
appendix to Chapter 8. Dimensional analys is of the advection/d iffusion equati on
202 Fluid M echani cs lo r Chemica l Engineerin g

shows that th e time req uired to homogeni ze the co ncentrations by diffu sion is o f the
order of:
(2
K
To = - . [10.8]
D
where D denotes the mo lec ul ar diffusion coeffic ient (assumed here to be the sa me
for a ll constitu ents). Eq uation [ 10. 8] is simil ar to eq uati on [8.36] of Chapter 8,
with out considering th e turbul ent diffusion coe ffi cient as it corresponds to st irrin g.
The time Tn is ca ll ed the mi cromi xin g time. We will return to thi s terminology in
section 10.6.

The main consequence of [ 10.8] is that the small er the sca le r K is, the fa ste r th e
effect of molec ul ar diffu sion will be. Stirrin g acce lerates th e mi xin g process by
fragmenting flu id domain s at th e sca le ( K . It helps thi s way in acce lerating th e
diffus ion process, whi ch homogeni zes the co nce ntrati on fi eld s in space . In order to
determine how rapidl y the mi xing process takes place, we need to know th e size of
the small est sca les of turbul ence, whi ch we wil l denote by r K .

A seco nd argum ent is rega rding the co ncentrati on measu rements in a fluid
domain . Measuring a concentrati on CA (i, t ) at one point at a given time (as we
have ass umed in secti on I0.3) is a theoreti ca l noti on, as we necessaril y measure th e
concentration over a vo lume surrounding that point. However, we ca n deduce
from [ 10.8] th at th e concentrati ons in the measurement vo lume considered are
quasi-instantaneo usly homogeni zed by molec ul ar diffu sion, if th e measurement
vo lume is sma ll.

10.5. Diffusion and chemical reactions

We co ntin ue wi th th e case desc ribed in Fi gure I 0.5 , now exa mining th e speed
with which th e chemi ca l reac ti on takes pl ace. We denote by rc the chemi ca l time,
which is th e time required to perform th e chemical reaction when products A and 8
are mi xed. Two lim itin g cases need to be consi dered, depending on the relati ve
va lu es of rc and ro.

If ro << rc , products A and 8 are mi xed afier the time r 0 has elapsed , but it
ca n be seen th at reage nts A and 8 , although mi xed togeth er during th e time interva l
0 < r < Tn , have had almost no time to react with eac h other. Th e chemi ca l reaction
th erefore progresses with th e characteristic time rc after mixing has been effect ed.
The mi x in g itse lf is very fast.
 Micromi xing and Macrom ixing 203

The reve rse case, where rD >> r c, is so mew hat more co mpl ex. Th is IS
illustrated in Figu re 10.6, whose represe ntati on is simil ar to th e one show n 111
Figure I 0.5 . Th e initi al co nditi ons are th e sa me for both cases. The va ri ation s
in reage nt co ncentrati ons are pl ott ed along th e ax is Ox. Sin ce rc << rD , we
assi mil ate the reacti on into an in stantaneo us reacti on. Both reage nts A and 8
ca nnot coex ist. They are in co ntact onl y through th e interfaces x = n f K (where n
is an integer), where th ey react for formin g product P. In side eac h e lemen tary ce ll
co nta inin g th e reage nts A or B, the diffu sion process is simil ar to the one pl otted
in Figu re I 0.5, but product A neve r penetrates into th e vo lum e containin g product
8 (a nd conve rse ly fo r product B) . Mo lec ul ar diffusion transports th e reage nt s to
th e interfaces. where the chemical reac ti on occ urs. Th ere by, molec ul ar diffu sion
co ntrols th e rapidity of th e tran sport and th e progress of the chemi ca l react ion 5
Th e co nce ntrati ons of products A and 8 dim ini sh du e to th e consumpti on by the
chemi ca l reaction.

Lastl y, in the case where the di ffusion time rD is of th e sa me ord er of magnitude

as th e characteri stic time of the chemi ca l reaction r c , the reacti on takes pl ace
concurrentl y with the diffu sion and reac tion process. It ca n therefore be conclud ed,
as a ge neral statement, th at the progress time of a chemi ca l reacti on rl{ is give n by

fR "" max {fD , rc} . [10.9]

- - - - 1=0

I = /1 >0

.... I = oo

' '
f \\ II\

I
I

~- .
II

\. ___,(-
't \
-~L ___ .r . J
II

LJ
Co ni aU ~ urfa ~.:l:.. w here rcac lto n of
pruduc1s A and B ()(T urs

Figure I 0.6. Evolution in time uj'reagelll concenlrations under the combined eflects r~/
molecular di[fitsion and of an instantaneous chemical reaction Products A and Bare initially
contained in streaks of thickness f K . During the whole process. they are onlv in contact at
the i111eljctce between streaks where they react together. Molecular diffusion transport the
pmducts along the Ox direction. producing their mixing while cunce111ration1 (dark greyfor
A and light grey./iH B) decrease in time. while the products are consumed hy the reaction

5 A direct appli cat ion of thi s case is found in combustion. with diffusion fl ames (see Exerc ise
11.111 at th e end of Chapter II ).
204 Fluid Mechanics for Chem ica l Engineering

10.6. Macromixing, micromixin g, and chemical reaction s

A c he mi ca l reaction prog resses as a res ult o f three processes : c he mi ca l kinetics,

w hi c h is charac te ri zed by th e c he mi ca l tim e rc; mi cro mi x ing, whi c h is linked to
mo lec ul a r diffu s ion (c ha racte ri zed by the mi c rom ixing tim e rll - eq uati o n [ I 0.8]) ;
and mac romi xing (termed stirring in thi s chapte r), w hi c h pe rta in s to the process of
turbul e nt dispe rs io n as described in C hapte r 8.

Macro mixing refers to the processes of ad vec tio n ca used by the turbule nt fl ow,
which transport fluid particles a nd whi ch, thro ugh the ro ll -up a nd stretching of
sheets, ass ist in fragmenting the fluid phase into sma ll -scale entiti es . As a resu lt ,
concentrati o n g rad ie nts w ithin the flui d doma in are conside rab ly stre ngthened. These
pheno me na have a lready been described and illu strated in Figures 10. 1 a nd 10.4.

Macromixing, produced by turbu le nce , invo lves different space and time sca les.
W e have a lread y discu ssed in C hapte r 8 the la rge sca le of turbulence, c haracte ri zed
by the integra l sca le f', and the turbu le nt ve loc ity U rm s . W ith th at is assoc iated the
time sca le (eq uati o n [8. 12]) w hi c h is referred to as th e eddv turn-over time of"
turbulence as it g ives an o rder of mag nitude of th e revolution tim e of an eddy at the
la rge sca le o f turbul e nce:

r,
r, = - - . [ 10. 10]
U rm s

These space and tim e sca les are not suffi cie nt to desc ribe th e spatia l va ri ations in
concentra ti o n, s ince th ey do not in co rpo rate the process of domain frag men tat ion
desc ri bed in thi s c hapter. It is necessa ry to cons ide r th e s ize f K , w hi c h is the
sma ll est sca le of tu rbu le nce that is present w ithin th e flow. S uc h small vort ices a re
assoc ia ted w ith a ve loc ity u ~:, w hi c h a ll ows the introduction o f th e c harac teristic
time of s ma ll -sca le turbul e nce:

[ 10. 11]

T hi s tim e is c ha rac te ri sti c of th e re lati ve mo tio ns o f th e small -sca le fluid entiti es,
adjace nt to o ne a nothe r. T hese en titi es a re produced by the frag me nta ti o n o f th e
fluid phase unde r the e ftect o f turbul e nce , a nd the re la ti ve moti o ns se rve to ma inta in
spati a l hete rogeneity a t sma ll sca les. Ko lm ogorov's th eory, presented in C ha pter I I.
wi ll he lp in quantifying {" , U K, a nd r~: .

It is fina ll y necessary to inc lude as a macromi x mg process , th e d ispe rsio n of

fluid particl es at the overa ll sca le of the reactor. Th e tu rbu le nt diffus io n process
 Mi cro mi x in g and Mac romi xin g 205

desc ri bed in C ha pte r 8 a ll ows us to qua nti fy it. Fo r a reacto r o f c ha rac te ri sti c s ize L
( it s vo lum e w ill be ta ke n to be equa l to V = L' ), the turbul e nt di spe rs io n time fJi sp
at th e sca le o f th e reacto r is deri ved fro m e qu ati o n [8.36]. Writin g L = J K ,rdi sp ,

wi th turbul e nt diffus io n coeffi c ient K, = u,mJ,, it fo ll ows th at:

2
fdi sp , -r; .
r, ( L ) [1 0. 12]

Thi s is th e tim e required to ho mogeneo us ly di stribute s ma ll fluid pa rti c les

th ro ug ho ut th e reac to r.

Ge nera ll y spea kin g, th e three cha rac te ri sti c times o f mac ro mi x in g in deve lo ped
turbul e nce are suc h tha t:

r,.; << r, :s; fdi sp . [ I 0. 13]

T he fi rst inequa lity w ill be estab li s hed in C hapter II . Th e second in equa lity
res ults fro m r, < L .

By ex tra po lating equati o n [I 0.9] we can estim ate th e progress time o f a c he mi ca l

reacti o n, w he re bo th mo lecul a r diffu s io n and turbul e nt di spe rs io n are acti ve. Th e
progress o f th e c he mi ca l reacti o n w iII be controll ed by the s lo west o f th ese
processes , he nce:

TR, max{rD . rc,rK , r, , rd isr} . [I 0 . 14]

T he co nfi g ura ti o n w hi c h we have so fa r cons idered (as sho wn in Fi g ure I 0 . 1) is

th at o f a c losed reacto r. For a n o pe n reacto r (w ith a fl ow pass ing throug h the
reac to r), th e res ide nce time in s ide the reacto r a lso needs to be take n into acco unt.
T hi s case w ill be cons id ered in C ha pte r 12 .

I 0. 7. Experimental demonstration of the micromixing process

A s impl e ex pe rime nt de mo nstrates the va lidity o f the concepts o f micromixing,

by setting two reacti o ns w hi c h co mpete fo r th e cons umpti o n of a reagent. Th e
ex pe riment, in whi c h we limit o urse lves to establi shing a bal a nce o f th e reagents
cons umed a t the end o f the ex pe rime nt , proves th e fact th at the degree of e xecution
o f eac h o f the two reacti o ns de pe nd s, fo r care full y se lected conditi o ns, o n the
m ic rom ix in g o f th e consti tue nts 6

6 These ideas and expe rim en ts we re introdu ced by Fo urni er, M.C. , Fa lk , L. and V ill ermaux J.
( 1996), Chemical Engineering Science, Vo l. 5 1(22), pp . 5053- 5064.
206 Flui d Mechanics fo r Chemica l Engineeri ng

We consider the following two chemical reacti ons, for wh ich products A and B
are co mpeting to co nsu me product C:

A + C -7 D chemi ca l time re1

B + C -7 E chemi ca l time rc 2

The products A and B are introduced and m1 xed beforehand in sid e the reac tor.
We denote by C\RO th e initial conce ntrati ons of products A and 8 , whi ch are
assumed to be identi ca l. The reac ti on can start as soon as reagent C is introduced, it s
initial co ncen trati on bein g denoted by Ceo - We co nsider the situati on where prod ucts
A and B are in strong excess, th at is, Ceo < < CABO Both reac ti ons are ass umed to be
of order I with res pect to eac h of the const ituents. The kinetic constants of both
reacti ons are denoted by k1 and k 2 . It is ass um ed that the tirst reaction is much
faste r than the second , that is, k1 >> k 2 .

For th is experiment , if, fro m time 1 = 0, product C is already perfectly mixed

with products A and B, then prod uct C will be almost totall y consumed by react ion
I. Th e reso luti on of the kin eti c equati ons shows th at th e concentrat ions of products
A and B vary in time acco rdin g to:

Final concentra ti ons of prod ucts A and B are th erefore, tak ing int o acco unt th e
fac t th at k1 >> k2 and Ceo << CABo:

[I 0.15]

These res ults are obtained if the characte ri sti c times or mi cromi xin g and
macromi xing are small co mpared to the characteri sti c times o f both reacti ons,
re1 = I I k1 CABO for th e first and ru = I I k2CA110 for the seco nd . Sin ce k1 >> k2, we
have ru << ru . Assumin g th at macromi xin g is performed properl y, micromi xin g
is not a limiting factor for eith er or the two chemi ca l reac ti ons if the characteri sti c
time of mi cromixin g (equati on [ I0.8]) is suffi cientl y small co mpared to the chemi ca l
times, namely:

(~
ro ""-
D << rc1. << reo- [ I 0. 16]
 Microrni xi ng and Macrorn ixing 207

In contrast. considerin g a situati on wh ere the small sca les f " of turbu lence are
large r, and parti cul arl y in th e case where rc1 << r 0 << ro . the situati on is such that
mi cromi xin g limits th e progress of reacti on I, whereas it has no effect on reaction 2.
As a res ult , reac tion I occurs more slow ly, with th e characteri sti c time r 0 of
mi cromi xin g, whi le the kineti cs of reacti on 2 is not altered. Reagent C is consumed
more slow ly by reacti on I, and reacts more with product B. When reagent C has
been compl etely consumed , it is found that product B has bee n co nsumed to a
grea ter ex tent , and th at more of product A is left, in compari son with th e val ues
[I 0. 15] obtained in situation s where th ere are no limits set for mi xing.

In ord er to veri fy thi s effect, we require the ability to ex perimentall y control the
va lue rA. of the small er sca les of turbul ence. We have limited ourse lves, in this
chapter, to exp lainin g the role pl ayed by the small sca les of turbul ence in the mixing
process assoc iated with a chemica l reacti on. In Chapter 11 , we prov ide some
necessary complements from th e theory of turbulence, wh ich will enabl e us to
quantify rA.
 Chapter 11

Small Scales in Turbulence

In Chapter 8, we characteri zed the large sca les of turbulence by introducing

the turbulent ve loc ity Unns and the integral sca le f ,. These two quantiti es are used
to quantify two key processes of turbul ence, the turbul ent diffusion coeffici ent
K , , Unn sf r (equat ion [8.29] of Chapter 8) and the kinetic energy di ss ipation rate in

a turbulent fl ow:

[I 1.1]

(equation [8. 14] of Chapter 8). Again , the non-inclu sion of viscos ity in this relati on
is particularly noteworthy. This property, together with eq uati on [ 11.1], constitutes
the cornerstone of turbulence theories and of the concepts presented in this chapter.

The integra l sca le f , characterizes th e size of large-sca le moti on obse rved in a

turbul ent fl ow . On a weath er map, these are observed as cyc loni c and anti -
cyc loni c eddies. Alth ough it is th e mos t visib le, large-sca le moti on does not
describe th e entirety of turbulence-induced ph enomena. Kolmogo rov's th eory,
presented in thi s chapter, all ows th e determination of th e Kolm ogo rov sca le (I K ,
whi ch characteri zes the size of th e small est eddi es prese nt in a turbul ent fl ow . 1
This sca le is used to eva luate the characteristic time of diffu sion processes and
appl y th e co ncepts of macro mi xin g and mi cromi xin g introduced in Chapter I 0 for
a developed turbulence fl ow.

I A more comprehensive presentation of Kolmogorov 's theory can be fo und in the book by
M. Lesieur, Turbulence in Fluid1 (S prin ge r- Verlag, 2007).
2 10 Fluid Mechanic s for Chemi ca l Eng ineerin g

II. I. Notion of signal processing, expansion of a time signal into Fourier series

Some noti ons of signa l processin g are necessary to understa nd th at th e spectra l

content is an essenti al characte risti c of a random signal which neith er the average
va lue nor th e va ri ance acco unt s for.

Thi s idea is illu strated in Fi gure I 1. 1. Fi gure I 1.1 (a) shows a ve loc ity signal
which is assumed to represent a turbul ent fl ow, measured at one po int as a functi on
of time. After di giti zing thi s s ignal at regul ar time intervals 1'1 1, th e di g iti zed value s
were pl otted in Fi gure 11 . 1(b), their order ha vin g been randoml y modifi ed. A curve
pass in g through each o f the points was then superimposed to thi s new signal.
Since the sa me data was used in both pl ots, the va lues of U and li nn, are identi ca l
for both the pl ots. Howeve r, th e two signals c learly diffe r. Th e osc ill atio ns are fas ter
in Fi gure 11 .1(b) th an in Figure l l . l (a). Ca lcul ating a corre lati on time, analogo us to
the integral scale in troduced in Chapter 8, wo uld demonstrate th at th e correlati on
time ca lcul ated for th e signal o f Figure 11 . 1(b) is small er th an th at of Fig ure 11. 1(a).
An analys is of the spectral content o f the turbul ent signal all ows a finer
characteri zati on of turbul ence than th e stati stical va lues U, U nns , and f 1 do .

II ( I) Ia

11(1) t:.r

lh

Figure 11 . 1. Represl!ntation of a digitizi!d turbulenl s ignal. Th e d igitized Fa!ues in

Figure I/ . I (a) are pioiled aga in in Figure I/ . I (h). in a randomfl modified order

Expandin g a tim e signal into Fou ri er seri es prov id es access to its spectral
content. We co ns ider th e simplifi ed case where th e mean ve loc ity is zero and
we analyze th e fluctu atin g ve loc ity signal u '(l) measured over a time interva l (O,T).
The math ematical theory o f Fourier seri es asserts th at a continuous signal measured
 Sma ll Sca les in Turbul ence 211

over a time interval [O,T] ca n be written in an exact manner as an infinite seri es of

sine fu ncti ons:

u '(t ) = "' r '

L.. "'ll ~ l {all cos ( 21rn ) + bll Sin
. ( r '
2Trl7 ) } [ 11.2]

The coe fficients of the seri es are ca lc ul ated by integrals, using compl ex numbers
form ali sm:

a11 + ib 11 =r
2 ( , ( 2m7 )
.kJ u (t)exp i T t dt [ 11.3]

The ex pansion into Fo uri er seri es amounts to representing a signal using an

infinite number of di sc rete frequencie s f,, = 17 I T. Based on [ 11 .3] , it is easy to
ca lc ulate, for eve ry integer 17, th e terms of th e sequence:

E ( ./ .
11 =T T {a,;? + b,;?}
17 ) = 4" [ 11.4]

Thi s sequence is ca lled th e energy spectrum of th e random signal. The noti on of

energy related to thi s quantity will appea r a littl e later.

It mi ght see m paradoxical that th e represe ntation of the signal as a Fourier seri es
should depend on the durati on T of the signal , inasmuch as the content of the sign al
does not depe nd on its durat ion. A few simple examples using s in e functions help
establish th at th e spectral co ntent of a sinuso id of freq uency f ex hibits significant
positive va lues of E(f,, = n I T) on the energy spectrum onl y for integer numbers 17
that are close to the value of .fT . In other words , Fourier analysis enables the
identification of the frequency of a sinu so idal s ignal, to the acc uracy of
di sc reti zati on. For simpl e mechanical syste ms, th e energy spectrum is di screte,
whi ch mea ns th at a finite number of frequencies are identifi ed, for whi ch E(.f~~) -F 0.
Suc h a case is rep resented in Figure I 1.2(a).

Figure 11 .2(b) de pi cts th e energy spectrum of a turbul ent signal. Thi s curve
verifi es severa l essenti al properties. Function E(.f,,) is always pos iti ve, as per its
defi niti on (equation [I 1.4 ]). It is also found that function E(.f~~) tends toward 0 for
n ~ oo . Thi s property results from th e Parceva l equality:

-I Lr {a,+
2 b,2}-
-- I 1
I - ru 2(t )dt [ 11.5]
4 ~~ ~ ~ 2T
2 12 Fluid Mechan ics for Chemica l Engineering

whi ch states th at the seri es is convergent. The Parceva l equality lends an energy-
related mea nin g to E(f) :

r (/ )d/ = _!_~
1 2T 1
(u '2 (t )dt [ I 1.6]

s in ce th e right -ha nd-side term in [ 11. 6] is th e mea n turb ul ent ene rgy per un it mass.

(a) <};,)

I
I I I
I I I I I
I

srr
II

10rr 2orr o,orr :r

t;, =
II

(b) E(f,,)

II
517 JOl T 20/T 0, 0/7 J;, = -
T

Figure 11 .2. Energl spec /mill of a signal. (a) harmonic signal: (b) turbulent signal

Unlik e th e " di sc rete" energy spectrum represe nt ed in Fi gure 11 .2(a), the energy
spectrum o f a turbul ent signal takes the form of a continu ous curve , i.e. functi on
E(f) is non- zero and pos iti ve over a wide frequency ba nd . Thi s property all ows
us to ascertain wheth er a signal is turbulent, as chaos theori es have shown.
Kolmogorov's theory ass um es that the shape of the energy spectrum ove r th e
frequency range is representati ve of a state of equilibrium of turbul ence.
 Small Sca les in Turbul ence 2 13

The frequency band .f;11in < .f < .fma.x , in whi ch th e energy of th e sig nal is he ld ,
ca n be de termin ed in practi ce from th e energy spectrum . It may fo r exampl e be
defi ned as th e frequency band containing 99% of the signal's total energy:

I' """ (/)d/ = 0.99 -2I -TI ru ' (t )d1

t"'" 2
[I 1.7]

11.2 . Turbulent energy spectrum

Fl uctuati ons of th e ve loc ity fi eld in a turbul ent fl ow va ry both in space and tim e.
It is thi s tim e- space info rmati on that is characteri zed usin g the energy spectrum of
tu rbu lence. If the vari ati ons of one turbul ent ve loc ity component u '(x, 1) are kn ow n
ove r a length interva l [0, L] in a direction Ox at a given time 1, the vari ati o ns of
u'(x , t ) may also be ex panded into a Fouri er seri es with respect to the space
coo rdinate x 2 Thus, [ 11 .2] is ex trapolated into:

"'\" ~'~ a11( 1) cos L x +b~~( t) s m -L- x

u '(x,t) = .L.. { (2Jrn ) . (2m1 ) }
11 1 [I I .8 ]

Coe ffi cients all and b11 are time dependent but, simil arl y to [ 11 .3 ], we have:

a~~ (l ) + ib~~( t ) =
27rl1x )dx
L2 1fl. u '(x, t)exp ( i L [I 1.9]

Us ing an in fini te number of di screte wave numbers k 11 = n I L , th e in stantaneous

energy spectrum is ca lcul ated as in [ 11.4]:

( k11 , I) = !:_ \a,; (I) + b,i (I)} [ II. I 0]

4

Fo r steady-state turbul ence, the mean energy spectrum is obtain ed by time

ave rag in g ove r a time interva l of durati on T:

( =Ln)=TI rE(k~~. t)dt

k11 [I 1.1 I ]

2 Thi s approach is linked to th e noti on of correlati on treated in secti on 8.2 of Chapte r 8

(see Figure 8.2(a)); however, we do not deal the same fi.1rth er here.
2 14 Fluid Mec hanics fo r Chemical Engineeri ng

Th e Parceva l equality gives an energy co rres pond ence analogo us to [ 11 .6] .

E( k )dk =2.rL
f II I T{ L ,, . } I ?
11 - ( ..\ ,t)dx d1 = 2.// iins [ I 1.1 2]

The energy spectrum , (k), prov ides so me spati al informati on abo ut the energy
distribut ion, whi ch is ex pressed fi gurati ve ly by emph as izing that it all ows us to
know "th e energy of turbul ent eddi es based on th eir size. " The quantity k = I I f is
the wave num ber associated with th e size f of a turbul ent eddy. A large wave
number correspo nds to a small- sized edd y, and a small wave number to a large-s ized
edd y. From energy relati on [ 11 .12]. it fo ll ows that the integral of the energy
spectrum is finite. One can, therefore, defin e minimum and max imum wave
numbers, respect ively as k111 , , and k111 a_,, between which the energy of turbu lence is
distributed. It can be verifi ed th at, usuall y. kmin "' 1/ r, . The wave number k 111 a, is,
for its pan, assoc iated with th e small est sca le rK of turbu lence . It is postul ated that
k ma.\ = I I I A' .

11.3. Kolmogorov 's theory

Kolmogorov 's theory estab li shes th at the energy spectrum has a " uni versa l"
form. In other words, the energy spectrum vari es with th e wave num be r in identi ca l
fashi on in all turbulent fl ows , prov ided that th e rK and t , sca les are known .

Powe r injected int o the reactor

E n ~ rgy di :-.~ ipali o n in ~ id ~ 1hc reactor

Vo lu me V

Figure 11.3. Power injected as mechan ical energv and dissipation in a pcrfi:ctlr stirred
reactor in a s t eac~r-s tate regirne

Let us first co nsider the case of steady-state turbul ence (the case of un sustained
turbu lence is di scussed later). An energy source has to inj ect some energy at a rate
equal to the rate c: of turbul ent kinetic energy di ss ipati on. Th at is what idea ll y
occurs in a perfectl y stirred reactor of vo lume V (Figure 11 .3) in wh ich a mov in g
 Small Sca les in Turbul ence 2 15

body of di ameter D rotating at a speed N (in revo luti ons per second) inj ects
mec hani ca l energy. Th e inj ec ted power is quantifi ed by the power num ber NP of the
mov in g body (C hapter 9, equ ati on [9.2 1]). In a (hi ghl y) idea l perfectl y stirred
reactor, th e turbul ent ve loc ity U rms and th e integral sca le f 1 are homogeneo us.
When the steady-state reg ime is reac hed, both u,1115 and f 1 are stabili zed at leve ls
for whi ch the energy prov ided by th e movi ng body and th e di ss ipati on by turbul ence
ba lance eac h other:

)J-
-
N 11 pN 3 D 5 -- pcV-
-
pU-
~nsV [ 11.1 3]
fl

Thi s relat ion does not, by itse lf, enabl e the determin ati on of the va lues of Urm s
and f 1. Compl ementary considerati ons need to be introduced in order to determine
the integral sca le f 1 , whi ch mainl y depends on the geo metri ca l characteri stics of the
ex perimental apparatus (dimensions of the mov ing body, size, and geo metry of the
reactor). Neverth eless, equati on [I 1.1 3] all ows us to comprehend th at the kineti c
energy di ss ipati on rate increases in side the reactor during the start-up stage of the
mov ing body with th e increase of turbul ent kineti c energy. Wh en the energy
equilibrium is reached, the di stributi on of kineti c energy among the di fferent scal es
of turbul ence is also steady, and th e turbulent kineti c energy spec trum takes on a
steady-state form , as depicted in Figure I 1.4. The integral of the energy spectrum
over all wave numbers is equal to the mea n turbul ent energy per unit mass (equati on
[ I 1.12]). Full y deve loped turbul ent fl ow conditi ons are obtained when the turbul ent
Reynold s number Rei = Unn s eI I v (C hapter 8, equati on [8.1 6]) is hi gher than I 00.
For such conditions, turbulent kinetic energy is distributed over a wide range of
sca les, whi ch translates into k max I k min >> I . Thi s often leads to re presenting the
energy spectrum using logarithmic sca les, in order to represent the diffe rent sca les
with the sa me leve l of in fo rmati on.

I nertial zo ne Dissipati ve zone

Transfer

k ~ 1/1
kma.~ == t/fi 1

Figure 11.4. Turbulent energ)' spectrum according to Kolmogorov s theory

2 16 Flui d Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

The startin g point of Kolmogo rov's theory is equ ation [ 11 .1], whi ch stipul ates
that th e rate of turbulent kineti c energy di ss ipati on is independent of viscosity and
hence depends onl y on 11 , 111 , and r 1 :

[I 1.14]

Co nseq uent to thi s fact , it is deduced th at di ss ipati on occ urs at small sca le s. It is
easy to eva luate the order of magnitude of the diffe rent term s in av ier- Stokes
equati on, for any sca le r in side the interva l covered by the turbulent energy
spec trum ( rK < r < f 1 ). By assoc iat ing ve loc ity u1 with length r, th e orders of
magnitude o f the various terms in Nav ier- Stokes eq uati on can be eva luated:

--
ou
+ (li'V)li
I
- - \lp + vt:- ii [11.15]
ar p

oC'/) oC'/) o(~~;~~ )

We thus find th at th e di ss ipati on of turbul ent kin eti c energy is neg li gibl e for those
sca les r for wh ich (111f ) ! v >> I , whereas it is dominant at sca les suc h that
(u 1f ) l v << I . In simpli fying thi s observation , Kolmogo rov considered that th e
turbul ent kineti c energy is entirely di ss ipated at the sca les f < PK and that,
converse ly, th ere is no turbulent kinetic energy di ss ipation at sca les f1 > f K . Th e
consequences o f thi s drastic simplifi cati on are not that important inasmuch as th e
energy spectrum is very wide ( kmax I k111 ; 11 >> I ), so that th e transiti on zone is narrow
compared to the energy spectrum as a who le. Kolmogorov then defin es th e s ize f K
of th e small er sca les in turbul ence by the relation:

II K(K
--= I [I 1.1 6 J
I'

where Il K is th e turbu lent ve loc it y of eddies of size ( K .

The phenomenon or energy transfers is represe nted on the energy spectrum

plotted in Fi gure 11.4. The energy inj ecti on occurs at larger sca les , whose size is o f
th e ord er o r th e integral sca le r1 . In a steady turbul ence regim e, th e energy inj ected
cannot be transferred to sca les that are larger th an r 1 since that energy would th en
be imposs ibl e to di ss ipate. Energy is, therefore. transferred towa rd small sca les
(large wave numbers) in order to be di ss ipated th ere. Figure I 1.4 includes a
representati on of the di ss ipati on zone where energy level is very low. Th e most
important part o f the energy spectrum is th e centra l zone, ca ll ed the " inertial zone"
 Small Scales in Turbulence 2 17

to ex press the fac t th at di ss ipati on is neg li gibl e therein . This occupi es the bulk of the
wave number range covered by th e energy spectrum . In a steady-state regime,
Ko lmogorov's th eo ry determin es the universa l form of th e spectrum in side the
inerti al zone by buildin g on th e property whereby the rate of transfer at any sca le
( = I I k in th e inerti al zone, toward the small sca les, is equal to the rate of turbulent
kineti c energy di ss ipat ion, 1:: . This leads to:

u~ r
1:: = __!__ with rr =- [I 1.1 7]
rr u,

Such a formulation ex presses the simpl e idea that transfer at any sca le f within
the in erti al zone depend s onl y on the charac teri st ics of turbulence at that sca le. The
turbul ent structure ca n onl y transfer energy to a small er sca le to the extent of the
energy ul it contains and with it s ow n charac teri stic time rr. That is th e reason for
brin ging in the characteri stic tim e rr = f I ur .

In order to deri ve fro m [ 11.1 7] the form E(k) of the energy spectrum , we use th e
correspondence k = I I r and establ ish a link between ul and E(k) by writin g:

u f ::::: E(k) dk ::::: E(k)k. [ 11.1 8]

The uni versa l form of Kolmogo rov's energy spectrum th en ensues from [I 1. 17]
to [ll.l 8]:

[ 11.1 9]

It is found that th e energy spectrum decreases within the inerti al zone with
increasing wave number. The inerti al zone contains most of th e turbul ent kinetic
energy relative to the energy contain ed in the inj ecti on zone and the dissipation
zo ne. This is cons istent with the shape of th e spectrum , since integ rati on of the
energy spectrum ove r th e in ert ial zone yield s the turbul ent kineti c energy:

k,.,,~. 1 I,
E( k)dk == t 213
ik"'" = I if ,
k
3 213 1 3
513dk::::: -t: f~ -
3 J
[I 1.20]
ik,,, - 1/ t,
.
k,,, = lt l, 2 - 2u rms
-
'

by taking into account the fact that kmax I km in >> I and also the definition of 1::
(equati on [ 11 .14]). The turbul ent energy is indeed recovered (the factor 3 corresponds
to the fact that all the three ve locity co mponents need to be accounted for) .

The least obv ious poi nt in Kolmogorov ' s model is the relation dk ::::: k = I I f
used in [ 11 .18] to link ul with E(k). This is equivalent to using an integrati on step
2 18 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineering

that depend s on the size of the obj ect considered. Thi s is not immedi ately
unde rstandab le from a math emati ca l poin t of view. On the other hand, from a
phys ica l standpoint, it is eas il y ack now ledged th at it wou ld not be meanin gful to use
a constant integrati on step, give n th e diversity of th e sca les co ntai ned within th e
in erti al zone. One may also co nsider the fact that a spec tral di stributi on is eq ui va lent
to co nstructin g a hi stogram. It is nat ural, in a hi stogram, to classify events into
categori es th at are representati ve of an identi ca l conditi on. Let us draw a parall el
wit h an exa mpl e in eco nomi cs, considerin g a popul ation to be characte ri zed by
ranking th e wea lth of individua ls for assets between I 000 and I000 m. One is
eas il y convinced th at it makes sense not to put two perso ns who own 1000 and
I 0,000 into the same category. It al so seems absurd to di sc riminate someone who
owns I 0 m from someone who has I 0.0 I m. Any interpretab le stati stics will
necessaril y use a va ri ab le step 3 to distinguish between peopl e worth a thou sa nd
Euros from milli onaires and billionaires. This is analogous to notin g th at , as a rul e,
one chooses a measurement unit th at is co mparabl e to the dimension of th e object to
be meas ured.

11.4 . The Kolmogorov sca le

Knowing the form of the Kolmogorov spectrum , the Kolmogorov sca le can be
readil y ca lcul ated. Wri tin g [ 11 .18] and [ 11 .19] for k = I I I K, it ta ll ows from ( 11. 16]
that:

( I 1. 2 I]

with the turbul ent Reynold s number:

Re, = (11 ,111 ,{, ) / v [ 11. 22]

Likewi se, it ca n be estab li shed th at:

[I 1.23]

r ~-.
r~-. = - = r, Re; 1 2 << r, [I 1. 24]
l/ f.:

T he quantiti es eva lu ated using eq uations [I 1.2 1]- [ I 1.24] vary with th e turbul e nt
Reynolds number. Reca ll the result from Chapter 8 whereby Re, should be greate r

3 By so doin g, we can tac itl y empl oy a representati on based on logarithmi c sca les.
 Small Sca les in Turbulence 2 19

th an I 00 for the turbulence to be considered as in the developed stage. Equati on

[ I 1.21] confirms that k max I k mi n = r I I ( A" = R e ~ 1 4 >> I and it is found that the width
of the energy spec trum dimini shes with dec reas ing Reynold s number. Lastly, it is
worth emph as izing that all quantities are determin ed on th e basi s of large-sca le
Va lues, i. e. /I nns and ( 1 .

We now discu ss the case of unsustai ned turbul ence. When the mec hani sm
inj ect in g turbul ent kinetic energy is stopped (e.g. th e rotating stirrer in a reactor is
brought to rest), the turbul ent kinetic energy dimini shes over time du e to
dissipa ti on. Fi gure I 1.5 shows the evo luti on of the turbul en t energy spectrum for
an unsustain ed turbulence case. The energy spectrum at time 1 = 0 is th e spectrum
wit h th e largest area. As time 1 increases, th e energy decreases , so th e area under
the spec trum must diminish. The Reynold s number graduall y dec reases with tim e,
but th e shape remain s as pred icted by Kolmogo rov 's theo ry as long as Re 1 > I 00.
The width of th e spectrum also dimini shes over time (equati on [ 11.21 ]). The
spectrum' s locati on along the hori zontal ax is correspond s to " I > 0" (so lid line ).
It will be readily und erstood th at the oth er two spectra plotted in dotted lin es are
not relevant. Du e to th e proporti onality of th e Kolm ogorov energy spec trum to the
rate of turbulent energy di ss ipati on (equ ati on [ 11 . 19]), such time evo lution s of
th e spectrum would mean th at the rate of di ss ipati on remain s un changed (case I)
or increases (case 2) wh il e th e Reynolds number decreases.

E(k)

...
..~.

k = 1/ f

Figure 11.5. Time evolution of the energy spectrwn for an unsustained turlmlence case.
The relevant evulutionm y pattern is plotted as a solid line
220 Fluid Mechan ics for Chemi ca l Engi neering

II
Produc tion:
:;one of to n ~: of
' ' Fh)\\ th rci:!Hl ll
: turhukncc ~ turhulctKl'

Figure 11.6. 1/isua/i:::ation of'grid turbulence (Corke and Nagib. photograhjiu111 An A/hum of'
Fluid Mo tion. M. l'an D1ke. The Parabolic Press. Stanford. Califiwnia. 198]).
Th e grid is at x = 0 The meanflo, , is in the x > ()direction

The time evo luti on of th e energy spectrum . as pl otted in Figu re I 1.5. may be se t
aga in st typi ca l observati ons that the integral length sca le increases in decay in g
turbul ence. In a basin , e.g. small-scale movemen ts diss ipate first wh il e the large-
sca le moti ons take th e maximum tim e to di sa ppea r, wh en the stirrin g is stopped .
Anoth er examp le is given by visuali sati ons of grid turbul ence fl ows , as displ ayed in
Figure II .6. Turbul ence is prod uced in a wind tunnel by di recting a homogenous
fl ow through a grid (at x = 0). The visuali zati on shows th e instabil it y of the jets ove r
the first few length s dow nstrea m of th e grid , whi ch deve lops int o turbu lent flow .
The turbul ent kine ti c energy is produced in the rea r of the grid . The phenomenon of
turb ul ence desc ribed usin g the k- model (sect ion 8.8 of Chapter 8 ) all ows us to
understand th e dynami cs o f grid turbul e n ce .~ Dow nstream of the turbul ent kineti c
energy produ cti on zone, energy producti on becomes neg li gibl e. Th e mea n fl ow has
beco me unifo rm aga in . except in th e boundary layers of th e wind tunnel wa ll s. bu t
th e produ cti on of energy nea r the wa ll is low co mpared to the leve l of turbul ence
generated by th e grid . The turbu lent diffusion of energy is also weak in that zone.
beca use the grid prod uces a homogenous turbul ent energy di stri buti on in any plane
parall el to the grid and perpend icul ar to the directi on of the fl ow. The only gradient
of turbu len t kinet ic energy is in th e Ox directi on, but the decrease in the down stream
direc ti on is suffi cie ntl y slow for diffusion to be neg lected. The turbul ent ve loc ity
il rms(x), there fore. decreases in th e downstrea m directi on due to di ss ipati on. Thi s

4 Thi s is treated in Exercise X. II at the end of Chapter R.

 Sma ll Sca les in Tu rbul ence 22 1

behavio r is depi cted in Figu re 11 .6. Th e integral sca le of turb ul ence ( 1 (x) increases
wi th in creasi ng x , a property that ca n be obse rved in the fl ow visuali zati on shown in
Figure I I .6.

11.5. Application to macromixing, micromixing, and chemical reaction

Now th at we know how to estim ate the size f " of the small est scales of
tu rbu lence. it is simpl e to conclude by summing up th e principles th at govern mi xi ng
and chemi ca l reacti ons in a fl ow with homogenous turbul ence. Table II.! shows,
for a chemi ca l reacti on, for mi cromi xin g (molec ul ar diffusion), and for macromi xing
(di spersion at different sca les), the characteri sti c times and the sca les wi th whi ch
these va ri ous processes are assoc iated. Fo r a stirred reactor, the phenomenon
invo lves six parameters of different nature:

- The fluid 's properti es: its viscos ity vand diffu sivity D of reage nts in that fluid .
- Turbul ence, wh ich is characteri zed by the sca le r 1 and turbul ent ve loc ity u,111 5

- The sca le L of th e reactor.

- The characteri sti c time r, of the chemical reacti on.

Phenomenon Spatial scale C haracteristic time Dime nsionless numbe rs

Dam kohle r
C he mical Small scale
r eaction r" = ( 1 Re~
31 4 Tc Da = -~-
Tc

Sc hmidt
Small sca le
Micromixing
r A. = rl R e ~ 31 4 Sc=~= To
D r~.:
La rge scale ( 1 rl =(I l urms Rey nold s
Sma ll sca le ll rms f l
Re, = -- = -
,
r?
f A. = f 1 R e ~ 1 1 4 \1 Ti,:
Macro mi xin g
Sca le ratio
Dispersion in a U ~

L-----------~--------------J_ ~L,__--___
1 1
reactor of size L '
____r_Ji_'"_=__r_-,1--r_ _ _ _J __ _ _ _ r_Jr_i1s _, ____-"

Table 11.1. Spatial scales and characteris tic times associated with the mixing
and chemical reaction processes

As th ese six parameters in vo lve two dimensions (length and time). th ey lead
to th e ex press ion of four dimensionl ess numbers, which are also given in Tabl e 11 . 1.
222 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engin eerin g

These parameters influen ce five processes (c hemical reacti on, mi cromixin g, and the
three sca les of macro mi x ing), which also brin g forth fi ve characteri sti c tim es. It ca n
be seen that th e lo ur dimensionl ess numbers ca n be ex pressed as a ratio o r th e time
sca les assoc iated with the proc esses o f micromi xin g. mac romixing. and chemi ca l
reac ti on.

In Tab le I 1. 1, we assoc iate th e Damk ohl er number with the chemi ca l reacti on.
which is restri ctive since that number also involves the charac teristi c time of
turbul ence, r , . It is also restri ctive associating the Schmidt num be r onl y to
mi cromi xin g, s ince thi s number is the rat io of the characteri sti c tim e of mi cro mi xing
to th e characteri sti c time o f small -sca le macromixin g. Nevertheless, th e Da mk ohl er
number is th e onl y one th at invol ves chemi stry, just as the Schmidt number is the
onl y one that takes into acco unt the eli ffusion process.

The Schmidt number depend s onl y on th e ph ys ica l properti es of a fluid . For an

aqueous medium , the Schmidt number is usuall y of the order of Sc = 10 3 The
phys ica l mea nin g of thi s dimensionl ess number th erefore renders mi cromixing
more limitin g than mac romixin g in an aq ueous medium . On th e oth er hand , in a
gaseo us medium such as air, the Schmidt number is usuall y of th e ord er of Sc = I.
whi ch means th at th ere is no parti cul ar need to be co ncern ed with mi crom ixin g if
th e macromi xing processes are effective.

Lastl y, we reca ll equati on [10.14] of C hapter 10, wh ich sets out ex pli c itl y th at
th e adva ncement time of a chemi ca l reacti on is gove rn ed by th e slowest process.

[ 11.25 ]

For an open reac tor, thi s time will need to be compared to th e res idence time .

11.6. Application exe rcises

Exercise II./: Mixing in a continuous stirrefl tank reactor

Ethyl acetate reacts wi th soda in a CSTR as fo ll ows:

Th e reacti on is first order wi th respec t to eac h o f th e constituents. Thi s reaction 's

constant is k = 200 L mo l 1 h 1 . In th e followin g di sc uss ion , we denote eth y l acetate
by A and soda by B. Both products are in so lution in water. Th e cliffu siviti es of the
two constituents are, respecti ve ly, DA= I 0 5 cm 2 s 1 and D 8 = 3. 1 x I o-5 em" s 1.
 Small Scales in Turbulence 223

The reactor is a cube of vo lume V = I L. Both products enter th e reactor at

th e same rate Q = 15 L h- 1 , and have been prepared with th e same co nce ntrati on
C = lm olL- 1

Stirring in sid e th e reac tor is produced by a stirrer of diameter d = 5 em,

whose rotationa l speed is N = 600 rpm . It is assu med th at the turbul ent ve locity u,111 ,
and th e integral sca le r 1 of turbul ence are homoge nou s in sid e the vesse l. The
mechanical power required to rotate the stirrer is p = 0.4p N 3 d 5 ( p bei ng in W,
p in kg m ' , N in rotat ions/s, and din meters). Assu ming that thi s powe r is dissipated
by turbul ence, we deduce that p = pVu l,ns I (I . In the fo ll owi ng, we use the va lues
" "'" =I 0.8 em s 1 and ( 1 = I em, which verify the latter relation and for which the
sca le r 1 is commensurate with the size of the moving body. Based on thi s
information , now:
I. Ca lculate the Reynolds number and th e Kolmogorov sca le.
2. Ca lculate the different time characteri sti cs of the problem.

3. Is th e mixing effect ive? What is th e advancement tim e of the reacti on? To

what ex tent is the reaction compl eted at the reactor's outl et?

Exercise 11.11: Mixing and combustion

Co nsider the combustion reaction of methane in air

I. Th e fo ll ow ing data we re found in the Handbook of Physics and Chemistry fo r

the kinematic viscos ity of air and diffusivity of methane in air.
Temperature T (K) 297 --
473 673
DifTusivity of Cl-1 4 in air (en/ s 1) 0. 106 0.485 0.899
Temperature T (K) 303 473 773
Kin ematic viscosit y of air (e m-s ) 0. 160 0.346 0 785
----------- ---------
.Justify th at micromixing is not more limitin g than macrom ixin g for the chemi ca l
reacti on.
2. Th e co mbusti on reaction is more comp lex than summari zed in the above
reac ti on. Several reacti ons occu r in sequence and in parallel. A globa l kinetic mode l
establi shes that the reacti on rate can be eva luated by:
 224 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemical Engineering

Th e activation energy of the reaction is , = 48.4 kcal mol 1 The reaction rate r
3 1
IS ex pressed as mol cm- s and the concentrations as mol em 3 The univ ersa l
gas constant is R = 8.32 J mor 1 K- 1 For a mixture of meth ane and oxygen
in stoichiometri c proportions, th e characteristi c time rc of the reacti on is th en
expressed by:

__l_ d[0 2] I d [ C H 4] = 3 .2 x I osex p (-

- ,- )
fc [0 2] dt [CH4] dt RT

] u
--~-~ -- ..... .. CH~

Figure 11.1 1.1

Consider a burner with two concentric inj ections (see Figure II. I). The fue l
(C H4) leaves through the centra l aperture of di ameter D 1 = I 0 em. The ox idi zer (0 2 )
ex its through the annular aperture of di ameter D 2 = 20 em. Th e ve loc ity of
both fluid s is identical (U = 20 m s- 1). The fl ow is turbulent and it is postul ated that
th e characteri sti cs of turbul ence are such that U rrn s = 2 m s- 1 and f, = ( D2 - D1 ) I 4 =
2.5 em.

For two fl ame temperatures (T = 1000 K and T = 2000 K), di scuss, based on a
compan son between th e characteri stic time of th e chemi ca l kin eti cs and th e
characteri sti c times of mi xing, to what extent th e reaction can be considered as s low
or fa st relati ve to turbu lent mi xing.

What mechanism contro ls the combustion in each case?5

5 This exerc ise provides ev idence of th e fact that th e kin etics (g iven by an Arrhe nius law) is
very sensitive to temperature. The temperatures ac hi eved by combusti on in pure oxygen are
otien much hi gher than for combusti on in air, as no energy is consumed to heat nitrogen.
 Small Sca les in Turbulence 225

Exercise /I.J/1: Laminar and turbulent diffusion jlamei

In thi s exe rcise, we study a combusti on flame burnin g a gaseous fuel A in a

gaseous ox idi zer B. The ox idi ze r is air in an infinite environment, and th e fuel is a
gas which is fed into th e ox idi ze r-fill ed environment through a cylindrical pipe of
diameter = 3 em. The ve loc ity of the fuel jet at th e pipe ex it is ass umed to be
uniform and denoted by W = I0 m s- 1. Reage nt diffu sivity D = 1.5 x 10- 5 m2 s- 1 and
the viscos ity ofthe fluid , v = 1.5 x 10- 5 m2 s- 1, are used. The kinetics of the reaction
is g iven by the chemical timer,= 10-5 s. If mixed, th e reagents are assumed to be in
sto ich iometri c proportions.

j
j
A

Figure 11.111.1

The laminar diffusion flame

When the kineti cs is ve ry fast, reagents A and B are only brought together within
a thin mi xing layer, whi ch is the dark er area represented in Figure Ill. I. That is
th e shape of the flam e as see n by an observer, due to the radiation generated by
combusti on. In side that, there is onl y fue l A, whi ch is transported by the strea m up
th e reaction layer. Outside, there is onl y th e ox idi zer, which is carried by diffusion
into the reaction zone, as indi cated by the small arrows. Both constituents diffuse
into the mi xin g layer where they react togeth er, hence the term "diffusion fl ame."

When the kinetics is intinitely fast , the shape of th e fl ame can easily be obtained
thanks to the Schvab-Zeldov itch function Z = YA- YR. defin ed on the bas is of the
fuel and ox idize r mass fractions YA and Yu. Indeed, fun cti on Z is a so luti on of

6 The idea of includ ing thi s exercise in thi s chapter came from read ing the book by R. Borghi
and M. Destriau, La combustion et les flamm es (Lavoisier, 1995).
226 Fluid Mechani cs fo r Chemi ca l Engineerin g

the fo ll ow in g advecti on- diffu s ion equati on (ex pressed in the cy lindri ca l coo rdinate
syste m based on the 0:: axis, ass umin g th at the flame is hi ghl y elongated , so that
mo lec ul ar di ffusion occ urs chi efl y in the radi al direction):

-a {u=Z} = D -
1-a (r -az ) [ 11.111.1]
8::: ,. or or
The thickness, 5, of th e reaction zone increases with::. In th e mi xing layer, the
reage nt concentrati ons qualitatively ex hibit th e shape plotted in Figure 11 .111. 2 alo ng
the crossw ise direction X. A dimensiona l analys is of eq uati on [ 11.111.1 ] indi cates
th at the length of th e fl a me Lr is in th e form

Lr W
- =a- l 11. 111. 2]
D
where a is a con stant.

Fig u rc 11.111.2

I . For a lam in ar flow , expl ain wh y the thi ckn ess , i5, o f the mixin g laye r in crea ses
fro m the fuel inj ection orifi ce and why its va lue rapidl y leve ls ou t at a max imum
va lu e. It w ill be eas ier to eva lu ate the tim e evo luti on c'X"l) by notin g th at time 1
corresponds to a spatia l di splacemen t :: = W1 in th e 0:: direction .
2. Eva luate th e max imum thickn ess o f the reacti ve zone. Based on that va lue.
justify that the kin etics of combusti on ca n ac tu all y be co nsidered in stantaneous.

Th e turbulent flame

For simpli city, it is ass umed th at th e prope rti es of turbul ence are homogenous in
that part of the jet where th e reacti on occurs. Th e turbul ent ve loc ity and the integra l
sca le wi ll be chosen such that 11 n115 = j3W and r = yrp , w ith j3 = y = 0. 1.
 Small Scal es in Turbul ence 227

3. Due to turbul e nce . th e s hape of th e fl a me re ma in s s imil a r to tha t c harted in

F ig ure Ill. I . Its dime ns io ns are a lte red by th e e ffect o f turbul e nce, but tha t iss ue is
exa min ed in s ubseque nt questi o ns. The di stribution of reage nt conce ntration s within
th e mixing laye r can sti ll be re presented by Fig ure l l .lll. 2, a lthoug h its thickn ess is
contro ll ed b y a turbul e nt diffu s io n/di spers io n process . Based o n th e a bo ve , eluc idate
th e turbul ent d iffu sio n coe ffi c ie nt .

T o w ha t ex te nt d o th e pl o tted conce ntration pro fil es re prese nt e ithe r the

co nce ntrati o n of reage nts in the fluid pa rti c les o r th e di stribution of fluid pa rti c les
contai nin g a reage nt th a t is not mi xed w ith th e o the r?

4. Eva lua te ~ f ) fo r time r, o f turbul e nce a nd for time r0 , whi c h is cha racte ri sti c
of di ffus ion . Does e ith e r o r bo th o f these a ppear rea sona bl e to yo u fo r estim ating the
th ic kn ess of the turbul e nt mi x ing laye r a nd o f th e reacti o n zo ne? Can th e che mica l
reac ti o n still be cons ide red in stantan eo us?

5. How is th e fl ame's le ng th modifi e d in a turbul e nt reg im e rel a ti ve to equati o n

[ 11 .111. 2 ]. w hi c h is re presentati ve o f the la mina r case (A dimens io na l law sho uld be
proposed he re to correctl y a nswe r thi s qu es ti o n . ) '~

6. Is th e turbul e nt fl a me s ho rte r or lo nge r than the lamin ar flame ? Compare the

ad va ntages a nd di sad va ntages o f a la min a r a nd turbul e nt fl a me, in te rms o f e nergy .
 Chapter 12

Micromixing Models

12. 1. Introduction

We di sc uss in thi s chapter th e numeri ca l modelin g of mixin g and chemi ca l

reacti on(s). For a turbu lent fl ow, we have see n in th e prev ious chapters that mi xing
at th e molec ul ar sca le, whi ch is necessa ry to perform the chemi cal reacti on, in vo lves
very fin e sca le moti ons in th e fl ow. Th ese are so minute that currentl y it is hardl y
poss ibl e to carry out direct numerical simul ati ons of reacting fl ows fo r Reynolds
numbers typica l of situations of practi ca l interest. In order to treat industri al
situati ons, coarser mode ls have been deve loped. In thi s chapter, we focus on two
such models, whi ch, by impl ementing the co ncepts desc ribed in the prev 1ous
chapters, mode l the mi xin g and chemi ca l reacti on of constituents in a fluid:

- the interaction by exchange with the mean ( I EM) model. and

- th e coa lescence-dispersion (CD) model.

These class ica l models are nowadays embedded in certain numerica l codes , and
th ey are most com monl y used in engineerin g processes. It is useful to know them, as
we ll as the k- c mode l summ arized in Chapter 8.

Th e set of problems to be model ed is illustrated in Figure 12.1. Let us consider

a reactor into whi ch two vo lumes respectively containin g chemi ca ls A and B are
injected. In a turbul ent fl ow, the introduced fluid vo lumes split up to form
elementary flui d particl es (EF P). Their size is such that the concentrati ons of
products are homoge neous in each EF P. It is through interact ions between EFPs that
mi xing is modeled. Wh en th e products react with one another, chemi ca l reacti on(s)
occurs wi thin eac h EF P.
230 Fluid Mechanics for Chem ica l Enginee ring

In order to impl ement the IEM and CD mode ls, se lectin g a locati on suffi cientl y
far from the poin t of inj ec ti on enab les us to ass ume th at the splitting process has
already taken place. When the Sc hmidt number is Sc = I. th e size of th e EF Ps is or
the order of the Kolmogo rov sca le (the more complex case wherein Sc 1:- I is not
addressed in thi s chapter) . 1

As show n in Figure 12. 1, th e model is constitut ed of two model entiti es. which
compute in parall el betwee n two time steps n61 Lag and (11 + 1)61Lag : (i) a Laga ngia n
model computes the transport and di spersion in the fluid fl ow of EFPs; (ii ) a mi xin g
model compu tes the mi xin g between the EF Ps contained at tim e 116 /Lag in side a ce ll
of th e co mputati on domain .

The Lagrangian mode l determin es th e pos iti ons .\' 1,., (.r p. 1.o .i) by integratin g for
eac h EF P in th e domain:

[12.1]

.r 1,.,.o is the position at time 1 = 0 of EF P number i. Th e vec tor ii( .r "' ' ) is the
ve loc ity of the fluid at .1: 1,., . In order to model turbul ent di spersion (macrom ixin g) ,
the ve loc ity ii should be an in stantaneo us va lue of the ve loc it y, takin g into acco unt
th e turbul ence-average ve locity of the flow as wel l as the in stantaneous turbul ent
ve loc ity. We do not describe in detail thi s aspect of th e model , which is di stinct from
the mi xing model, but we emphasi ze th at th e mi xin g model should be co upl ed with
a Lagrangian model ca lcu lating th e random movements of elementary fluid parti cles
in ord er to take into account th e turbulent di spersion process desc ribed in th e
previou s chapters.

Th e mi xing model ( IEM or CD) impl ement a process of in teracti ons between
EF Ps whi ch exchanges. between two tim e steps n6 1Lag and (n + 1)6 1Lag , th e
products A and B among EFPs cont ained in each ce ll or the flui d domain mesh. The
Lagrangian model determines at eac h time n61Lag th e EFPs co nt ai ned in each ce ll.
whi ch is considered by th e mi xin g model as a closed st irred tank reac tor between
times n61Lag and (11 + I)61 Lag . Th e size of the fluid vo lumes constituting the domain
mesh ce ll s should be chosen suftl cientl y sma ll for those fluid volumes to be
regarded as perfectl y stirred reactors. whi ch mean s that interact ions between EFPs
can occur with the sa me probab ili ty regardless o f th eir relative positions in th e
me h ce ll. The mi xing model mod ifi es th e concentrations in EFPs, as Fi gure 12. 1

I For Sc > I. the size of the scales to be resolved is of the order of the Batc helor scale
f 11 = Sc- 1 2 (A. . Thi s is smaller than the Kolmogorov sca le I K.
 Micromi xing Models 23 1

illustrates by show ing the increase between tim es n6 1J.ag and (n + 1)6 /Lag in th e
pro po11ion of EF Ps with in termed iate gray leve ls. The positions of EF Ps in each ce ll
are kept unchanged, and th e Lagrangian model applies the di spl ace ments to the
EF Ps whose concentrati ons were modified by th e mixing model.

Mixing of EFPs
contained in a volume
considered as a

( o o o o o
Transport and dispersion of
E FPs com puled h)' a
Lagrangian model

ti.T,,_,
'--------
': : - -. -
----;;;--- = u (x,,_, . t) + 11 (x1,_,. 1)

Fina l

Figure 12.1. Modeling mixing hy associating a Lagrangian model. which calculates the
movements ojEFPs. with a model calculating their rnixing in afluid volume
regarded us a pe1jectl1' stirred tank reactor

In the nex t sections, we study both the CD, and then th e IEM models, by
impl emen ting them in th e confi gurati on of a perfectly stirred reactor:

- Closed reactor: Mi xing is characteri zed by the time evo luti on of P( CA , C 11 ,t) .

- Ope n reactor in a steady-state reg ime (CST R) : Mi xin g is characterized by the

difference betwee n probability densiti es PE( CA, Cn)and P(CA , CB), respec ti ve ly at
the inl et and outlet of th e reac tor

In th e closed-reactor case, the reactor initi all y contains (Fi gure 12.2(a)) a fluid
vo lume VA in whi ch the concentrations are ( CA = CAo,CB = 0 ) and a fluid volume
VB in which the co ncentrati ons are ( CA = O,CB = CBo ). Further, V =VA+ VB
232 Fluid Mechanics lo r Chem ica l Engin ee rin g

den otes the vo lume of th e reactor. It is ass umed that both volumes are
in stan taneo usly fragmented into N" and N13 EF Ps in whi ch the conce ntrat ions are
( c,, = c ,o.CB = 0) and ( CA = O, CIJ = Cl3o ), respect ive ly. The EF Ps are dispersed
in a stati sti ca ll y homogeneous mann er wit hin th e reactor. In Figure 12.2(a), the
represe ntati on therefore ex hibits both classes of EF Ps di spersed in side th e fluid .
right from the tim e 1 = 0 fro m whi ch mi xing is mode led. The numbers of EFPs N"
and N13 are su ffi cientl y large to prov ide a stati sti ca l representati on th at conforms
to the relati ve proporti ons among constituents (N il I ( N i\ + Nn) = v~ I (vi\ +VB) ).
withou t th e need for th e number of EF Ps multipli ed by their vo lumes to be eq ual to
the initial vo lumes V" and V13 . Th ey are merely stati sti ca ll y representati ve sampl es.
The carri er ph ase show n in Figure 12.2(a) is fictitious . Should a co ntinuous carrier
ph ase be taken into account , it wou ld initi all y occ upy a ce rtain vo lume and be
represented by a third category of EF Ps with concentrati ons ( C,, = 0, C 11 = 0 ). Due
to th e ac ti on of the mi xing model, th e concentrati ons evo lve in tim e within eac h
EF P, as characterized by the tim e evol uti on of the probab ility densit y funct ion
(PDF ) P( C,",Cn, l) .

(a ) Mixing in a closed stirred tank reactor

t =0 t > II
. . .. . .
.. .
(h) Mixing in an npcn stirred tm1k reactor (CSTR )

1\ (CA. C/JJ
Qo ----t
1;rc_~~ cJ~':

Figure 12.2. lmplemenlation pmcess of mixing 111odels in a pelji:cth stirred lank reactor.
Thefluid vo lume is.fi'ugmented info EFPs oj'Jhe size of the Kolmogorov swle

For the open reactor in a steady-state reg im e (F igure 12.2( b)) , vo lume fl ow
rates, Q" and Q13 , are inj ected con tinuous ly with respective concentrations
( c,, = Ci\o, Cn = 0) and ( c i\ = 0, cl3 = CBo ). It is also ass um ed that the fluid
vol umes are split into EF Ps and are di spe rsed in a stati sti ca ll y homogeneous manner
immediately upon entering the reactor. The concentrati ons in the EF P vary wi th
 Micromix ing Models 233

time du e to mi xing whil e th e EF Ps are in side the reactor. Ne verth eless. from the
reactor is di sc harged a popul ati on of EFPs that have res ided inside the reac tor fo r
va ri abl e durati ons, and whose stati sti ca l properties do not vary with time. For a
CSTR , th e PDF characteri zin g th e popul ati on of EFPs at th e outl et of th e reactor,
P( CA, Cll ) , is identi ca l to the one that ca n be computed at an y point in the reactor.
Th e diffe rence between P(CA, C 13 ) and th e PDF PE(CA,Cs) at th e reactor's inl et
prov ides a characteri zati on of the degree of mi xing.

Bot h th e !EM and C D models address th e stati stics of EFP popul ati ons using the
PDF P( CA .C 13 ,1) of findin g in a EFP th e co ncentrati ons c.~ and C 13 of the two
products. We use here the too ls introduced in Chapter I0 to ex press the average
concentrati on:

[ 12. 2]

and the vari ance:

[ 12.3 ]

for product A. Th e same qu antiti es are defin ed in a similar fas hi on for product B.
We also have:

[ 12.4]

Las tl y, we defin e the segregati on indi ces:

[ 12.5 ]

In th e foll owing di scuss ion, we first present the CD model before di scuss in g th e
IEM model. However, we di scuss the non-reacting case beforehand .

12.2. CD model

12.2.1. Principle

In order to impl ement th e C D model, we shall exa mine the case of a perfectl y
stirred reactor desc ribed in th e prev ious sec ti on and illustrated by Figure 12. 2. We
hence co nsider th e case of a closed reactor (without reacti on, and then with reacti on)
and that of an open reactor sequenti all y.
234 Fluid Mec hanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

An eleme nt specific to the C D mode L in add iti on to the remark s accompanyin g

Figure 12 .2. is that the C D mode l defin es an initi al populati on of EFPs by assignin g
a number to eac h EFP. The time evo luti on of co ncentrati ons in eac h EFP is
th en mon itored . The mode l thus ensures a perfect traceab ility of EFPs. The PDF
P( CA. C13 ,1) is reconstru cted at eve ry time step.

The CD model is impl emen ted acco rding to the fo ll owing sce nari o:
at every time Ten. EF P are randoml y se lected in pairs within the set of
2N = N~ + Nn EF Ps contained in th e domain : and
- for eac h pair of se lected EF Ps, th e two EFPs are mix ed (coa lescence) and then
th e entity is sp lit once aga in into two EFPs. The modifi ed EFPs are pl aced back
in sid e the vo lume at their initial pos iti ons.

For a pair of se lected EF Ps with numbers i and j. we denote by C.,,, (kTco) ,

ell/ (kTCD)' CA, (kTco)' and Cn, (kTm) th e concentration s in the EFPs before
operatin g the C D model fo r th e (k + I )th time. The concentrati ons after ap plicati on
of th e CD process are:

[ 12.6]

The C D model is, by its very nature, a discrete model with respect to tim e. At every
time step kTm , the PDF P(CA , C n.k Tcr>) is computed by considerin g all the EFPs
ava il ab le in the domain .

Before we continue our di scussio n further. let us cite references to th e

co ntributi ons of Curl ( 1963) and Sp ielman and Levensp iel ( 1965) to the CD model.
In Fran ce. the book by Vi ll ermaux ( 1993) is an authority on the subj ec t matter. c
A comprehen sive revi ew of mixing model s is given in the book by Fox, detinitely
ori ented toward their impl ementati on in compu tati onal models.

2 Vill ermaux J., 1993 , Genie de Ia Reaction chimique (Tec&Doc, Lavo isier, Pari s).
Vi ll ennaux J .. 1986, .. Mixing phenomena in stirred reactors. Enn'C!opaedia of Fluid
Mechanics. Ch. 27 (G ulf Publi shing Co .. Houston ). Curl R.L.. 1963 . A!Cir J , 9, 175.
Spi elman L.A. and Levensp iel 0., 1965. Chem. Eng. Sci. , 20, 247. Fox R.O., 2003,
Computationalmudels(or turbulent reacting.flows, Cambridge University Press.
 Micromixing Mode ls 23 5

12.2.2. CD model in a closed reactor without reaction

If no chemi ca l reaction is observed , the evo luti on of concentrati ons in the EFPs
ca n be co nsid ered independentl y for eac h product. It is, therefore , simpl er to
conside r a sin gle constituent whose co ncentration is denoted by C. The
generali zati on of seve ral const ituents is done later while dealing with the reacting
case. We shall not encounter any particular difficulty in this regard. Initi all y, we
aga in co nsider two categori es of EF Ps, one with concentration C =Co and another
with co ncentrat ion C = 0 . For the initi al situati on depicted in Fi gure 12.3 whe re
both types of EFPs are in eq ual numbers, the initi al PDF is written as:

P( C, I = 0) = 0 if C ;to 0 and C ;to Co

P(C = O,t = 0) = 1/2 [ 12. 7]

P( C=Co ,t = O) = l / 2

The hi stogram shown in Figure 12 .3 consists of two delta functions. Calcul at ing
th e PDF P( C, kTcD) "by hand" for the first two iterati ons (k = I and k = 2) enabl es
us to desc ri be the mi xing process in the CD mode l.

P(C. I= 0) P(C. I= TCD) P( C. I= 2TCD)

1/2 I /2 1/2

3/R

1/4 1/4 - 1/4

1116
I
Co Co
(a ) 1 =0. k = 0 ( b ) I= Tm. k = 2 (c) 1 = 2 TeD k = 2

Figure 12.3. Probability density Jirn ctions P( C,k Tcu) resultingJiomthefirsttwo iterations
(k = I and k '= 2) of the CD modeiJilrthe initial PDF represented in (a)

Applying the CD mode l at time 1 = Ten (k = I) to the initi al di stributi on of EF Ps

[ 12. 7] exhibits three types of EF Ps, namely a mixture of EF Ps with concentrati on
C = 0 or of EFPs with co ncentrat ion C =Co wi th a EFP of the same concentration ,
236 Fluid Mechanics lor Chemical Engineeri ng

or a mi xt ure or a EFP or concentrati on C = 0 with a EF P of conce ntrati on C = Co .

In the tlrst two cases, the concentrat ions inside the EFPs arc not modified , wherea s
the co ncentrat ion in the EF Ps obtain ed by the third type of interac tion is C = Co I 2 .
The PDF of the new EF P distributi on is:

P( C Ten ) = 0 if C i' 0, C i' Co, and C i' Co I 2

P(C = OJm) = P(C = O,O)P(C = 0,0) = I I 4

[ I 2.8]
P(C = Co.Tm) = P(C = Co, O)P(C = Co, O) = I I 4

P( C = Co 12 J cn) = 2P(C = Co,O)P(C = 0, 0) = 1/2

These probability va lu es are obtained owi ng to the fact that the selecti on
probabilities of the two EF Ps forming a pair are independent from each other.
For the third type of EFP , factor 2 appears because th e EF P of concen trati on C = 0
may be the first one or the second one se lected . The probab il ity di st ributi on
P(C, Tcu) has three delta functions (Figure 12.3(b)). It is verifi ed that th e sum o r
probabi liti es eq ual s I.

The PD F obtained after the second it erati on is shown in Fig ure 12.3(c). We
ca lcul ate the probabi li ty den sities as:

P(C.2Tm) = 0 if C * O,C * Co ,C ic- Co I 2,C * C 0 I 4, and C * 3Co I 4

P(O, 2Tm ) = P(O, Tc r> )P(O, Tm ) = I I 16

P( Co, 2 TeD) = P( Co, Tm) P( Co, Ti.D) = I I I 6

[I 2.9]
P(Co I 4, 2Tc n ) = 2P(OJm )P(Co 12 J m ) = I I 4

P(3Co I 4, 2Tm) = 2P(Co 12 Jm )P(Co.Ttn) = I I 4

P(Co 12 , 2Tcll) = 2P(0Jm )P(Co.Tm) + P(Co 12.Tcr> )P(Co 12 .TcD) = 3 I 8

Detailin g the probability ca lcul ati ons all ows us to ident ify th e EF P interact ions
from which the new di stri bution resu lt s. It is easy to ima gine th e fo rm of th e
proba bility densities obtain ed from subseq uent iterations. Add iti onal lines ap pea r in
the hi stogram for the intermed iary co ncentrati ons for whi ch the PD F was non-zero.
The di stribution will includ e an increas ing number of peak s, whose magnitudes will
graduall y decrease and eventu all y lead to a single delta funct ion for the ave rage
co ncentrati on C = Co I 2 .
 Micro mi xing Models 237

T he co ncept of th e CD model is simpl e from a theoretical viewpoint. Its

numerica l implementation usuall y empl oys a Monte-Carlo method to perform
the random se lec ti on of parti cle pairs whose PDF P(C,t = kTm) is reco nstructed at
eve ry it erati on.

A time-continuous formali za ti on of the CD mode l (considering a continuous

func ti on P(C,r)) enab les th e estab li shm ent of some interesting properti es of the
model. Ass umin g that P( C, kTco) is known foll ow ing the A1h iterat ion of th e C D
model , it is verified that P( C,( k + I)Tco ) is given by:

P(C,(k + l) hD) = 2P(C',kTco)P(2C-C',kTcn)dC'

2C
[ 12. 10]

To this end , it is suffi c ient to note that th e EFPs of co nce ntrati on C resulting
fro m th e (k + I )th iterati on are prod ucts of all the C D processes between EF Ps of
co nce ntrati on C' and C" = 2C - C' , s in ce C= (C'+C ") / 2. The bounds of th e
in tegra l are defi ned in [ 12. 10] so as to include all poss ibl e int erac ti ons.
Forma ll y, C' or C " ca n be defined out sid e th e interva l [0 , C0 ], sin ce th e n
P( C', kTm)= O or P(C" , kTco) = O. Factor 2 appears in [12.10] by virtue of th e
arg um ent in voked previously: co ncen trati on C' ca n be se lected first or seco nd. It
is also ve rifi ed that:

r P( C,( k + I)Tm )d C = I

s ince, with changes in variables C1 = C' and C2 = 2C - C':

r{r 2P(C',kTco )P(2C - C', kTm )ctC'}ctc =

{r P( C1, kTcD )dC1 }{ r P( C2 , kTco )dC2} = I

Returning to [ 12. 10], we obtai n:

{r 2P(C', kTco )P(2C - C', kTco )et C'} - P( C, kTcn)

T('f)
P(C , (k + I)Tm) - P(C , kTm)
hD
238 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemical Engineerin g

Going to th e limit for Tm ---t 0 leads to th e evo luti on eq uati on for P( C, t) :

oP(C,t) = cvJ [ 12. 11]

01

with (V = I I Tm a nd :

J ={ r
?C
2P(C', t)P(2C- C',t)dC' - P(C, t)
}
[ 12.1 2]

Coefficie nt J is ca lcul ated as the time evo luti on progresses.

The CD model depends o n th e peri od Tm (o r, eq ui va lentl y, on the freq uency ,

cv ), its onl y adju stable para meter. Thi s sets th e speed of mi x ing. Through so mew hat
tedi o us calculations, it ca n be show n that the segregati on index decreases
ex po nentia lly with time. By introduc ing th e nth ord er mome nts o f th e PDF :

J..l~~ (l) = [C 11 P( C, I)dt [ 12 .13]

writing [ 12. 11] in the form:

_!_ oP(C ,I ) + P(C ,t) = 2

(V 0/
rc P( C', I)P(2 C - C' ,t)dC' [ 12. 14]

makes it poss ibl e to show that:

d:,
11
+ p 11 = 2f c~~[ r P(C', I)P(2C - C',t)dC'J dc

= rr(C'~ C" r P( C' ,i)P(C", ! )dC' JC" [ 12. 15]

=~
2 11
f;~o i'(n - i)'.bf'
111
C'' P(C',t)dC' f,_("' (ll - il P( C". I )dC"
.b

That is:

11
I dpll I n'
- - - + Jill=-
(V dl 2 11
I
i=O i 1(n-i) 1
j..i, j../11 - i [ 12.1 6]
 Micromi xi ng Mode ls 239

Thi s equalit y enabl es us to recove r the foll ow ing:

at order 0: p o(t) = [ P(C ,t)dt = I , and

at orderl : d,u 1 (t )/dt = O ,

whi ch signifies the conservati on of the constituent in th e absence of a reacti on:

at order 2: ( l/ {v)( de5 2 (t )/ dt ) = - (I/2)C5 2 ( t ) .

sin ce th e va ria nce is written out as C5 2(1) = ,u 2 (t ) - ,u? .

For th e CD model, th e seg regati on index dec reases exponenti all y as a functi on
of time:

(5 : -
l (t ) = - (1) = ex p ( - {V
-t) [1 2. 17]
C5 2 (0) 2

Thi s result prov ides an alternati ve way of se lecting the frequency w = I I Teo of
th e CD model.

12.2.3. CD model in an open reactor without reaction

The CD model is only modi ti ed to a minor ex tent when an open reac tor is
consi dered. Fo r a reac tor of vo lume V = L3 through whi ch a fl ow rate Q passes, the
mea n time o f res idence in th e reactor is rres idence = V I Q.

Reca llin g the results obtained in Chapter I 0, mac romi xing ca n be rega rded as
pe rfect if:

= (-f~,-)
2

fJ i>p -~'-- << frc>~dcncc = ~-Q

U rm s
[ 12.1 8]

We denote by PE(C, t ) the PDF of the EFPs entering the reactor. Since the
reactor is perfectl y stirred at the mac roscopi c leve l, the PDF of the EFPs leav ing the
reactor is identi ca l to the one th at preva il s homogeneously in the vesse l, namely
P(C ,t). In a steady-state regime, an identi ca l number of EFPs should be entering
and leav in g th e reactor at an y given tim e. Denoting by N the number of EFPs per
240 Fluid Mecha nics for Chemical Engin ee ri ng

unit vo lume, n(C , t) = NP(C ,t ) is the density of EFP popul ati on as a fun cti on of
concentrati on. The mass balance in the reac tor is th en written as:

V an(C ,t ) = VN aP(C ,t) = VN rvJ + Q{ N PF(C , t) - N P( C, t) } [ 12. 19]

at at

The last term is th e di fference betwee n the incoming and outgo in g flu xes fo r
eac h leve l of concentrati on. Based on [ 12. 19], the evo luti on equati on [ 12. 11]
obtain ed for a closed reactor is changed into:

aP(C ,t ) = cvJ + { PE( C ,t)- P( C ,t) } [ 12.20]

Ot r r~sidelll:L'

in whi ch J is still given by [ 12.1 2].

In a steady-state reg ime, [ 12.2 0] is written as foll ows, usin g [ 12. 12]:

[ 12.2 1]

Based on the sa me approach used in secti on 12.2.2 to arri ve at [ 12.1 6], we obtain
for th e open reactor in a steady-state reg ime:

I n 1
f./ n +
f.-I n- f./ nE

(Vf rcsid cncc

=- L II

2" ,_o i (n - i) 1 1
f.-/ i f.-/ n-i [ 12.22 1

where f.-i n is the nth order moment of th e PDF P( C) in the reactor and f.-/ nt: the nth
order moment of th e PD F PF:(C) at th e reactor' s inl et.

At order I, equ ati on [ 12.22 ] is equi val ent to a tri vial formul ati o n of mass
co nservati on f..'"'' = f..'" in a steady-state regime in the abse nce o f a reacti o n. At order
2, it is establi shed th at th e vari ance at th e reactor' s outl et a} ( I ) = f.-/ c.s (1) - P?s is
related to the inl et variance a}- (I) = f./2. d t ) - p?1, by:

0" 2
s [ 12.23 ]
rr F.2 I rvr res-
+- idence

2
Thi s relati on enabl es us to qu anti fy the degree of adva ncement of mi xin g in side
the reactor.
 Micromi xin g Model s 24 1

12.2.4. CD model in the presence of a chemical reaction

To concl ude, we consid er the chemi ca l reacti on A+B-?P between two

constitu ents. Th e kinetics of thi s reac ti on is described usin g th e reacti on rate
r( C,, , C 11) , whi ch characterizes th e evo luti on of concentrat ions when the two
products are mi xed at the molec ul ar leve l:

[ 12.24)

This eq uati on desc ribes the chemical reaction which occurs in side each EFP .
In order to describe the mi xing and chemical reacti on between th e constituents,
we need to consider th e evo luti on of th e PDF P(CA, Cu, t). With the aim of
fa miliari zing ourselves with the joint PD F of th e two concentrat ions, we illustrate
with Figures 12.4 andl 2.5 the evo luti on of function P( C , , CB, t) in two spec ifi c
reactive cases .

...

Figure 12.4. Evoluliun in lime of/he PDF P(CA ,CR. !) fo r lhe r hemical reaclion o{lwo
consli/Ue/1/s inilially 1nixed in sloichiomelric proporlions allhe molecular level. Th e gray
level indica/es 1he evollllion o/ lhe relalive fiarlions ofproduc/s A (dark gray ), B (lig/11 grav).
and P (do lled gray) in EFPs as I he chemical reaclion progresses

In the first case (F igure 12.4) th e prod ucts are, at time t = 0, perfectl y mi xed and
are in stoic hi ometri c proportions. The populati on compri ses a single type of EF P, in
which the concentrati on of products is CA = CB = Co. The PDF is represented by a
sin gle delta fu ncti on. The cons umption of products A and 8 by the chemical
reaction ca uses both concentrati ons to decrease in identi ca l proporti ons. The PDF
241 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Eng inee rin g

remain s a delt a fun cti on th at move s in tim e along the bi sec tor o f axes (0. CA) and
(0 , C 11 ) towa rd the ve rti ca l ax is o f th e pl ot. For an infinit e tim e, th e reac ti on is
compl ete and th e delta function is on th e ve rti ca l ax is.

t =Ten- M ixin g t = Tc 11 - Reaction

1/2 I 12

I /-I 1/4 1/-1

c"

t = 2Tcu- Mixing t = 2Tcu- Reactio n

112 112

VR cH
Il-l 1/-1
Co
1/H 1/ X
II Io

c,,
Co Co

Figure 12.5. Ti111e e 1olution of' th e PDF P( C A. Cu , I ) o{ t11 o constituents ill stoichiom!'lric
p ropo rt io11.~. initiallr unmixed Th e chemical reaction of' the t11 o constiluellls is insta11tancous.
Th e res ult o/the.firs t two iterations ~~/ th e CD model is reprt>.l'!'nted. Th e gun level indicates
the' !' I'OI11tio11 o{ the relatil'efiactions ofproducts A (dark g ral'), 8 (light g ra1') , and
I' (do tted gmr) i11 EFPs us the chem ical reactiOII{Jm g res.IC's

We now consider in Figure 12.5 the unmix ed situation where, at time 1 = 0.

there are two classes of EFPs, the first category containin g onl y produ ct A at
concentrati on C0 . and th e second ca tegory onl y product 8 at th e sa me co ncentrati on.
EFP s of both types are initi all y prese nt in equa l quantiti es. It is ass um ed that th e
 Mi cromi xin g Models 243

reacti on is in stantaneous, whi ch mea ns th at produ cts A and B ca nnot coex ist in a
EF P; once th ey are brought into co ntact, they for m prod uct P. As fa r as the
representati on of PD Fs is conce rn ed, thi s mea ns that it is not poss ible to ha ve a non-
ze ro va lu e of the PDF anyw here else th an on axes (0 , CA) and (0 , C 8 ). As an
exte ns ion of the unidirec ti onal represe ntat ion of Figure 12.3 , we re prese nt the
evolu ti on of P(CA ,Cn , l) for th e fi rst two iterat ions o f th e C D model, d istin gui shin g
th e m ix ing stage fro m the reacti on stage th at immedi ately fo ll ows it. Fo r the mi xin g
pe rformed in the firs t iterati on (t = Teo), we recover the three de lta fu ncti ons show n
in Figure 12.3. The th ird peak, pos itioned at CA = C 13 = Co I 2 , is di spl aced by
the act ion of th e in sta ntaneo us chemi ca l reacti on along th e ve rti ca l ax is of the
represe ntat ion. The mi xing stage of the second iterati on (t = 2TCD) ex hi bits six peaks
(as opposed to five in Figure 12.3), but the principl e of inte ractio ns among EFPs
and assoc iated probab iliti es is ide nti ca l to what has been observed prev iously.
The chemi ca l reac ti on aga in di sp laces the new peak at c . . = C 8 = Co I 2 on the
vertica l ax is.

- - - ----- --------- ------ - -- -- -- ~-~1---~

dC11 dCil lr
r( , 1 Cu- - - )P(CA Cu - --) N~'f--A dC dC
Ci\ ______ _____ ___ ______ __ ____ --....-----~--- - r( A'Cn + - 2- )P(CA. Cn + - 2-)NdCA
2 2 8 11

I :
-- -------- -- - - - -- --------- -- - - 1,-----11--_j

riC 1 _ ~ rlt.1
r(C11 - ----:;f- C 11 )~(CA - ~.C 11 )NdC8
- 1 I L.

'' '

L------------~--~--~------------~

Figurc 12.6. Flux of EFPs. produced h1 a chem ical reaction, entering and leaving a sur/ace
elemem dCA dCB in the concentration space. centered in ( CA ,CB)

Starting fro m th e initi al co nditi on th at is depicted in Figure 12.5 , the situati on

where the reacti on is not in stantaneous ca ll s for a more compl ex re prese ntati on.
The PD F is a surface coverin g a sq uare of s ide C0 in th e (0 , CA,Cn ) plane, whi ch
evolves with tim e. Figures 12.4 and 12.5 show th at th e ch e mical reacti on defo rm s
the PD F surfaces by d ispl ac ing th e non-ze ro va lues o f th e PD F towa rd the verti ca l
244 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineering

ax is. In the sim plest case represented by Figure 12.4, the di sp lacement speed of th e
peak along th e bisector has th e component s - r ( C A, Cn) along th e two axes (0. CA),
and (0, C13 ). (The minus sign indi ca tes the direction of di spl acement. ) The reacti on
rate is thus assoc iated with a notion of tlux for represe nting th e tim e evo luti on of th e
PDF. The pop ul ati on balance of th e EF Ps ava il ab le in th e surface element (F igure
12.6) centered on points ( C A, C,J) with sides (dCA, dCn) enabl es us to estab li sh the
form of the reacti on term in the evo lution equati on of P( CA,Cn ,t). Denot in g by
n( C;, ,C13 , /) = NP(CA ,Cn, /) the pop ul at ion density of EFPs in the reactor (tV bei ng
th e number of EFPs per unit vo lume), the tim e variation resu ltin g from th e che mi cal
reaction ins ide the EF Ps contain ed in th at surface element wi thin th e conce ntration s
plane is written out as:

Th is leads , for small va lues of dt , dC11 , and dC 11 , to:

oP(CA,Cn, /) u(rP) o(rP)

-----=--+-- [ 12.26]
0/ ac" acll
The generali zati on o f equat ion [ 12. 11] to two co nstitu en ts. in cludin g th e
chemical reaction term , ca n th erefore be set out as:

[ 12.27]

Coe fficient J is the ge nerali zed form of [ 12. 12]:

J = {4 r' 1f c" P(CA '.Cn ',t)P(2C,., - C... ', 2C,~ -Cn ',t)d C
2
'dC11 '}
[ 12.28]
- P( C1, C B, I)
 Micromi xing Model s 245

Equati ons [ 12.27] and [ 12.28] are a generali zed form , with two chemical
constituent s, of th e eq uati on kn ow n as Curl 's equati on:

oP( C, t ) o(rP) _ { PE( C ,t )- P(C ,t) } = (JJ )

[1 2.29]
0/ ac r residence

De spite its hi stori ca l interest for the formalization of the CD mode l, Curl 's
eq uati on is se ld om used, as it model s a reaction whose kinetics depends on the
conce ntration of a sin gle co nst ituent 3 Numerical mode ls usuall y impl ement a
Monte-Ca rl o method co upled to th e generi c algorithm of the model (equation
[ 12.6]). rath er than so lvin g the evo lution eq uati on for th e PDF.

12.3. Model of interaction by exchange with the mean

12.3.1 . Principle

T he model of interaction by exc hange with the mean (lEM) is also a model
based on the noti on of EF Ps and employing the PDFs of EF P popul ations. Unlike
the CD model, the lEM model does not individuall y identify each EF P, but rath er
each class of EFPs. All EF Ps initi all y hav ing the same co ncentrations CA and C 13
will evo lve in the sa me way under the lEM model, which was not th e case with th e
CD model. Since the initial di stribution P(CA,C 13 , / = 0) of the population of EFPs
is given , its subseq uent evo lution P(CA , C 11, /) will be limited to di spl ac ing the lin es
in the hi stogra m.

The principle of the lEM model is simpl e: eac h EFP mi xes with the EF Ps located
in its vic inity, with a characteristic exchange tim e denoted by T1EM

T he evo lution of th e concentrati ons in each class of EF P is thus expressed as:

dC\ =-r(CA CB)+ (CA) (t) -CA (I)

dt ' fi EM
(12 .30]
dCu =-r( C \,Cu)+ (Cn ) (t) - Cu(/)
dt fi EM

Unlik e th e CD mod el, the lEM model allows the chemical reaction to be
imm ed iately taken into acco unt. Both (CA) and (Cu) des ignate in (12.30] the
average concentrati ons in th e vicinity of the EF P. In a perfectl y stirred reactor, these

3 In a number of books and publications, the reacti on term in Curl 's equati on [12.29) is
written with a pos iti ve sign. Thi s error moti vates, in part, our detailed derivation of the
reactio n term from the population balance (equation [ 12.25]).
246 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemica l Enginee ring

ave rage concentrati ons are the average concentrati ons in the reactor, sin ce
macro mi xing is ass um ed to have taken pl ace.

In the presence of a chemi ca l reacti on, the average concentrati ons dec rease in time.
The deli cate part in the IEM model li es in the fac t th at the average concentrati ons
have to be reca lcul ated wi th time. If thi s procedure is not perfo rmed properl y, the
model may not conserve mass. The sign of the mixin g term is pos iti ve in [ 12.30].
If the average concentrati on is greater th an th e concentrati on in the EFP , mi xi ng will
effect an increase in the concentrati on of the EF P. The reverse behav ior is obse rved if
the average concentrati on is less than the concentrati on in the EF P.

Impl ementing th e IEM mode l co nsists of so lvin g equ ati ons [ 12.30] lor eve ry
identi fied line in th e initi al PD F P( CA 'cl3 ' I = 0) ' I. e. lor eve ry pa ir or
concentrati ons ( CA ' CB ) such th at P( ci\ 'CB ' I = 0) -jc 0.

12.3.2. /EM mode/without a chemical reaction

We now consider the case of a closed reactor. As with the CD mode l, we

consider a sin gle co nstitu ent of concentrati on C and characteri ze it s mi xing into a
so lvent by the time evo luti on of th e PDF P(C, t ). Th e impl ementation of th e IEM
model, in the absence of a chemi ca l reacti on, is pa11icul arl y sim ple. As the ini tial
di stributi on is made up of two categori es of EF Ps, the IEM model is, in thi s ca se,
limit ed to ca lculating th e tim e evo luti on of th e co ncentrati on fo r two classes of
EF Ps, th e first ca ll ed "ri ch EF Ps" hav in g an init ia l co ncentrati on C = Co, and the
second ca lled " lea n EF Ps" hav ing an initi al concentrati on C = 0.

P( C. t = O) P(C. r > O) P(C.r ---.= )

I /2 ---- - cxp 1- .r - f
( I - aJCo
Tu:M 7 tEM
<;==J
:1/4 :1/4 3/4

1/2 112 0
-oC-cx p1- -r- f I /2
T IEM T IEM

1/4 1/4 ==::> 1/4

Figure 12.7. Tim e evolu1ion. ohtained using the /EM model. oj'1he PDF P( C ,1)
characlerizing !he mixing ala non-reacting product in a closed rare/or.
The arrows and expressions chamc/erize !he disp/aceme/11 speed ol hoth lines
 Micromi xing Mode ls 247

Fo r th e initi al EF P di stri buti on represe nted in Figure 12.7, th e proba bility

of hav in g a ri ch EF P is P(Co,t = 0) = a = 3 I 4 and th at of hav ing a lea n EFP
is P(O , 1 = 0) = I - a . The average concentrati on is (C)= aC0 . Fo r both classes of
EF Ps, the evo luti on of the conce ntrati on in the EF Ps is desc ribed by th e sa me
di ffe renti al eq uati on:

dC (C)-C(1) aCo-C(I)
[ 12.3 1]
eli Ti EM Ti E~!

The reacti on term is omitted, and th e equ ati on is simplifi ed by the fac t th at the
ave rage conce ntrat ion is constant with time. For both classes of EF Ps, the ge neral
so luti on of [ 12.3 1] is identi ca l:

C (l) = aCo+Ae x p {- I I Ti E~vi} [ 12.32])

The initi al co nditi ons for both types of EF Ps determin e the va lue of the co nstant
of int egrating A. The time evo lution in both types of EFPs is th en:

Rich EF P: C (l ) = aCo +( I- a)Co exp {- I I T1 EM} si nce C(O) = Co [ 12.33 ]

Lean EF P: C( t) = aC0 [1 - ex p{- t i Ti EM} ] since C(O)= O. [1 2.34]

Fi gure 12.7 shows the time evo luti on of the PD F. Th e evoluti on of th e hi stogram
is a sim ple displ ace ment of the spectrum lines toward th e pos iti on of the average
concentrati on (C)= aC0 reached fo r 1 ~ oo . Th e di spl acement speed of a line is
greater, the furth er it is from the average concentrati on (C) .

It fo ll ows from [ 12.33 ] and 12.34] that va ri ance dec reases with time:

2
1
o- 2 (1 ) = P(Co , O)[ (I - a)Co ex p{- - - J\]
T/EM [1 2.35 ]
+ P(O, o) [ aco ex p{- - -}]c
1

Ti FM
= CJ a( l - a)ex p{- _}}__}
TiEM

As with the CD model, th e segregati on ind ex decreases ex ponenti all y fo r the

IEM mode l:

1(1) = ex p{- _2_

.l } [1 2.36]
TIEM
248 Flu id Mec hani cs for C he mi ca l Eng in ee rin g

The decrease is identical fo r both models if the frequency, rv, of the C D model is
such that rv I 2 = 2 I T1 E ~1 .

Th e case of an open reactor is signifi ca ntl y more co mpl ex . Th e tracking

procedure of eac h class of EFP is identi ca l, but even in a steady-state regime, th e
EF Ps do not leave the CSTR with the sa me concentration , beca use not all EF Ps stay
in th e reac tor for the same period of time. It is necessary to brin g in internal age
di stribution s in side the reactor, using th e concepts o f res idenc e time di stributi ons.

In a steady-state regime, the PD F PE at th e reactor' s inl et is related to th e fl ow

rate, Qc , of a fluid in whi ch the concen tratio n is Co and to the fl ow rate, Qo, o f
so lvent (ze ro concentrati on):

Pd Co) = P( Co. l = 0) = Qc
Qc +Qo
=a 1 [ 12.3 7)
PE( C = O) = P(O,! = O) = Qo = l- a
Qc + Qo

Fo r both classes of EFPs, the concentration at th e reactor's outl et is given by

eq uati ons [ 12.33 ] and [ 12.34) , by rep lacing time 1 with th e intern al age a of th e
EF Ps when th ey leave the reacto r:

Rich EFP : Cc (a) = aCo +( I - a)Co exp {- a I T1EM} [ 12.38]

Lean EF P Co (a) = aCo [I - ex p {- a I T1EM}) [ 12 .39)

The theory of res id ence time di stribution s4 demonstrates th at th e int ernal age
di stribu tion I( a ) in a reac tor is rel ated to th e res id ence tim e di stributi on ( 1) by:

/( a) = ' Jr (1 )d1 [ 12.40]

Trl's i dl'n c~. a

For th e CSTR , ( 1) = ex p(- I I r,,,Jcncc ) I TreSidcrKc , wherei n the res idence tim e is
defin ed by TrcsiJcncc = V I (Qc + Qo) .

4 Th e boo k by .1 . Vi ll erm a ux (Genie de lu Reaction chim htue. Tcc& Doc, Lavo is ier, Pari s.
1993) prese nt s a co mpre he ns ive ex planati o n o f th e RTD method. T he ir use is a lso di sc ussed
by R. Prud 'hom me (FIO\\ 'S of' Reactil 'e Fluids, Sprin ge r- Verl ag. 20 I 0). A more adva nced
di sc uss ion o f th e impl e me nta ti o n of int e rn a l-age di s tributi o n in com puta ti o na l mode ls o f
mi xin g is g iven by Fox (Computalinnal Models fo r Turbulem Reacting Flows, Cambrid ge
Uni ve rs ity Press, 2003 ).
 Micromi xin g Models 249

Co nsequ e ntl y:

/ (a) = - - - ex p(- a I frcs idcncc) [ 12.4 1]

r res tdcnce

T he va ri a nce at th e reacto r's o utl et ca n th e n be ex pressed by integrating the

product of th e inte rn a l age di stributi o n and th e o btained va ri ance fo r eac h inte rnal
age a ove r a ll poss ibl e intern a l ages w hil e taking [ 12 .38] and [ 12 .39] into acco unt:

cT~ = P( Co ) r( )

C c( a) - (C) )- I (a )d a + P( C = 0) r 1

(Co (a) - (C) )- I (a )d a

2
=C'J a( l - a)[ ex p (- a - a ) da [12.42]
Ti EM f n.:!> tdenn. f rt!) td~nce
Cc? a( l - a)

I+
2 r rc..:s
--
ickn c'-'

Tt EM

T he inl e t va ri a nce being CJl = CJa( l - a) , we eventu a ll y o bta in:

(J~ = - -,--(J-"i'-- - [ 12.43 ]

1+ 2 r rc..: sidlncc
Tt EM

As w ith the c losed-reacto r co nti g uration , thi s result is found to be ide ntical to the
o ne obta in ed v ia th e C D m od e l (equati o n [1 2.23 ]), if th e frequency cv of th e C D
mode l is suc h that cv I 2 = 2 I Tt EM .

12.3.3. / EM mode/with a chemical reaction

T he implementation , w ithin a num e ri ca l mode l, o f th e IEM model wi th a

che mi ca l reacti o n ca n prove de li cate , eve n th o ug h the evo luti o n eq ua ti o ns (equation
[ 12.30]) are s imple. The average co nce ntrati o ns ( C A) (I) a nd ( CIJ ) (1) evo lve with
time, a nd the ir va lues ha ve to be reca lculated a t every time step . If thi s ca lc ul ati on is
not performe d acc urate ly, the equati o ns of the mode l will ca use, through error, th e
production o r consumption o f products in addit ion to th e effects of the reac tion
mec ha ni sm .

In a pe rfectl y stirred closed reactor, it is easy to compute the ave rage

concentrati ons at any time:

(C,, ) (I)= r rCA(I , C Ao, CBo)P(CAo, CBo,l = O)d C Ao d CBo

(CIJ ) (I) = r r CB( I, CAo,Cno)P(CAo,CBo, l = O)d CAod CIJo

[ 12.44]
250 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineering

Both CA(l,C\o,CBo) and CI1( 1,CAo.Cuo) are th e co nce ntrati ons at time 1 in the
EF Ps whose initi al concentrations were C Ao a nd CBo . Th ese co nce ntratio ns arc
determin ed by a stepwi se int egration of equation s [ 12 .30] , updatin g th e ave rage
concentration s at every tim e step through th e ca lcul ati on o f integrals [ 12.44].
In additi on, P(CAo,C 130 ,1 = 0) is th e initial PDF for th e di stributi on of EFPs.
An exerci se given at the end of thi s chapter should all ow th e readers to familiarize
themse lv es with the implementation of th e mod el and to veri fy that the IEM model
all ows the vari ous mi xing and reacti on processes to be tracked, depending upon
wheth er the reacti on is slow or fast co mpa red to the mi xin g process.

Utili zat ion of th e IEM model is more deli cate when an open reactor is
co nsidered, or when th e reactor is non-homoge neous. It is essen ti al to be spec ifi c
abo ut the domain that defi nes th e vic inity of a EF P, so th at the mass ba lance wou ld
not be di storted. We shall not di scuss thi s fact further here in , as our concern is to
draw attention of the reader on thi s re lati ve di sadva ntage of the IEM mode l.

12.4. Conclusion

In thi s chapter, we have limited ourse lves to describe on ly the CD and IEM
mode ls. These models are also com mon ly empl oyed in nume rical model s. Provided
th at the characteristi c time parameters spec ifi e to th em (freq uency {V for the CD
model and tim e T11.'M for the IEM model) are ca refull y chose n, it is obvious that th ey
are more or less successful in prov idin g a representation o f th e dynami cs o f mi xin g
and chemi ca l reaction (s). However, th e time evo luti on of th e obta ined PDFs
P( CA,C 13 ,1) (i llu strated in Figures 12. 3 and 12.7 for th e C D and IEM mode ls,
respect ively) are far from represe ntin g the actual evo luti on of th e PDFs
demonstrated by direct numerica l s imul ati ons, as shown among ot hers in Figure
I0.3 of Chapter I0. Thi s is a definite drawback in th e mode lin g of mixing and
chemi ca l reaction , in sofar as the diversi ty of EFPs is not modeled sati sfac toril y,
even if the evo luti on of average co nce ntrati ons ca n be accessed via a
parameteri zatio n of the mode ls' characteristic tim es. Other models (Kerstein , 199 1,
for in stance) 5 enab le the modelin g of time evo luti ons o f th e PDF in better agree men t
with direc t numerical simul ati ons, but such ex ten sion s are not discussed here. Th e
reader by aga in refer to th e boo k by Fox (ibid) on th e subj ect of co mputational
modeling of react in g fl ows.

5 Kerstein A.R., 199 1, J Fluid Mech., 2 13, 36 1- 394.

 Micromi xing Model s 25 I

12.5. Application exercise

Exercise 12.1: Implementation of the /EM model for a slow or fast ch emical
reaction

Consider a perfectly stirred reac tor of vo lume V = I L, in which th e stirrer

ma intai ns a homoge neous turbul ence of characteristic ve loc ity ll nns = I 0 em s- 1 and
of integral sca le rt = 4 em. The chemical reaction A + B -7 Pi s ca rri ed out therein ,
in an aq ueous medium (k inemati c viscos ity v = I o-2 cm 2 s '). The molecu lar
diffus ivity of a ll constituents is taken equal to D = ro-5 cm 2 s 1. Both const ituents
are introduced into the vesse l in stoichi ometri c proportions and with the sa me
co nce ntrati on Co = I mol L 1 at ti me 1 = 0, with out being mi xed.

We wis h to model th e progress of the chemical reacti on using the IEM model.
I. Eva lu ate the micromixing time a nd th e charac teristi c times of macromixing.
It wil l be observed th at th e micromi xin g time is not signifi ca ntl y grea ter th an
th e la rgest among macromi xi ng times. Despite that, it will be postu lated, for the
impl e me ntati on of the IEM model , th at th e macro mi xing is co mpl ete in the vesse l at
time 1 = 0.
2. The chemical reacti on is a first-order reaction with respec t to eac h of the
constit uents, so that the reaction rate is ex pressed as r( C A, C 13 ) = kCAC 13

The IEM model is impl emented by cons iderin g two types of EF Ps at tim e 1 = 0,
111which the time evo luti on of th e concentrati ons in co nstituents A and B wi ll be
followed:
EF P I : CAl (1) and CR1 (1) refer to the co nce ntrati ons of A and B in the EF P.
Furth er. CAI(O) = Co and Cn1(0) = 0.

EF P 2: C A2 (I) and C 132 (1) refer to the conce ntrat ions of A and Bin th e EFP.
Furth e r. C 12 (0) = 0 and Cm (0) =Co.
Writ e out the evo luti on eq uati ons for the co ncentrati ons in both types of EFPs
acco rdin g to th e IEM model, ta king into account the chemi ca l reaction . At thi s stage,
th e va lu es of the average concentrat ions will not be expressed. For the remainder,
the time Ti~: M of th e IEM mode l wi ll be take n equal to the mi cromixing time
ca lcul ated in Q uest ion I .
3. Ca lcul ate the ave rage concen trati ons (CA) (t) a nd (C 13 ) (1) as a fun cti on of
C,,l (l) , CRI(I), Cd t), and Cd l). Ju stify that CA1( t) = C132(t) and C13 1(1) = Cdt) .
Derive there from an expression of the evo luti on equati ons establi shed in
252 Fluid Mec han ics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

Questi on 2. onl y involving for EFP # I the co ncentrati ons C11 (1) and C13 1(1). Simil ar
findin gs hold for EF P #2.
4. Prove that

and that, consequentl y,

C<11 (! ) - Cn1 (! ) =Co ex p(- / I T1 E ~i).

5. Th e kineti c constant of the reacti on is k = 5 10 3 L mol 1 s 1. Justi fy that thi s

is a slow reacti on. and th at th e adva ncement of th e reac ti on is not limited by mi xi ng.
Show that th e mi xing within th e EFPs is performed in a tim e peri od of the order of
several T1EM . The concentrat ion in th e EFPs is then C, I 2 . Th ere aner, th e reac tion
occ urs in identi ca l fas hi on within all EF Ps.
6. The kineti c constant of th e reaction is k = I 00 Lmor 1 s 1. Ju stify th at thi s
1s a fas t react ion: concentrati on C 131 (! ) remain s ve ry low in EF P I. j ust like
conce ntrati on C12(1) in EF P 2. Show th at the res ult establi shed in Ques ti on 4
makes it poss ibl e to prove th at (CA ) (I) = ( C./2)ex p ( - ! 17IE ~ I). The advanceme nt
of th e reacti on is given by the mi cromi xing time, and not by th e kin eti c constant of
th e reacti on.
 Part III

Mechanical Separation
 Chapter 13

Physical Description of a Particulate Medium

Dispersed Within a Fluid

13.1. Introduction

Pa11 Ill of thi s book deals with the processes of mec hani ca l separati on. The
imp lementati on of a mec hani cal separati on process is co nce ivab le onl y if the
materials to be se parated ca n be clea rl y identifi ed in space, so th at mechani ca l forces
exerted by one materi al upon th e other ca n act to se parate the two co nstituents.
Mechan ica l separa tion methods, therefore, perta in to two- or three-phase med ia.
Depending on the case, the terms so li d/liqui d or so lid/gas sepa rati on wi ll be used.
Liquid/liquid separati on, e.g. refers to the separati on of two non-mi sc ibl e liquid s,
suc h as oi l and water.

Parti cles play a key role in many processes. In chemi ca l engineerin g, catalytic
reac tors uti Iize catalysts, whi ch are particles on the surface of whi ch react ions occur.
Major process ing industri es (p lasti c material s, ce rami cs, ce ment, paper, inks, etc.)
operate based on their corresponding parti cul ate materi als. The same applies fo r
th e food processing indu stri es also (powders, grain s, beverage clar ification , etc.).
Lastl y, in environ mental studi es, we may menti on water treatment, gas scrubbing,
in cin erati on, and so il trea tment processes, or indeed th e prob lems of sedimentati on
in ri ve rs, po11s, and on beaches, all of which in vo lve directl y parti cul ate medi a.

The differen t chapters of thi s third pa11 prese nt the mec hani ca l principl es used
in different separation processes. This is di scussed in th e following order:
- membrane-based separation processes and fi ltration (Chapter 14 );
256 Flui d Mech ani cs for Chemical Engin eerin g

- th e behav ior of parti cles within th e grav ity fi eld (Chapter 15), by tak ing into
acco unt the different as pec ts: grav itati onal separati on, the use or stirrin g to keep
particles in suspension, the fluidi zati on of a pa rti cle bed by an upwa rd strea m; and
- centrifuga l separati on (C hapter 17).

Chapters 16 and 18 di scuss more academi c matters. Chapt er 16 dea ls with th e

movement of a so lid parti cle in a flui d fl ow, whil e in Chapter 18 we introduce
so me esse nti al noti ons on granul ar medi a. Such notions are useful to an engineer
speciali zin g in agri-food process enginee rin g, to understand what happens in side
a sil o.

Our goa l is not to treat th ese di ffe rent processes on a tec hni ca l leve l. Thi s has
already been addressed very we ll in other boo ks. We shall not desc ri be th e va ri ety o f
fil trati on dev ices, nor shall we address th e iss ue o f descri bin g a grav ity se ttler for
water trea tm ent. We, however, introduce the mechani ca l princi pl es and too ls used to
describe them.

Parti cles, whether so lid or fluid , are usuall y di spersed within a flui d. The flui d
phase th at contains the parti cles is referred to as th e continu ous phase, sin ce it is
poss ibl e to move throughout that ph ase whil e re mainin g within it. The gap betwee n
the density of the parti cles, denoted by Pr, and the density Prof th e co ntinuous flui d
phase is a key paramete r of the parti cul ate medi a under considerati on, beca use thi s
gap eith er intervenes directl y in the study of mechanica l se parati on (as in the case of
grav itati onal or ce ntri fuga l se parati on or in fluidi zati on) or beca use th e mechani ca l
stability of a depos ited granul ar medium depends on it. Th e third esse nti al parameter
is the size D of th e parti cles. Th e processes considered in thi s chapter are assoc iated
with a fl ow of th e co ntinuous fluid phase. The dynami c viscos it y, p,, of th e
continuous fluid ph ase is, therefore, also a parameter to be taken int o acco unt.
Lastl y, for fluid parti cles , the fl ow of the co ntinuous phase ge nerates a tl ow in side
th e fluid parti cles and , in that case, it is also necessa ry to introduce the dynami c
viscos ity Jid in side the di spersed tluid parti cles.

In thi s chapter, we introduce th e too ls for the characteri za ti on of a parti cul ate
medium. The li st of mechani ca l parameters th at we have just di scussed is somew hat
obvi ous. While in the foll ow in g chapters we ass ume th at the properti es of th ese
parti cles to be known , in th e present chapter we see that, in reality, it is not always
straightforwa rd to determine them. On the one hand , parti cles are not always
sph eri ca l. Quanti fy ing their size necess itates th e int roduction of de fini tions, and
measurin g it requires the des ign of measuring apparatu ses. On th e oth er hand , so lid
particl es gath er under ce rtain conditi ons to form clusters, whil e fluid parti cles ca n
merge (coa lescence). Thu s, the size of parti cles ca n vary in space and time. By
co nsidering them as know n quantiti es , in the foll ow in g chapters, the size D o f the
 Physical Desc ripti on of a Particul ate Medium 257

particles and their den sity p 1, th ese issues are di sc reetl y set as ide desp ite their huge
importance. We address them in thi s first chapter of the third part.

Lastl y. the part icles, that we shall be dea lin g with thi s section are "s mall". Th is
term , however, has no meaning per se, for a number of reaso ns. The size of a
particle is given by its length quantifi ed using an appropri ate unit. The size of
the parti cles that we consider in thi s secti on wi ll va ry from a few angstroms
( I nm = I 0 9 m) to a few millimeters (I em = I o-2 m). The small est ones are
encoun tered when considering parti cles havi ng a molec ul ar sca le, e.g. as in a
eawa ter desa lini sation process. The largest particles can be encountered when
studyin g a catalys t inside a chemi ca l reactor or waste particles being incin erated
inside a furnace. Parti cle size ca n, therefore, vary by a fac tor of I 07, whi ch is
obviously vast. Consequentl y, one ca nnot be too careful wi th rega rd to orders of
magnitude, and we endeavor in this chapter to make the reader awa re of thi s using a
few tri vial exampl es.

13.2. Solid particles

13.2.1. Geometrical characterization of a particle

Although ri gid, the size of a so lid parti cle is not easy to defin e if th e pat1ic le is
not sp heri ca l. However, it s vo lume or area ca n be quantifi ed, provided it is poss ible
to measure th e sa me. The size of the sph eri ca l particl e is defined by its diameter D,
based on which its vo lume Vr and area Ap are ex pressed by :

[ 13. 1]

We a lso define the spec ifi c area of the particle as the rati o of its area to its
vol ume:

[ 13.2]

Fo r a sph ere , ar = 6/D. It is important to note th at th e specific area does not

ha ve the dimension of a length , but is in stead represe nted as th e rec iproca l va lu e
of a particle 's length . Th e small er th e particl e, th e grea ter will be its spec ifi c area.
The relevance of thi s concep t is apparent as we understand later on in thi s
discu ss io n.

Alth ough we cannot simply defin e the size of a grain of arbitrary geometry, it is
eas ier to defin e th e size of a non-spheri ca l parti cle by referring to its vo lume, its
25!\ Fluid Mec hani cs fo r Chemi ca l Engi neerin g

surface , o r its spec i ftc a rea. We the refore defi ne:

- th e di a me te r o f a s ph e re havi ng th e sa me vo lume as th e grai n:

- th e di a mete r o f a sphere ha v in g th e sa me a rea as the g rain :

- th e di a mete r o f a sphe re having th e sa me s pecific a rea as the g rain :

In sho rt , the equi va le nt sph e re is ofte n used to defi ne th e s ize of a part ic le.

In thi s cha pter, we co ns ider particles whose s ize varies betwee n a fe w angst roms
a nd a cent imeter:

I nm = I 0 9
m < D < I 0~ 2 m = I e m

Within thi s interva l, th e c harac teri sti cs of a set of part ic les in term s of vo lum e, area ,
spec ifi c area, and numbe r va ry drama ti ca ll y. Let us co nsider, by way of a n exa mpl e ,
a mass M = I g of spherica l sa nd particles o f constant di a me ter D. T his is very
1
sma ll ; th e to ta l vo lum e occ upi ed by the so lid is V = 0.33 c nY for a dens ity
1
Ps = 3,000 kgm . For three parti c les o f different diame te rs ( I 0 nm , I J..lm . a nd
I mm) Tab le 13. 1 li sts va ri o us characteristics.

Volume of a Num ber of Total area o f th e Specific area (m )

parti cle (m 3 ) parti cles particles (m 2) Op = 6 I D
D Jr0 3 M 6
Vr = -- N = - -- S = M_!?_
6 Ps Jr0 3 p, D
I 0 nm 0.52 X I0 27 6 X I 0 17 200 6 X JO''
lpm 0.52 X I0 IX 6 X J0 11
2 6 X J0 1'
I mm 0.52 X 10 " 600 0.002 6 x 1o'

Tab le 13 . 1. CharacTerisTics ol a homogem:ous seT rd"sphericol ;wrticles. 11 iTh a diall( eTer D

and a dens ill o/p, = 3.000 kgm 3 Th e toral parTicle /1(0.\'S isM = lg

This tab le pro mpts severa l comme nts:

- The numbe r of pa rti c les g rows dra mati ca ll y w hen th ei r s ize dim ini shes.

- Th e a rea d eve lo ped by a ll th e pa rti c les in c reases ve ry stro ng ly w hen th e s ize of

the pa rticl es d ecreases. Thi s po int is essenti a l w here transfers or c he mi ca l reacti o ns
 Ph ys ica l Desc ripti on o f a Parti cul ate Medium 25 9

are co nce rn ed, beca use tra ns fe rs in crease with th e excha nge a rea a nd reacti o ns occ ur
at th e s urface. Thus, th e fin e r pa rti c les, which ca n occupy a limited mass or vo lum e
frac ti o n in a set of pa rti c les , have a predo min a nt ro le fo r tra ns fe rs a nd c he mi ca l
reacti o ns.

- T he spec i fi e a rea in creases w he n th e s ize of th e parti c le dec reases. Th e

sig nifi cance of thi s concept becomes a ppa re nt in vie w o f the prev io us co mme nt .
T he spec ifi c a rea is th e exc ha nge a rea fo r a g ive n vo lum e o f parti c les. It, the refore,
cha rac terizes the exc ha nge ca pa bility of a set o f parti c les . The unit m- 1 s ho uld be
understood as eq uated w ith m 2/ m 3

13.2.2 . Grain size distribution in a granular mellium

A g ranul a r me dium is, ge ne ra ll y spea kin g, co mposed of g rain s o f diffe re nt s izes.

Eng in eers most o ft e n cha rac te ri ze th e s ize g radin g of a g ranular medium by s iev ing
and we ighin g o pe rati o ns, th e prin c ipl e of w hi c h is e luc id ate d in Fig ure 13. 1. Th e
charac teri za ti o n dev ice uses a stac k o f N s iev in g baske ts w hose mes h di a me te r t/J;
gradua ll y dec reases fr o m the upper bas ke t (numbe r I ) to the lower bas ket (numbe r
N). A mass m, of th e g ranul a r medium to be c ha rac te ri zed is pl aced in th e uppe r
bas ket (Fi g ure 13. 1(b )). Th e stac k o f bas ke ts is pl aced o n a vibrating mac hine
( Fig ure 13 .1 (a)) . w hi c h pe rfo rm s the o perati o n of s iev ing pa rticl es, leadin g to the ir
rete nti o n in s id e th e va ri o us bas ke ts acco rdin g to the ir s ize. Bas ke t num ber i co ll ects
a mass 111 , of parti c les wh ose s izes range fro m , 1 to; ( Fi g ure 13. 1(c)).

bd
ml

"' "'I

~~~ ~

"'
I[ f I <1>,
~ ) m,

" [~ .....~ .. 1

a. Ri g !Or S h.'\' lllg_ a gran ula r b. Plan.:rnr.:nt of part11..: k s c. Rcco ,cry and \\'\.:i ghin g.
nh.:diurn on a '1brating ma~hrnc in the uppcr !'.ien: or particks in the :- ic\l':-
(a tier Pr.:: rry. 1975) ar.:r.:ording to thl'ir :-.1/I.'S

Figure 13.1 . Grain size characterization ofa g ranular medium hy a s ieving and
weighing method experimental principle
260 Fluid M ec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

1.2

0 0.8
u
.
E
u 0.6 ""
II
II
I I
rr
0, 4 I I
1\ I I
II I I
0) I 1 I I
r 1 I I
I I I I
0
I I J \
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 00 90 100
D (m1crons)

a. Represei/Wi io n h1 IIWSS de11s il\ '

100

0 90
c:
"'
80
"'"'
~ 70
Q;
a;
E 60
u"'
0 50

g""' 40
;;;
0.
30
0 '
0 \
0
20
"'
::;;"'
\
"' 10 '
0 ~~ -
10080 60 40 / 20, 10 8 6 /4 2
Dsl1 Dgo o., 0 10 D (mtcrons)

h. ReJJrese/1/ulioll h1 u cCt rlll lilt ll ed IIIlis.\

Figure 13.2. Groin s i::e c hamc fl: riza l ion of a grw11dur 111 edi11111 h1 sie1in.~ and ll'l: ighing
1111'/hod\: (irain size c un es

The result s of such a na lyses are usua ll y prov ided by an engineer by plottin g. a a
funct ion of D , th e mass perce ntage of partic les wh ose size is less than D , as show n
in Figure 13.2(b) for th e grai n size curves plotted in Figure 13.2(a). The so lid line
curve in Figure 13.2(a) show a narrow di stributi on o r particles around diameter
D = 40 J..llll, desig nated as an unimodal parti cle distribution. The das hed lin e curv e
 Phys ica l Descripti on of a Part ic ul ate Medium 26 1

d is pl ays a bimoda l di stri buti o n w ith two pa rti c le s ize ra nges, respecti ve ly, centred
a ro und di a me te rs D = 20 pm a nd D = 5 pm . In Fi g ure 13.2(b) , th e va lue g ive n fo r
di amete r D = rjJ, is s impl y the sum tota l of th e masses in th e bas kets be low bas ket i ,
as a pro porti o n o f th e to ta l mass m, ( mul tipli ed by I 00 to ex press th e va lue as a
pe rce ntage). It is comm o n to re prese nt thi s c urve fo r dec reas in g va lues o f the
di a meter, us in g a logarithmi c scal e fo r the ho ri zo nta l ax is (di a me te rs). The semi-
loga rithmi c re prese ntati o n a ll ows a vis ua li zati o n o f th e g ra in s ize di stributi on with
the same re lati ve prec is io n in a ll sca le ra nges, as illu strated by th e co mpari son of
Figures 13.2(a) a nd 13.2( b). T he use of linea r sca les does not prov ide a good
rep resentati o n of th e di stributi o n in fin e parti c les if th e s ize g radin g is spread over
s izes cove rin g seve ra l o rd ers of mag nitud e, betwee n nano mete rs a nd centimeters.
In connecti o n w ith the se mi-l ogarithm ic re presentati o n of g rain s ize di stributio n.
th e g ra in s ize c ha rac te ri zati o n dev ice acco rdin g to the Assoc ia ti o n Fra n ~a i se de
NO Rma li sa ti o n (A FNO R) sta nda rd e mpl oys 2 1 s ieves w hose success ive mesh
sizes are: 40-50- 63 - 100- 125- 160- 200- 25 0- 3 15-400- 500- 63 0- 800- I ,000- 1,25 0-
1,600- 2,000- 2,500- 3, 150-4.000- 5,000 ( in ~un ).

G rai n size c urves o f the ty pe re prese nted in Fig ure 13.2( b) a re famili ar to
eng in eers, but the ir inte rpre tati o n ta kes so me getting used to . The re a re no parti c les
in a di a me te r inte rval ove r whi c h the c urve is ho ri zonta l, and the fa ster th e c urve
dec reases in an int e rva l, the g reate r th e de ns ity of parti c les th e re in . The g ra in s ize
di stributi o n is o ft e n qu antifi ed o n the bas is o f suc h c urves , by de terminin g the
d ia mete rs D 90 , D 50 , and D 10 , w he re D.1 is de fin ed as th e s ize fo r whi ch .A'o/o o f
the mass o f parti c les has a di a me te r s ma ll e r tha n D 1. For pa ni c les whose gra in s ize
curve is plo tted as a so lid line in Fig ure 13 .2( b), the three va lu es D 10 = 36.6 pm ,
D 50 = 40 pm , a nd D 90 = 43 .8 pm ex pl a in s sati s fac to ril y th e fac t tha t th e g rain s ize
di stributi o n is unimod a l. as s how n in Fi g ure 13 .2(a) . Fo r th e c urves pl otted in
das hed lines , the three va lues D 10 = 4.5 pm , 0 50 = 19 .2 pm , a nd D 90 = 2 1.6 pm
poorl y cha rac te ri ze th e b imoda l d istribut ion o bserved in Fig ure 13.2(a), a lth o ug h the
va lue of D 10 enab les us to detect the prese nce of fin e pa rti c les while th e va lu es of
D 5o and D90 c ha rac te ri ze th e la rge o nes.

Mo re sophi sti cated ap pa rat uses, w hi c h co unt pa rticl es acco rdin g to th e ir s ize,
have been deve lo ped us in g e lec tri ca l o r o pti ca l techniqu es. Th e ir use is mo re c lose ly
re lated to la bo ra to ri es tha n to eve ryday e ng in ee rin g studi es.

13.2.3. Determination of a solid 's density using a pycnometer

Fig ure 13.3 illu strates the prin c ipl e o f a pyc no m ete r, whi c h is a s impl e dev ice
a ll ow in g meas ure ment o f th e dens ity o f a so lid o r th e a ve rage dens ity of a granul ar
med ium , based o n fo ur we ig hin g o perati o ns. The pyc no m ete r is a conta iner, o f
w hi c h the e mp ty mass is first measured (o pe ration I ), as we ll as th e mass o f th e
262 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemica l Engin eeri ng

contai ner filled with water (operat ion 2). The fact that the contain er opens to th e
ambi ent air via a thin ve rtical tube guarantees a hi gh prec ision on the vo lume of
water that fi ll s th e pycnometer. Operations I and 2 all ow th e determinati on of the
mass 111 1 of liquid that fill s th e container. Th e vo lume VP of th e co ntain er is derived
the re from, knowin g the density of water. The mass 111 , of the so lid is determined by
we ighin g it (operation 3), the last stage consist ing of weighing (operation 4) th e
so lid placed in side the water-fi ll ed pyc nometer. The total mass weighed durin g
operati on 4 is th e sum of th e weight of liquid and th e weight of soli d in the
pyc nometer. From thi s, we ca n calcu late th e spec ifi c den sity p/p, of th e so lid with
respect to water, since:

p , - Pt Ill tor - mt
[ 13.3]
Ps m,

It is important to meas ure and co ntrol th e temperature in order to obtain an

acc urate measurement. The variati ons of water density with temperatu re ca use
substanti al errors if this is ove rlooked. It should also be rea lized that th e density o f
the so lid calc ul ated usin g a pycnometer is the ave rage density of the so lid sa mpl e. It
is obv ious that the measu rement principle does not enable the id entifi cati on of
de nsity heterogeneiti es within th e so li d. In th e case of a granul ar medium or porous
materi al, the density measurement incorpora tes vo lumes o f air th at have not been
forced out from th e poro us medium durin g ope rati on 4 represented in Figure 13.3.

Emrt y Liquid filled Mass in Mass in

j))' CilOllleiLT pycnometer li4u id -free liqu id-fill ed
m, m p+ 111 1 pycnon1c1er: pyc nome ter:
mP+ "' ~ mp+m 101

V =~ 111 1, 1 = p, V, + p1(V1,- V,)

' p,

Figure 13.3. Operllling principle of'o pycnolll l:'ler

 Physical Descripti on of a Part icul ate Medi um 263

13.2.4. Concentrations

Differen t definition s of concentrati on ca n be used to characteri ze th e quantity of

parti cles within a fluid . These di ffe rent defi niti ons are all related to the porosi ty&,
de fin ed as th e ratio of the fluid vo lume to the total vo lume. They include :

. _ so lid vo lume
Volume concentration C v - - - - - - - = 1- & [ 13.4]
total vo lume

so lid mass C
Mass concen trati on eM =------= p, v l13.5]
tota I vo Iume

so lid mass + fluid mass Ps- Pr C

Wet (o r total) density Ph = = pr + - - - ~ ~ [ 13.6]
total vo lume p,

Both the poros ity and the vo lum e co nce ntration are dimensionless quantities.
The mass conce ntrati on and wet den sity have the dimension kg m-3 Anoth er
frequen tl y used un it is g L- 1 (th e cha nge of unit between kgm 3 and g L- 1 does not
brin g in a multipli cative co nstant ). The M and V indices are generall y omitted from
th e notations of the va ri ous concentrati ons, but th e unit s are se t!'-ex pl a natory enough
for guida nce. In practice, the mass co nce ntrati on is most comm onl y used and
denoted by C.

It is use ful to know a few reference va lues fo r poros ity. In naturall y occ urring
gran ul ar medi a, such as sa nds, poros ity is between 0.3 and 0.5. The porosity va lue
r: = 0.3 corresponds to a dense, hi ghly packed ground. The term " loose sa nd" refers to
a sand of relative density & = 0.5. The force required to drive a pile in the ground
increases co nsiderabl y when pass in g from a loose so il to a dense so il. In filtrati on
processes. porous media havi ng a hi gh porosity (& of the order or 0.9) appear in
some cases. Such products , ca ll ed filt er aids, help to maint ai n a hi gher level of
permeab ility in side a granular porous medium by reducin g its settlin g.

Eve n when di spersed at a low conce ntrat ion. part icles are very numerous and
close to one another. Consider a set of parti cles di spersed in a homogeneo us
suspens ion in a give n \olum e. For sph eri ca l parti cles or density Ps and diameter D
with a mass co nce ntrati on C, let us ca lcul ate the number N of parti cles per unit
vo lume, th e poros ity t-:. th e wet density or th e equi va lent fluid ph, and the average
distance r between the centers of two parti cles closest together. The fo ll owi ng
mathe mati ca l relati ons are establi shed:

6C I
N=--
1fPs D3
264 Flui d Mec hanics for Chemica l Enginee ri ng

c
~.- = J -
p,

( "" N I .1 so th at

It ca n be noted th at f I D is ind ependent from D. Tabl e I 3.2 recapitul ates th e

valu es obtain ed for a set of so lid parti cles o r density p, = 3,000 g L 1 imm ersed in a
fluid of de nsit y p 1 = I ,000 g L 1, fo r various va lues of the co ncentrati on in parti cles.
It ca n be see n that the parti cles are numerous (indeed. ve ry numerous when th e
parti cle size is ve ry small ) for a vo lume co ncentrati on that remains low. and th at
poros ity is not a definin g indi cator.

p N (by m-' ) p,
c" c
(g L I)
f/ D
fo r D = l mm
I ().4 X I 05 0.0003 0.9997 1.0006 11 .6
10 6.4 x 106 0. 0033 0.9967 1.006.6 5.4
7
100 o.4 x 10 0.0333 0.966 7 1.066.6 2.5

Table 13.2. Varia tions o{ the 1/WS.\' and volume conceJ7/rat ions. \\'et dens itl '. porosit\', 1111111her
ofparticles per unit volum e, and CJ\'erage distance hetH'een particles,.fiJr particles o(densifl'
1 1
p , = 3.000 g L dispersed i11 ufluid o{ dens itl ' p 1 = 1.000 g L

The second observati on that stems from Tabl e 13.2 is with reference to the
prox imit y of parti cles to one anoth er, whi ch is strong ( r is th e ce nter-to-ce nter
di stance. so th at th e shortest di stance betw een surfaces is lower by a unit o f D) , even
at a low co nce ntrati on. The fluid fl ow betwee n parti cles is constra ined by the
prox imity of parti cles, as di scussed in Chapt er 14 within th e co ntex t of grav itati onal
sedimentati on. The ph enomena o f hindered settling and turbidity currents are also
descri bed herein . When the parti cle concentrati on is suffi cientl y hi gh, a two-ph ase
fluid/parti cle medium fl ows, under certain conditi ons, lik e a homogeneous tluid
whose de nsity is the wet density (equati on [ 13.6]).

13.2.5. Formation of clusters, coagulation, and flocculation

When parti cles are di spersed in a lluid , one ca n observe , und er certain
conditi ons, the fo rmati on of clu sters. Thi s ph enomenon results from th e acti on or
interpa11icul ar forces of electri ca l ori gin , belongin g to two types:

I. Van der Waa ls fo rces, whi ch tend to draw two pa11icles together. Ve ry
simpli sti ca ll y, th ese fo rces are the sum of the average fo rces exerted by th e
 Phys ical Description of a Particulate Medium 265

fluc tuatin g elec trical dipol es consisting. for each atom in a particle, of its nucleus
and electron cloud.
2. Electrostati c force s, whi ch res ult fro m the fact that th e particles are often
negati ve ly charged at th eir surface . These forces tend to repel two parti cles away
from eac h oth er.

C lusters may form when Vander Waa ls fo rces overcome electrostati c forces.

The fo rmati on of clusters is an important phenomenon , as it mod ifi es the size

and density of particulate entiti es. We summarize here the main results from the
theory of interpart icul ar fo rces, ca ll ed the DVLO theory by way of reference to its
contributors (Deryaguin , Vervey , Landau , and Overbeck). A detailed presentati on of
thi s theory is outsi de th e scope of the presen t book, as such presentati on requires
substantia l th eo ret ica l deve lopments. 1 Thi s theory helps one to understand why
particles are li ke ly to form clusters in specific conditi ons. It is not, however, a
predictive mode l of cluster formati on, abl e to prov ide their number, size, and density.

In the fo ll ow in g, we desc ribe interpartic ul ar forces between two identica l

part icles of rad ius a, as depicted in Figure 13.4. The di stance between the particles is
the di stances. taken from surface to surface.

------ ---.:.:.&/-e
______ _
s
2a

Fi gure 13.4. lnterparlicularforces hetween two particles o/equul radius u, dispersed in

afluid: geometricalnotutiuns. Minus signs represent negative electrical charges on
the su1.[ace r1/ the particles and plus sigm denute positive ions within the fluid, 11hich
gather on the stu.face of the particle as a "do uble layer .. of thicknessK; 1

The act ion of Van der Waals forces is usuall y not quantified in terms of force,
but rather in terms of interacti on energy be tween two parti cles. For two spherica l
part icles of radiu s a. the theory states th at the Van der Waa ls interaction energy

I See the chapter entitl ed " Petits vo lumes et grandes surfaces: l' uni ve rs des co ll oi'des", by
Dani el and Audebert in La juste argile (Eds. Dao ud and Williams, Ed it io ns de Phys ique,
1995) . The book by Russe l, Saville, and Schonwalter, Colloidal Dispersions (Cambridge
Un iversity Press, 1989) enabl es furt her understandin g.
:?.66 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Enginee rin g

va ries wi th di stances be twee n the parti c les acco rdin g to th e law:

A u
E,d" (s) = - - - lo r 0.3 nm < s < u [ 13. 7J
12 s

The consta nt A is Hamaker 's co nstant. It de pe nd s o n the compos iti on o f th e parti c les
and on th e na ture of th e so lve nt in whi c h the y are di spe rsed . Its va lue is o f th e order
o-
of I 20 J, w ith lo wer va lu es in water tha n in a ir for th e sa me particles.

For s < 0.3 nm . dipo la r inte rac ti o n fo rces become stro ng ly repul s ive (Bo rn
fo rces) du e to th e interpe ne tra ti on of the two atoms' e lectro n clouds . T he negative
va lue o f th e interact io n ene rgy in [ 13.7] mea ns th a t th e Va n de r W aa ls forc e
between th e particles is a ttractive. Th e pa rticl es wou ld spo ntaneo us ly pl ace
th e mse lves at a di stan ces = 0 .3 nm from eac h o ther if the Van der W aa ls lo rces a nd
Born forces were th e o nl y to be co ns idered , fo r it is at that di sta nce th a t th e
interac ti o n ene rgy is th e weakes t. Eq ua ti o n [ 13.7 ] is va lid for 0. 3 nm < .I < a. T he
formation of a c luste r d ue to the effect of the Vander W aa ls forces the re fo re impli es
that the two pa rti c les have been b ro ug ht s uffi c ie ntl y c lose to eac h oth e r at some
po int in tim e .

It is fo und th a t parti c les a re o ft e n nega ti ve ly c ha rged at the ir surface. These

negative cha rges produce a negati ve e lectrosta ti c po te nti a l - V, at th e surface o f the
pa rticl es. Whe n the so lid pa rticl es are di spe rsed in a liquid . the negat ive surface
charges a ttrac t pos iti ve io ns pre sent in th e liquid, which ga the r into a laye r in the
vic inity o f the surface. Th e e lectros ta ti c r o tenti a l produced by the partic le, to which
an adjace nt pa rticle is subj ected , is in fact ge ne rated by thi s " doubl e e lec trical
layer", ra th e r th a n so le ly by the c harges o n the s urface of the particl e . It not o nl y
de pend s on the charge d ens it y o n the surface but a lso on the prope rties of th e
e lectrolyte . It can be s how n, based o n e lectrostati c theo ry, th at th e e lectrosta ti c
inte rac ti o n e nergy between tw o id en ti ca l pa rticl es is writ te n as:

[ 13.Rl

The qu a ntit y 1/ K ,. is ho moge neo us to a le ng th . It is ca lled the Debye length . a nd

quantifies th e thickness o f th e doubl e layer. It ca n be eva lua ted us in g th e re lation:

[ 13.9]

The phys ica l constant s th at appea r in thi s rel a ti on a re the e lectrica l c harge e of an
2
e lectron , Avogadro's numbe r N A a nd the Bolt z ma nn con stant k. Further, c 0 is the

:?. We reca ll th at e = 1.60 x I 0 1 ~ Cou lomb, I /4m:o = 9 x I 0~ . N 11 = 6.02 x I023 ato ms mole 1
, and
21
k = 1.38x I 0 J K 1 Th e relative permitti vity or water is [.' = 80.
 Phys ica l Desc ripti on of a Particul ate Medium 267

vac uum permitti vit y and E: is th e relati ve permittivity o r th e so lvent. Th e co ndition s

intervene through th e co ncentrati on C, of posi ti ve ions in th e nuid (in mo lm \ th ei r
va lence Z, and th e abso lute temperature T. At room temperature, th e thi ckness o f
the doubl e layer ma inl y depend s on the conce ntrati on o f pos iti ve ion s within th e
fluid . It is interesting to co mment on a few simpl e eva luati ons of th e Debye length .
Fo r a" ions in water at 25 C, K ; 1 = 0.4 nm for C, = 0.6 mo l L 1, whereas
2
,...,. 1 = 3 nm for C, = I 0 mol L 1. Th e first conditi on correspond s to th e average
sa li nity of seawa ter (about 35 g L 1) . We shall co nsider both these co nditi ons fo r th e
exa mpl es treated herein aft er.

Spec ifi e ri gs enabl e th e meas urement of the electri ca l potenti al Vs on th e surface

o r the parti cle. It is usuall y of th e order of a few milli vo lts. The surface charge
corresponding to the potenti al V, ca n be estim ated using the electrostati c relation :

Q = - 21TE:oE:GVs [13 .10]

since the electrostati c interacti on energy is th e product of th e electrostati c potenti al

lo r a give n spac ing of the two parti cles and the charge. An electri ca l charge
equi va lent to that of 28 elec trons di stributed over the surface o f a particle of radius I
J..lm produces a surface potenti al c lose to I mY .

The elec trostati c int eracti on energy is pos iti ve and dec reases with s , wh ich
impli es th at the elect rostati c force is repul sive. Th e lowest energy leve l is obtained
when th e parti cles are infinitely di stant from eac h other.

Equati ons [ 13.7]- [1 3.9] all ow simpl e ca lcul ations to be performed in order to
eva luate th e ability o f th e particl es to to rm clu sters . To th at end , it is suffi cient to
pl ot the vari ati ons with s of the total interacti on energy:

[ 13.11]

Figure 13.5 represents the res ults obtai ned for two typica l conditi ons. Th e radius
of the parti c les is a = I J..lm . Th e parti cles are placed in water and Hamaker's
constant is ass umed to be equal to A = I 0 20 J. Th e energy leve ls plotted are rendered
dimensionl ess by the energy du e to Brownian movement, kT, in order to get
reasonab le va lues along the vertica l axis and to recall that the interacti on energy
between parti c les and the energy of Browni an move ment' are of comparable orders
of magnitude.

3 Ph ys ica l princ ipl es of Brownian movement are introdu ced in secti on 15.4.
 15

15

Figure 13.5. lnrem ction energr \ 'S. diswn ce hetH een /\\ 'o panicles Jilaced in \\'ala
Radius u/ lhe particles a = I f.-1111 llwnaker .,. coii.\'IC/111 A = I 0 '" .J.
Ke r : E nlu , "- . - . - . '; Ee " ---- '~ ,.' '
a. I',= 15 rnV . K,~ 1 = 3 nm . b. I', = 15 mV. and ,.;,~ 1 = 0.4 nm

The first case (Figure 13.5(a)) is classical. It is often presented as an exa mpl e of
a result from the DVLO theory. The Debye length is rather large, mea nin g th at there
are few ions in the so lvent. The Van der Waals force dominates at short distances,
while the electrostatic force prevails when th e particles are a littl e fut1h er apan .
The energy minimum is observed at s = 0.3 nm. Th e particles may form a cluster
in which particles are very close togeth er (.1 = 0.3 nm). The abso lute va lue of th e
energy minimum for s = 0.3 nm is large co mpared to the energy of Brownian
movement , which means that th e cluster is stab le and dense, if it forms .
 Physica l Desc ri pti on of a Parti cu late Med ium 269

The curve tC1) ex hibit s a pos iti ve max im um for a gap of the order of 2- 3 nm .
Part icles must therefore have an amount of kin eti c energy (e ith er Brow ni an
move ment energy or mec hani ca l stirring) large r th an about 20 times the Browni an
move ment energy in order to pass th at potenti al barri er and constitute a cluster with
a spac in g s = 0.3 nm betwee n parti cles, ca ll ed a "coagul ation clu ster''. It is also
obse rved th at th e total energy E,(s) ex hibit s a negati ve minimum for a gap of th e
order of I 0- 15 nm . Thi s min imum is equi va lent , in abso lut e va lue, to onl y a few
times th e Brow ni an move ment energy. It corresponds to a clu ster th at is not very
dense or ve ry stab le, ca ll ed a " nocc ul ati on cluster. "

For the same su rface potenti al, but with a small er Debye length , we have pl otted
111Figure 13.5( b) th e vari ati ons of th e di ffe rent energies with s. Thi s conditi on
corresponds typi ca ll y to a situ ati on observed in seawater. Th e prese nce of a
substantial quantity of ions within the so lvent causes the electrostati c energy to
dec rease ve ry rapidl y. The Van der Waals force dominates for all va lues of th e gap
s, and coagul ati on clusters form spontaneously if th e stirring within th e so lvent
enabl es the pai1i cles to get suffi cientl y close to one another.

Equatio n [ 13.8) shows that an in crease in th e surface potenti al causes th e

repul sive force between the part icles to increase, and is th erefore unfavo urabl e to the
fo rmati on o f clu sters. Equati ons [ 13. 7)- [ 13 .I I) hardl y help to grasp the effect of
th e parti cle size on the formati on of clusters. Both th e electrostati c interacti on
energy and th e va n de Waa ls energy increase lin earl y with radius a of th e particl e, so
that one mi ght think that the obtained chat1s will simpl y be enl argements of those
presented in Fi gure 13.5 if the size of th e particl es is vari ed. The energy minima
co rresponding to coagulati on and fl occ ul ati on clusters wo uld thus be increased if the
parti cle size:- increased, along with the leve l of the potenti al barri er to be passed.
Howeve r, reality is different. A larger parti cle may have a negati ve surface charge
greater th an that of a small er part icle. The surface electrostati c potenti al is larger, so
that the electrostati c force is more strongly increased than indi cated by the linear
va ri ati on with a of equati on [ 13.8). The important result is that partic les are more
lik ely to form clusters, the small er th eir size is. For marine or ri ve r sediments, it is
generall y observed th at parti cles of a size less than 60 ~tm fo rm clusters. Th ose
sediment s are grouped under th e appe ll ation of cohes ive sediments, or more
commonl y siIts. Sediments of a size greater than 60 J..Lm are ranged in the category of
sa nds and non-cohes ive sediments. We have seen that the presence of pos itive ion s
in th e tluid promotes th e form ati on of clusters. It is thu s obse rved th at th e fo rmati on
of noes is enh anced in seawater in co mpari so n to fresh water.

Th e DVLO th eory effecti ve ly enabl es us to determin e whether parti cles are

li able to form clusters. The most deli cate va ri able to access is the surface electri ca l
potenti al, or equi val entl y the negati ve surface charge of part icles. Still , thi s th eory
does not suffi ce to predi ct whether th e parti cles will actuall y form nocc ulates under
270 Fluid M ec hanic s for C hemi ca l Engineerin g

spec ific conditi ons. A stati stical mod el describin g parti cle moti on needs to be
associ ated w ith th e DVLO th eory in ord er to quantify th e probab ility for th e
particl es to move towa rd one anoth er. The concentrati on of particles obviou sly
promotes th e formation o f clu sters. So does th e level of stirring, as it in creases th e
probabi Iity o f particles to move towa rd one anoth er and suppli es e nergy to th e
particl es for pass in g potenti al barri ers, if required. Wh en the stirrin g energy is
substanti al, th at energy is also capabl e o f brea kin g up fl oes.

13.3 Fluid particles

Fluid particl es diffe r from so lid particl es in two respec ts:

I. Th ey defo rm under th e effec t of th e forces ap pli ed on th eir sur face (grav ity.
pressure, fri cti on stress. etc.).
2. Wh en the parti cle is mov in g relativ e to th e fluid , th e fri cti onal stress on th e
surface o f th e particl e induces a move ment inside th e parti cle. Mechanics requires
co ntinuity of ve loc ity and co ntinuity o f stress at th e interface between th e two fluid s.

Th e third part of thi s boo k is mainl y dedi ca ted to studying ph enomena in volving
so lid parti cles. The diffe rences between so lid and fluid parti cles are onl y di sc ussed
twice in the nex t chapte rs. We shall stud y in secti on 15.3 th e ro le of move ments
intern al to fluid particl e in the grav itati onal sedim entation of a flui d pa rti cle within a
fluid at rest. Th en, in secti on 17.7.2, we also di sc uss th e centrifugati on o f an o il drop
in a hydrocyc lone, but the pa11i cle will th e n be consid ered suffici entl y small for its
de fo rmation to be neglected.

In the fo ll ow in g, we di sc uss th e geo metri ca l de fo rm ati on of a fluid pa rti cle.

As a lready menti oned in th e introdu cti on sec ti on of thi s chapte r, th e ph ys ica l
para meters gove rnin g th e tl ows in s ide and o uts id e a parti cle are densiti es Pr and
p 1, dyna mi c viscos iti es )/d and ,u,. and th e parti c le di a mete r D. Dyna mi c
pa ra meters a re th e rel ati ve ve locity U o f th e pa rti c le with respec t to th e fluid and
th e grav itati onal acce lerati on g, which w ill co me int o pl ay if Prot= P1 . In o rder to
desc ribe th e hape o f th e inte rface betwee n two fluid s, surface tens ion ya lso has to
be taken into acco unt. Thi s qua ntity was introduced in secti on 9.3 .1 in the case o f a
gas/liquid interface.

Lapl ace equ ati on [9.32 ] ass um es uniform press ure out s ide the fluid particl e.
Wh en Pp ot= Pr, th e difference in th e hydrostati c press ure a ppli ed by th e ex teri or
fluid on th e particle at its bottom and at it s top cannot modify the shape o f the fluid
particl e if it is small co mpared with th e press ure difference betwee n in side and
outside. Thi s co ndition is met wh en th e parti cle di ameter D is less than the capill ary
length . Deformation of th e surface by the effect o f grav it y is neg li g ibl e and th e
 Physica l Desc ripti on of a Particulate Medium 27 1

particle keeps its sph eri ca l shape th ank s to surface tension . Th e capill ary length ,
introd uced with equ ati on [9.36] for a gas/ liqu id interface , can be ge nerali zed to the
case o f any two fluid s by writin g:

r =J r with t.p = lp,- p 1 l [ 13. 12]

' t.pg

The rati o of the part icle diameter to the capi ll ary length is eva luated by the
Eotvos number4 :

Eo = t.pgD " [ 13. 13]

r
The relative di spl ace me nt of the parti cle with respect to the surrounding fluid
a lso de form s th e fluid particl e if the pressure variation s around th e particle ca used
by th e relati ve moti on of the fluid parti cle become signifi cant compared to the effect
of surface tension. For a fluid particle settling und er th e effect of grav ity when
p 1, ~ P r , the di agra m presented by C lift , Grace and Weber5 displays the di ffe rent
shapes o f fluid particl es observed , dependin g on the Eotvos number and on the
Reynold s number:

[ 13 . 14]

U is th e relative ve loc ity o f the fluid parti cle w ith respect to th e fluid and
v, = f.l, I p , is the kinemati c viscos ity of th e continuous ph ase. The draw ings
superimposed onto th e graph in Figure 13.6 show the vario us shapes encountered .
The particles des ignated as spheri ca l are such that the rati o of th e smallest di stance
to th e la rgest di stance betwee n two parall el pl anes enclos ing th e bubbl e is greate r
th an 0.9. The essential result from Fi gure 13.6 is th at a fluid particle has to be
suffi cientl y small in order to be co ns idered as remainin g spherical. The di agram
shows that a fluid particle is sphe ri ca l when Re < I , for any va lue o f th e Eotvos
number. For the res ults prese nted in the Figure, th e ve loc ity U is however not an
ind ependent parameter, as th e parti cle settl es in the gravity fi eld . The condition
Re < I rely to a small fluid pa rticle, as wi ll be seen in secti on 15.3, which is
devoted to th e gravity settlin g of fluid particl es.

Figure 13.6 is va lid to gas bubbles in a Iiquid (prJPr << I and K = f.-/d/ f.lc << I)
and to drops of liquid that are non-miscibl e in anoth er liquid (both p 1j p 1 and K are

4 Th is number is also cal led the Bond number.

5 R. Clift, J.R. Grace and M.E. Weber, Bubble. Drops and Particl.iles, Academi c Press, 1978.
272 Fluid Mechanics for Chem ica l Engineerin g

usuall y of the order of I). Th e di agram ca nn ot be used for a li quid drop fallin g
wi thin a gas (pp/p 1 >> I and K >> I). A drop fa llin g through air ass umes an
ellipso idal shape, signifi cantl y fl attened in th e direc ti on o r th e relati ve veloc ity, a:s
soon as its size exceeds I mm 6

1o"
J ittery Sphe ri c a l capsule
..........
o
1 1 ~

S kin -s hape d
10' c apsul e
"'
et:

10 1 ~
n
Ellipsoida l c apsule

100

10- 1

Sphe rica l
~

10- ' 10- 1 10 10 1 10' 10'

Eo

Figure 13.6. Shape oj'a bubble or drop mo ving in afluid under the effect uj'gra l'it\'
and the difference in density. Th e curve delineates the parametersfor which the
hubble is spherical (fig ure adaptedfmm Cl!fi. Grace. and Weher. seefh otnnte 5.)

Fluid parti cles di spersed in a fluid , whether they are gas bubbles in a liquid or
drops of liquid dispersed in a gas, are also likel y to coa lesce and co nstitut e large r
fluid parti cles. The coa lesce nce phenomenon has a few co mm on traits wi th th e
formation of clusters o f so lid particles as di sc ussed in th e prev ious sec ti on. Its
occ urrence depend s on several parameters:
- The proximity of th e bubbl es or drops to one another. It, therefore, depend s
close ly on the vo lume fra cti on of th e di spersed phase within th e continuous ph ase.
The va lu es given in Table 13.2 show that the particl es are ve ry close to one
another, even for very low va lu es of th e vo lume fra ction o f the di spersed phase.
Consequentl y, it is poss ibl e onl y to obse rve di spersions o f fluid particles for very
low va lues of th e volume fra cti on of the di spersed phase ( I% at th e most). Beyon d

6 The book by Cli ft , Grace, and Weber, Bubbles, Drops and Particles (ihid.) devotes it s
Chapter 7 to the dynamics of ellipso idal nuicl parti cles. This book is a maJor reference on the
topi c of nuid partic les.
 Phys ica l Descripti on of a Part ic ul ate Med ium 273

th at, coa lescence systemati ca lly occurs, leadin g to larger entiti es, or even to the
fo rmat ion ofp oc kets.
- Th e probability of the bubbl es or drops co llidin g with one anoth er. Thi s
naturall y depend s on th e level of stirrin g in th e fluid. For bubbl es havin g an upward
moti on und er th e effect of grav ity in a fluid at rest, it ca n also be observed th at a
bubbl e acce lerates when it is in the near- wake of a bubbl e located above it. Thi s
phenomenon promotes coa lescence.

Th e coa lescence phenomenon depends on gas/liquid surface tension. It is

observed that the Weber number, which is th e rati o of the kin eti c energy to th e
pressure di ffe rence [9.32] between the in side and outside of the fluid particle:

pU 2 D
We = - - [ 13. 15]
y

has a signifi ca nt influence on coa lescence phenomena.

A turbul ent fl ow is also capabl e of fragmentin g bubbl es or drops. We have

presented in secti on 9.2.3 , th e model by Kolomogoro v and by Hinze, which rely the
max imum di ameter of fluid parti cles in an emul sion to the rate of turbul ent energy
di ss ipation and to surface tension. In th e sa me way, indi cated for the formati on of
clu sters in a di spersion of so lid particles, it is di fficult to determine th e bubbl e or
drop size in a di spersion of fluid particles. We will not di scuss thi s iss ue any furth er
in thi s book, and hence refer the reader to more speciali zed volumes. 7

13.4. Mass balance of a mechanical separation process

Mass balance is the preliminary step to stud y of any mechani ca l separati on

process. Thi s as pec t does not occupy center stage in thi s boo k. whi ch is not intended
as a boo k about process dimensioning but is limited to the mec hani ca l as pects of
such processes.

It is noneth eless important to reca ll how essenti al the mass balance is. The
dimensioning of a mechanical se parati on apparatus derive fro m th e entire process,
and th e mass ba lance of the process quite oft en di ctates the ch oice of a mechani ca l
separati on tec hniqu e and its impl ementati on. It is easy to understand th at the
classica l tec hnology of the car oil filter, whi ch traps parti cles on the upstrea m side of
the filter, is adeq uate because the mass o f parti cles to be trapped by th e filter i very

7 See th e book by E. E. Michae lides, Particles. Bubbles & Drops (World Sc ient ifi c, 2006) and
the paper by .1 . Fabre and A. Line, " Modelin g of two- phase slug fl ow'' (A nnual Rev. Fluid
tlfec/1 .. 24, 2 1--46. 1992).
274 Flui d Mechan ics for Chem ica l Engineerin g

small. It w ill thu s be poss ibl e to dri ve 10,000 or 20,000 km before repl ac in g th e oil
filter. However, when tonn es of so lid particl es need to be retained in ord er to treat
wastewater, th e dimensioning and impl ementati on of th e mec hani ca l process are
immedi ately constrained by the mass to be treated, and in a peripheral way by th e
iss ues of managin g and handlin g such quantiti es.

In Figure 13.7, th e overall mass ba lance in a mec hani ca l separati on apparatus is

de pi cted. The apparatus is suppli ed, at a vo lume fl ow rate Q" that remain s constant
with time, with a fluid that carri es so lid parti cles with a conce ntrati on C" at th e inl et.
Th e inl et mass rate of solid parti cles is ri1" = Q"C" . Th e sketch represents several
poss ibl e confi gurati ons. The apparatu s has two outl ets th rough whi ch fl uid fl ow
rates Q..~ and Q,2 leave, carryi ng solid parti cles with conce ntrati ons C, 1 and C, 2,
respecti ve ly. The fluid balance ac ross the apparatu s di ctates th at Q = Q,1 + Q,2.
If th e apparatus retain s a frac ti on of th e so lid parti cles, th e mass M,(t ) retain ed
increases in tim e. Th e mass balance of the apparatus for so lid parti cles is written as:

[ 13.16]

Volume fl ow rale of fl uid

Q, t (nr ' ' I)
Concentrati on
C, 1 (kg m 1 )
Volume fl ow rate of fl ui d
So lid fl ow ra te
Q, (m' s- 1)
Q, IC, I( kgs I )

ID
Co nce ntrati on
c, (kg Ill 3 )
Soli d fl ow ra te
Ma ~~ n.: tcnti on
Q, C, (k g s- 1)

"'r~"""'k....;"'~"<iit!"".
"

L ~-V.;o'"ltoin le
Q,2
fl ow ral e of flu id
1
(nr s
Concentration
1
)

c,2 (kg m '1

So li d fl ow ra te
Q ,2 C ,2 (kg s I)

Figure 13.7. Mass balance.for a mechanical separation process

 Ph ys ica l Descripti on of a Particulate Medium 275

It is vital to estimate th e rate of so lid feed Q"Ca before stud ying a mec hani ca l
separati on process. Moderate concentrati ons in suspension, assoc iated with large
fluid now rates , produce considerabl e masses of so lids. A few fi gures rega rding
th e river Gironde illustrate thi s fa ct. Th e river has an average fl ow rate
of th e order of I ,000 m1 s 1 and carri es 2.2 x I 06 tonlyr of so lid matter, which
correspond s to an average concentrati on in suspension of th e order of 60 mg L_,.
T hi s va lue, whi ch lends to th e waters of the Gironde a turbid appea rance (o ne ca nnot
see through them) , seems modest at a first glance. Such tlgures pertainin g to river
hydrodynamics are also releva nt to process engin eerin g pract iti oners. The mass now
rate is 60 kg s 1 An engin eer will eas il y rea li ze that (s)he will have to man age
substantial vo lumes of so lid mate ri als if they tap, for whatever purpose, a fraction of
th e liqu id flow of th e Gironde ove r a long peri od. If th e mass M,(t) retained in the
apparat us grows rapidly, cloggi ng of the mec hani ca l separati on apparatu s may occ ur
quick ly, and th e impl ementat ion of the process will be essenti all y co nditioned by the
removal of parti cles from the apparatus.

Figure 13.7 co mpri ses two outl ets, whi ch may perform different function s. If the
purpose of the apparatus is to clari fy th e liquid , with a view to di sc hargin g through
outl et I th e pat1i cle-free liquid. the separati on effici ency E may be characteri zed
by brin gin g in th e ratio of th e rate of so lid s leav in g through outlet I to th e feed rate
of so lids:

[ 13. 17]

An effic iency equal to I mea ns that the obj ecti ve of se parati on has been reached,
alth ough th at figure will need to be correlated to th e rati o of fluid fl ow rates,
Qs 1 I Qa. If Q.d I Qa << I , the clarifi cati on will have been ca rri ed out at the
expense of a substanti al drop in the liquid now rate leavin g through outl et I.

It is also possible to ass ign grain size sorting objectives to outl ets I and 2.
In the case of a bimodal di stributi on of so lid parti cles in the fluid , one may wish to
discharge through outl et 2 all so lid part icles whose size exceeds a certai n diameter,
whil e di sc harging through outl et I th e largest poss ibl e fracti on of small particles
present in the fluid .
 Chapter 14

Flows in Porous Media

Thi s chapter dea ls with th e ph ys ica l principl es that govern fl ows in porous
med ia. Such flows have a wide range of appli cati ons in oil ex tracti on, civil
engi nee rin g and geo mec hani cs (mec hani ca l behav ior of so il s), or in hydrogeo logy
(water reso urces) . In the process fie ld , filtrati on is widely used in the agri-food and
environment indu stries (water treatment, du st remova l, etc.).

Hav ing in trodu ced in th e fi rst secti on the charac teri sti c parameters of th e
geo metri ca l stru cture of a porous medium , we establi sh Darcy's law, whi ch link s
the flu x th ro ugh a porous medium to the press ure gradi ent th at is appli ed. Th e
charac teri sti c hyd rodynami c parameter of a porous medium is it s permea bility.
In sec ti on 14.5 , we establi sh th e Kozeny- Carman fo rmul a, whi ch models
permeab ility acco rdin g to the geo metri ca l paramete rs of the poro us medium .
Da rcy's mode l is ex tended in sec ti on 14.6 to th e tu rbul ent reg ime, introdu cin g
Ergun s re lati on, whi ch describes the flow in hi gh ly permeable porous med ia.
Appli ca ti ons treated more direc tl y in thi s chapter are th e filtrati on processes. We
introduce th e noti on of membrane res istance to filtrati on and disc uss th e case of
filt ratio n by press in g (sec tion 14.7), where by by co mpress in g th e porous medium ,
th e liquid he ld in sid e th e porous medium gets drain ed. Th at process co upl es th e
fl ow in th e porous medium to th e mec hani ca l behaviour of th e so lid skeleton
co nstitutin g the porous medium .

Me mbrane separati on processes are not restri cted to th e mechani ca l prin cipl es
discussed in thi s chapter. Different terminologies (mi crofiltrat ion, ultrafiltrati on,
nanofi ltrati on, reverse osmos is, etc.) point to the fact that separati on mec hani sms
change as parti cles beco me small er and membranes become denser. The small er
the pa rt ic les are, the greater the pressures used in membrane sepa ration processes
278 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

will be. Physico-chemi ca l processes intervene (diffusivit y, so lu bilit y of products in

the membran e), and transport through th e membrane is governed by both th e
pressure gradi ent and th e diffusi on ph enomena. We merely skim such phenome na 1
in secti on 14.8 by describin g the reve rse osmos is process used to separate pa11i cles
of molec ular size.

14.1. Consolidated porous media, non-consolidated porous media, and

geometrical characterization

A porous medium is a granul ar medium in whi ch grain s (or fibers) are in contac t
with one anot her. In such a medium , int erstiti al spaces are ca ll ed pores. The granul ar
medium is ass um ed to be ri gid and in mec hani ca l equilibrium . Two types of porous
medium ca n be di stingui shed:
I. Conso lidated poro us medi a: here, th e co ntact (cohes ive) forces between
elementary grains maintain th e mec hani cal stability of the mate ri al. Usua l exa mpl es
of co nso lidated poro us med ia include ca lcareous rocks, clays, vegetab le, and animal
ti ss ues. The deformation or mec hani ca l equilibrium of the porous medium is not a
co ncern , unless it s mechani ca l breakdown under th e effect of strong forces is
co nsidered.
2. Non-conso lidated porous medi a: here, th e grains are not fu sed toget her. They
are stacked in a stabl e equilibrium confi gurati on under the effect of th e grain s'
weight and of the buoyancy force appli ed by th e liquid contained in th e pores. Th e
mec hani ca l equilibrium of th e grain s may be upset if a suffi cient press ure gradi ent
is ap pli ed in the opposi te directi on to the reduced grav ity forc e (d iffe rence between
the weight o f the grains and the buoyancy force). Bed fluidi zation th en occ urs,
a phenomenon that we study in Chapt er 15. Class ica l exa mpl es o r non-conso lidated
porous media include depos ited beds of sand , glass ball s, asbestos fiber, or glass
woo l, etc.

The fl ow in a porous medium mainl y depends on the size of th e pores and th e

vo lume th ey occ upy inside th e materi al. The heterogeneity of th e pores can also be
an important parameter; very tin e pores, through whi ch th e fluid transits with
difficulty, may coexist with wider pores and with larger fractures prov idin g
pathways through which the fl ow is facilitated. The detail knowl edge of th e
geo metri ca l characteri stics of a porous medi um is usuall y not ava i!ab le. Concept
mi ght be introduced to define them in a stati stica l way, but th ey remain or limited
va lue if no apparatuses are ava il abl e to meas ure them. Permea bility is th e key
phys ica l parameter that quantiti es the flow in side the porous medium . Qui te o ften.

I See th e book by J. Mulder (Basic Principles of Membrane Techno/og r, Springer. 1996 )

whi ch specitlca ll y deals wit h membrane se paration.
 Flows in Porous Media 279

engin ee rs merely estimate th e permeability of a porous medium by performin g

direct measure ments of th e di scharge fl ow through a porous medium sampl e,
with out hav ing access to geometri ca l data regarding th e porous medium (see the
laboratory permeameters desc ribed in section 14.3 . I).

The perm eability of a poro us medium depends on geo metri ca l parameters that
in vo lve onl y length dimension s:
- The "size of th e pores": th e notion of pore distribution according to their size
ca n be arrived at in a manner similar to that used for th e grain size di stributi on
introduced in Chapte r 13; however, the difficulty li es in translatin g thi s concept into
a meas urement apparatus. For a deposited granul ar material , it is common practice
to co nsider th at th e characteri sti c size of the pores is of the order of magnitude of th e
grain size, when the grain size di stributi on is unim odal.
- Th e "total poros ity", is defined as th e rat io of the void vo lume 111 a porous
medium to the total vo lume

E: = (e mpty vol ume/ total volume) = 1- (so lid vo lume/ total vo lume)

Th e "accessibl e poros ity" : some pores in side the porous medium may be
enclaves unconn ec ted to the outside, and th e fluid ca nnot fl ow throu gh th em.
Access ibl e poros ity, defin ed on the basis of the volume of access ible pores, is
writt en as:

c_a = access ible pore vo lume/ total vo lume

Access ibl e porosity is th e relevant parameter in the study of hydrodynami cs.

It ca n be meas ured usin g a labo ratory porosimeter, whi ch meas ures the vo lume of
a tluid th at ca n be introdu ced into th e porous medium . Accessibl e poros ity can
also be eva lu ated by both vo lum e and mass measurements of a porous medium ,
if th e dens it y of th e grain s const itutin g the porous medium (measurabl e using
a pyc nometer) is kn own. The acc uracy of thi s procedure implies the ability to
ensure that access ibl e pores are fill ed with air or water, not a two-ph ase air/water
mixture.
- The "spec ific area" (as) is defined as the ratio of the area between so lid and
vo id to th e total volume of the sa mpl e. Its unit is m- J. The small er the size of the
grain s or pores is, the larger th e speci fi e area is. The spec ifi e area is important for
eva lu ating a transfer ca paci ty between the so lid o f the porous medium and the fluid.
Th e larger the spec ifi c area is, the eas ier the transfers will be.
- The /or/u osilv fac tor 1: th is dimensionl ess qu antity is defined as the ratio
of th e length of the path trave ll ed by a tluid particle cross ing th e sa mpl e to the
thi ckness of the sa mpl e. It is estimated statisti ca ll y.
280 Fluid Mechanics fo r Chemica l Engineerin g

The concept of a porous medium supposes th at the grain s formin g the porous
medium are small . Thi s noti on is onl y meaningful in th e contex t of a flow in side th e
porous medium . "Sma ll " signifi es th at th e flow in side the porous medium is slow.
Th e Reyno ld s number, ca lcul ated from th e ve loc ity of th e ll ow inside th e porous
medium . th e cha racteri sti c size of th e pores and th e kinemati c viscos ity of the fluid .
should be sufficie ntl y small fo r th e fl ow inside the porous medium to be lamin ar.

14.2. Darcy's law

Consider th e princip le of the experi ment depicted in Fi gure 14.1. The porous
medium . whose propert ies (gra in sizes and poros ity) are homogeneous in space. is
bound ed by two planes perpendicul ar to th e Oz ax is. Th e thi ckness of the layer is
denoted by L. The materi al is immersed in a fl uid, whi ch saturates the interior of the
porous medium.

()

u
Figure 14. 1. Fi<JII in a porous medium

If a homogeneous press ure eli fference 6 P = ( f't - f'_) > 0 is appl iecl between the
two sides of th e porou s layer. it is easy to arri ve ex perim entall y at the fo ll ow ing
observa ti ons:
- The pressure differenti al 6P produces a fluid fl ow rate through th e porou s
medium , ori ented from th e side where the pressure is hi ghest toward the s id e where
it is lowest.
- The di sc harge ve loc ity U varies lin earl y wi th the regul ar head loss 6PIL. for a
give n tluid an d a give n porous medium .
- For a g iven porous med ium , the di scharge ve loc ity U decreases in in verse
proporti on to th e dynami c viscosi ty ,ll of th e tlui cl.
 Flows in Porous Media 28 1

Th ese simpl e observa ti ons lead to Darcy ' s law , whi ch is written, for the
co nfi gurati on of Figure 14.1, in abso lute va lu es:

pU p
[ 14. 1]
k L

Da rcy' s law in vo lves coeffi cient k, whi ch is the intrin sic permeabil ity of th e porous
medium. Its dim ension is square meters. Thi s quanti ty depends on th e dim ensions of
the poro us medium (grain or pore size) and on the geometri ca l characteristi cs
(po ros ity, tortuos ity) defi ned in th e prev ious secti on.

Darcy's law is generali zed to three dimensions (3 D) by writi ng:

-/1 u- = - vp
{7
[ 14 .2]
k

The ve loc ity of th e fl ow is parall el and in the oppos ite directi on to th e pressure
gradi ent, as observed in th e prev ious unidi recti onal confi gurati on. The 3D
formul ati on is useful , fo r in stance, to stud y oil ex tracti on from an oilfi eld . If the
permea bility is homoge neous in space and if the fluid is in compress ibl e. th e press ure
fi eld is th e so luti on to th e Diri chl et pro blem:

I'Y.p = 0 [ 14.3]

for a known distributi on of th e pressure fi eld at the boundari es of th e doma in .

Darcy ' s law all ows the veloc iti es in the porous medium to be deri ved there from.

A second leve l of genera li zati on, often useful in practi ce, occurs where body
forces are app li ed to the flu id. We then write:

F
-1' 11- =- p + [ 14.4]
k

In the case where the body force is represented by we ight, [ 14.4] beco mes:

p - \"7 -
[ 14.5]
- u =- vp + p g
k

where p is th e de nsity of the flui d. Eq uati ons [ 14.4] and [ 14. 5] can be eas il y
recovered by a co mpari son with Nav ier- Stokes equati ons. On ly the pressure term
and th e body force remain unchanged. The left-h and side is substituted for the
accelerat ion and viscous terms.
282 Flui d Mec hani cs fo r Chem ica l Engi neeri ng

14.3. Examples of application of Darcy's law

14.3. 1. Laboratory p ermeameters

Permea meters are in strument s whi ch, by an appli ca ti on of Darcy 's law , all ow the
meas urement of the intrin sic pe rmeab ili ty of a porous medium. Two such exa mpl es
are prese nted here. In both cases, the tlow inside th e poro us medi um is produced by
th e force of grav ity .

I 4.3.1 .1. Co nstant head permeameler

Figure 14.2 present s the principle of a constant head permeameter. The porou s
medium layer, of thickness L, is set in the lower tank. The wate r leve l in the upper
tank is kept constant using an overfl ow pan. The liquid flow s upward in side the
porou s medi um , from bottom -u p. Th e fluid is di sc harged usin g the same overflow
princip le that maintain s th e water leve l constant above the porou s med ium . As the
upstream and downstrea m water leve ls are constant, th e press ure difference I'!. P
between the bottom and top of the porous medium is also constant.

01e rll ow
di ,c hargc

H = (~P- pg l )/pg

V=US i

Figure 14.2. Conswnt head permeameter

The fl ow wi thin the porous medium is produced by the head d ifference.

M l = I'!.P - p gL , between the bottom and top of the porou s medium . This quanti!)
is eas il y measured using height differe nce H (i.e. !'!./-/ = p g !-1 ) between th e water
leve ls in two piezometric tubes connected to th e bottom and top of the porom
 Flows in Porous Media 283

medium , res pec tively. If H = 0, the fluid is at hydrostati c equilibrium and the fluid
does not fl ow through the porous medium . An upwa rd fl ow. of di scharge ve loc ity U,
is generated if/-/ > 0. The fl ow rate Q is constant and is eva luated by measuring th e
vo lume V(f) o f water co ll ected in a test tube after pass in g through th e porous
medium (Q = V( t)lt). The permea bility of th e porous medium is simpl y deduced
from Darcy's law :

k = __!:____ J.-1U = pQL [14. 6]

!'J. H Spgf-1

He re. S des ignates th e cross-secti on of the porous medium.

14.3. 1.2. Variab le head penneameter

In order to understand th e operati on of a vari able head permea meter, it is use ful
to sta rt by studying the situ ati on depi cted in Figure 14.3. A liquid layer of initi al
thi ckn ess h0 is pl aced on top of a layer of porous medium of thi ckness L, whi ch is
saturated with Iiquid. Th e weight of the water layer overl yin g the porous medium
appli es an ove rpressure to the upper side of th e porous medium, ge nerating a
trans ient fl ow through the poro us medium . The thi ckness h( t) of th e water layer on
top of the filt er medium dec reases over time, as well as th e di scharge ve loc ity U(l ).
Atm ospheric pressure serves as the press ure appli ed on the upper side of the liquid
layer and at th e ex it of th e porous medium.

P=P:um
h(t)

P=P"""+p gh 0

-L
U( t )

Figure 14.3. Unsteady.filtration under the e[j'ect oj'gravitv

W ith the conve nti ons from Fi gure 14.3 , Darcy's law [ 14. 5] appli cabl e to th e
porous medium ( - L < z < 0) can be written as :

P
- u = -cp
-- p g [ 14.7]
k a::
284 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemi ca l Engin ee rin g

Through mass conservat ion, the ve locity compon ent 11 is necessa ril y independent
from ::. It is equal to the di sc harge ve locity U(1). Th e first integral of [14 .7] !'rom
:: = - L to :: = 0 is, therefore, written as:

Jl
- L U( I) = - p(:: = 0,1) + p(:: = - L,t) - pgL [14.8]
k

Within the liquid layer on top of the porous medium (0 < :: < h(l) ), the pressure
di stribution is hydrostati c if the filtration process is suffi cientl y slow. We thu s write:

op
0 =- - - pg fo r O < :: < h(l) [ 14 .9]
a::
so that:

p(:: = h(t) ,t) - p(::. = O,t) = - pgh(t) . [ 14 . 10]

Since the pressure o f the liquid is equal to the atmosph eri c pressure Pa<m at
both the free surface (:: = h(l)) and the underside of the porous medi um (:: = - L) ,
summing [ 14.8] and [ 14. 1OJ leads to:

_ f!_U (l)L = pg(h( l ) + L) [ 14.11]

k

Although it is not necessa ry to ca lcu late the press ure on the upper side or th e
porous medium , its va lue (given in Fi gure 14.3) is determined by a simpl e
hydrostatic ca lcul ation. The throughfl ow ve loc ity U(t) is nega ti ve. Meas urin g th e
flow rate Q(l) = - U( t) S through th e porous medium (S being th e filtration area)
then all ows the permeabilit y k to be eva luated as:

k=_ _:_J.-1-=Q
'--'-1 )_L_
( --'-
[ 14 . 12]
Spg(L + h(t))

The quantity pg ( L + h) is the head variation through the porous medium , which
generates the fl ow. The thickness of the porous medium intervenes because th e
thickness of the water layer in side the porous medium also ge nerates a press ure
gradient.

The confi gurat ion of Figure 14.3 can be so lved in a simil ar mann er for
- L < h(t) < 0 , a situation wh ich corresponds to the draining of the porous medium
(much like the final stage of draining coffee grounds in a machine operated using
 Flows in Porous Media 285

gra vitati ona l forces). Th e effective thi ckness of the filt er medium is simpl y th e
thi ck ness of the wa ter layer L + h(t ), and th at sa me height determines the pressure
fo rce due to grav ity. Equati on [ 14.8] is thus transposed into:

!:!_ U (t )( L + h(t)) =- p(: = h(t )) + p(: = - L) - pg ( L + h(t)) [14. 13]

k

Sin ce p(: = h(t) ) = p(: = - L) = ?.

11 m, the filtration velocity is constant during the
draining process:

p gk
U=- [14.14]
l'

z
0
H (t)

h
()

s
Figure 14.4. Variah/e head permeameler

Let us now cons id er the variabl e head permea meter illu strated in Figure 14.4.
The pressure P+ upstrea m of th e porous medium is due to th e water leve l in th e
upper tube. The hydrostatic ca lculation hence yields:

P. = P.um+ pg(h + 1-f(t)) [14 .15]

The downstream press ure is kept constant by the overfl ow dev ice:

p_ = P.um + p g ( h + L) [14. 16]

286 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Enginee rin g

Th e time evo luti on of H(t) is determined takin g into account the fa ct that th e
!low rate is conn ected, through mass conservati on, to the rate of di spl ace ment of th e
free surface in the feed tube ( (} being the secti on th ereof) :

dH
Q( t ) = - SU(I) = - (j- [14. 17]
dt

Us ing [ 14.15]- [14 . 17], equati on [14.8]1 eads to a first-order linea r differenti a l
equati on:

!!_ (J L dH (t ) = - pgH (t ) [ 14. 18]

k s dt

th e so luti on of whi ch is:

H (t ) = H (O)ex p {- kSpg r} [ 14. 19]

pL(J

A simpl e reading of th e water height in the upper tube at two diffe rent tim es all ows
th e permeabili ty to be ca lcul ated by:

k = ,u L(J ln { f-/ (O)} [ 14.20]

Spgt H (t )

Hydrauli cs practiti oners often empl oy hydrauli c con ducti vity K = pgk I f..' . Thi
qu antity has the dimension of a veloc ity 2 Hydrauli c conducti vity is modifi ed, fo r a
given porous medium , if th e vi scos ity of th e li quid !lowing through it changes. In
contrast, intrinsic permeability depends onl y on the geometri ca l stru ctu re of the
poro us medium .

14.3.2. Membrane resistance to .filtration

Ele mentary filtrati on theory is built upon Darcy's law. It is co mmon for a
filtration dev ice to be compri sed o f seve ral homoge neous filtering laye rs stack ed
upon one another. Each filter medium is characteri zed by its thi ckness H r and

2 The UK and Ameri can literature on porous medium fl ows often call s .. perm eab ility" the
quantit y we kn ow as hydraulic condu cti vity. The quantit y kip (units m3 s/kg) is also fo und
int rodu ced with th e name of perm ea bility. We advise th e reader be ing careful with th ese
different definiti ons. It is quite easy pass ing from one definiti on to anoth er. as the de liniti on
o f pem1eability is readil y identi fie d by examining th e units.
 Flows in Porous Medi a 287

pe rmea bility k1. For the case represe nted in Fi gure 14.5, th e filt er co mpri ses two
laye rs, whose res pecti ve characteri st ics are des ignated by indi ces I and 2.

P,

Figur-e 14.5. Fillralion device ll'i!h /1\'o fa) 'ers o/nfiller medium

The co ntinuity of the fl ow rate over th e thi ckn ess of th e filtrati on domain dictates
that the throughfl ow ve locity be independent fro m ::, i.e. u(::) = U Integrating
Darcy's law ove r eac h of th e two porou s medi a ca n be written by a direct adaptation
o r [ 14.8] to th e notation s of Figure 14.5. The fo rce of grav ity is oriented downward ,
pa rall el to the 0:: ax is. We obtain:

/-/ 12
P+ - P; =-p U - - - p gH r2 [ 14.2 1]
k l2

/-/ II
P; - p_ = - pU - - p g f-l r1 [ 14.22]
k r1

Su mming [ 14.2 1] and [ 14.22 J leads to:

!:iP = P, - p_ = - p U ( Rr1+ Rr2) - pg( !-1 11 + /-/ 12 ) [ 14.23]

Thi s relati on link s th e total pressure va ri ati on 6 ? = P+ - P_ betwee n the ends of

the filtration system to the produced flow rate Q(l) = - SU(I) (where S is the
filtrati on area). The gravity term takes into acco unt the co ntributi on of th e we ight of
th e water co lumn restri cted to th e thi ckn ess of th e filter medi a. Relati on [14.23]
brin gs in quantiti es:

f-I r
[14. 24]
kl
288 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineering

for porous medi a I and 2, whi ch are referred to as membrane res istance to filtrati on.
Th e hi gher the membrane resistance to filtrati on, the lowe r is the di sc harge fl ow rate
for a sa me head vari ati on between both sides of th e porous medium . It is foun d.
based on [14 .23 ], th at th e res istance to filtrati on o f the different layers or filt er
medium ca n be simpl y added to eva luate th e ove rall res istance to filtrati on of th e
whole dev ice. Thi s property ex pl ains why the noti on of membrane res istance to
filtrati on is used for dimensionin g filtrati on dev ices.

14.3.3. Dead-end filtration and cross-flow filtration

Filtrati on processes can be categori zed into dead-end and cross- fl ow filtrat ion
processes, both types bein g represent ed in Figure 14.6.

In dead-end fi ltrati on, th e entirety of th e fluid upstrea m of th e filter medium

passes th ro ugh the membrane. Parti cles whose size is greater than th e dimension of
th e pores acc umul ate on the upstrea m side of th e filter, fo rmin g a cake which
thi ckens ove r time (thi ckn ess H~'( l)) . Thi s layer of parti cles has to be take n into
account for ca lcul atin g th e permeate fl ow rate, as if it was an additi onal layer o f
th e fi lter med ium . The res istance of the ca ke aga inst fil trati on, R~: = H~ (1) I k~ ,
in creases as it grows thi cker. The fl ow rate, therefore, decreases in tim e.

The cross-fl ow fil tration dev ice (Fi gure 14.6(b)) aims to avo id the depos iti on
of parti cles on the upstrea m side of the membrane and th e assoc iated res istance to
filtrati on. Parall el to the surface of the filter, a fl ow is maintain ed, wh ose ve loc ity
is much hi gher than th e ve loc ity of the permeate fl ow induced by th e pressure
di fference th roug h th e filt er. The fluid and parti cles esse nti all y j ust trave l along th e
surface of the filter, and a small fracti on of th e fluid fl ow rate passes through th e
membrane. Th e fri cti on of th e tangenti al fl ow on the filt er wa ll is used to re-entrain
the parti cles that are depos ited on the filt er, in order to prevent the form ati on of a
ca ke whi ch would dimini sh the filtrati on !low rate. Cross- fl ow filtrati on reduces th e
ph enomenon of membrane clogg in g.

The choice of dead-end or cross-tl ow filtrati on depend s on the se parati on

obj ec ti ve th at is dec ided pri or to se lection of th e filtrati on process. In wastewater
treatment , e.g. th e liquid disch arged into th e environment first has to be cleared of
a large fracti on of its parti cles. Dead-end filtrati on dev ices, such as fil te r presses,
all ow for th e recove ry o f sludge for furth er treat ment. As far as the suppl y of
drinkin g water is concerned, it is th e quality of the permea te flow th at matters. At
the end of the treatment chain , the conce ntration o f parti cles within the fluid to be
treated is low, and the particl es to be removed are very minute. The membranes used
are dense, and the ultimate water filtrati on is usuall y of th e cross-fl ow type. Thi s
prov ides for good control over clogg in g phenomena .
 Flows in Porous Med ia 289

p_

Permea te nu x Or
\ Membrane

(a) Dead -end fi lt mti nn

Feed nux Oa Retentate flux OaOr

Permea te fl ux Or

(b) Cross- fl ow filtrati on

Figure 14.6. Dead-end and cross-jlow.fillralion devices. For cruss-.flowjillralion,

!hefeedflow ra!e Q., is much grea!er !han !he permeale (lo w ra!e Qr. For dead-end
.fil lralio n. Qa = Qr. Fil!ra lion resul!s(i'Oin !he pressure dif{erence !1P = P. - p_
!hrough !he membrane

14.4. Modeling Darcy's law through an analogy with the flow in side a network
of capillary tubes

Darcy's law models the tl ow at a spati al scale larger than that of a pore. In side
the pores and mi croc hannels running through the porous medium , the fl ow consists
of an asse mbl y of jets, as Figure 14.7 attempt s to illustrate. At one point in the
porous med ium, ve loc ity ii that appea rs in Darcy 's law is an average va lue over a
vo lum e whose size is greater th an th e dimension of th e pores . Darcy 's law , written
in its generali zed forms [ 14.4] or [ 14.5], therefore describes the fl ow at a sca le
which is greater th an the size of the pores. Yet, thi s remains a loca l formul ati on. The
heterogeneity of the medium ca n be taken into account through the spati al va ri ati ons
of permeability. Rigorous deri vati ons of Darcy's law consist in averag in g the loca l
equati ons of fluid mechani cs over a representati ve elementary vo lume (REV) of
290 Fluid M ec hanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

a size greater than th at of th e pores and small er than the dimensions o r the porous
med ium . The formali sm of th ese deri vati ons is too co mpl ex to be prese nted here.
We shall co ntent ourse lves with a simplifi ed derivati on of Darcy's law, which bui ld s
upon an analogy betwee n th e fl ow in a porous medium and th at in a network or
capill ary tubes running through the medium . This proof utili zes th e res ults rega rdin g
the Poiseu ill e tlow (see Chapter I).

A porous medium (Figure 14. 7(b )) of thi ck ness L is thu s rep rese nted by a
network o f circular cap ill ary tubes of diameter D. The length of eac h tube is denoted
by I. It is greater than the thi ck ness L of the porous med ium , due to the to11uos ity of
the channels runnin g through th e poro us medium. We , therefore, write 1 = Il L.

t t ttttt

'\- : num ber of channel

open in gs per uni1 area

7a 7b

Figure 14.7. Porous 111edium . (a) Representation at the scale oj"o repn:.ITI11llliiT
ele111en/on volume (REV) o(a si::e g rea ter than the scale o(a fJOre. (h) Represemution
h1 a 11ei11 Drk o/copillwT tuhe.\

If a pressure va ri ati on t>,.P = P+- P~ is ap pli ed between th e in let and outl et of a

circul ar cy lindri cal tube of length I and diameter D , the fl ow rate th at passes through
the tube is given by th e so luti on of the Poi se uill e fl ow for a fluid of dynamic
viscos ity p:

- -
Qlube - 7r
-t:..P
- D" [ 14.25)
128p I

(C hapter I, eq uatio n [ 1. 25]) . This relat ion supposes that the flow is suftic ient ly slow
to remain laminar. We return to thi s point later. In additi on, th e curva ture of the
capillary tube is also neg lected.
 Flows in Porous Medi a 29 1

By representin g th e porous medium with a number nc o f cap ill ary tubes pass ing
through a unit sur face in the 0.\T pl ane, we deduce fro m [ 14.25] th at th e di sc harge
ve loc ity ac ross th e surface of the porous medium is:

n , Jr D ~ 11?
u = n, Qtubc = - - - - - [ 14.26]
128pt L

Th e tortuosi ty 1 is introduced in [ 14.26] in order to ex press th e Darcy law in

terms of th e thi ckn ess of th e porous medium rather th an th e length of th e tubes. We
recover in [ 14.26] the first form o f Darcy's law (equation [ 14. 1]). The intrin sic
permea bility can then be ex pressed as a parameter depending on th e geometri cal
characteri sti cs of th e capill ary tube network :

k = n,Jr D ~ [14.27]
128/

Thi s ex press ion is of li ttl e interest so long as th e di ameter D and the number of
capi II ari es n,. per unit surface are not related to the known geometri cal characteristics
of th e poro us medium . Thi s furth er step is tak en as per the Kozeny- Ca rm an model.

14.5. Modelin g permeab ility, Kozeny- Ca rm an formul a

The geometri cal parameters o f th e poro us medium are the grain size d and the
number of grain s per unit vo lu me nr. The geo metri cal parameters of the network o f
capill ary tubes are th e di ameter D of th e tubes and th e number of tubes nc pass ing
through a unit surface in the Oxy plan e. Tortu os ity t is a co mmon parameter of the
porous medium and the capi ll ary-tube network model. The Kozeny- Carman formula
ex presses, based on [ 14.27], th e dependence of k on d, t, and . establi shing a
link be tween nc and D, on th e one hand , and between nr and d, on the other. These
relati ons are obtain ed under th e hypoth es is th at th e porous medium and th e network
of capill ary tubes have th e same porosity c and th e same speci fi e area a 5 .

For a granul ar medium consisting of spheri ca l ball s, th e poros ity and specifi c
areas are given by:

[14.28]

Hence:

d
a,. -=
6 1- c [ 14.29]
292 Plui cl Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engin eerin g

For the capill ary- tube network medium , the poros ity and spec in c area are:

ffD 2 I ffD " ffDI

f: = nc - - - = n, --I and a,= lie - - = n, ffD t [ 14.30]
4 L 4 L

The equi va lent relati on to [ 14.29] is written as:

D
a -=& [14.3 1]
' 4

Comparing [ 14.29] with [ 14.3 1] leads to:

D= ____l!__ d [ 14.32]
3( I - c )

9( 1- &) 2
lie = [ 14 .33]
TrE:d 2 1

[14.34]

The latter re lati on is more ofien used in th e form :

[ 14.35 ]

whi ch is kn own as th e Kozeny Ca rman law, using the empirical coefnc ient
hA = 4.5 I .

d 2 pm 60 p ill 200 ~1111 2 111111

2 1 9
k (m ) 4.4 x 10 ' 4.0 X 10 I! 4.4 x 10 II 4.4 x l0

Table 14. 1. Penneahilill " l'lllues cu/culaled using lhe Kozem Cumlan(imnu/a
r
(C<flWli rm I 4. 35})for (I fJ0/"0 1/S 11/edium consisting ofspherica/ ha//.y of"dimlleler d
Th e porosil\ ' is = 0.4

Table 14.1 li sts a few va lu es for the intrin sic permeab ilit y of a porous medium .
ca lcul ated using the Kozeny-Carman relati on. It illustrates several essenti al
properti es of the Kozeny- Carman relati on and of th e noti on of permeabi lit y. whi ch
it is important to remember:
- Intrin sic permeability k is a very small quantity. It depends mainl y on the grai n
size, and decreases stron gly when th e gra in size decreases.
 Flows in Porous M ed ia 293

- k increases when poros ity increases. Howeve r, for a depos ited bed, poros ity
does not vary much (in the interva l 0.3 < t < 0.5), exce pt for so me parti cul ar
materi als used as filt er aid s, whi ch have a poros ity of the order of 0.9. When added
to wastewater, they co ntribute to maintain a hi gher level o f poros ity in th e sludge
ca ke depos ited on th e memb ra ne durin g a ti ltrati on process.

14.6. Ergun 's relation

Darcy 's law is va lid onl y for a suffi cientl y slow flow , whi ch is laminar in side th e
porous medi um . Th e va lidity crit eri on for Darcy 's law is ex pressed by a Reynold s
num ber, written usin g th e length sca le Jk th at charac teri zes the porous medium .
The fo ll ow in g criteri on for th e va lidity of Darcy ' s law is ge nerall y agreed upon:

Re= p u Jk l p < IO [ 14.3 6]

For a Rey nolds num bers exceeding th e va lue of 10, Ergun ' s relati on:

[14 .37]

with lit: = 4.5 1 and hn = 0.3 0.1 , is a co mmonl y used ex tension of Darcy's law.
Th e pressure difference ;j.p and the thickn ess L o f th e porou s medium are defin ed as
in Figure 14 . 1. In th e first term on the ri ght-h and side , we recogni ze the Darcy 's law
assoc iated with the Kozeny- Ca rm an relati on. The second term, whi ch is owed to
Burke and Plummer, tak es into account th e effect of turbul ence in the tl ow inside
th e porous medium . Its modelin g is cl ass ica l; the press ure gradi ent assoc iated with
th e Burke and Plummer's term does not depend on th e tluid ' s viscos ity, but va ri es
with th e density o f th e fluid and the squared veloc ity.

Ergun's relati on is appli ed not onl y to very porous beds but also to non-depos ited
granul ar medi a such as tluidi zed beds, as we study in Chapter 15 .

14.7. Draining by pressing

Drain ing by press ing is a co mm on operation fo r a perso n wh o presses a sponge

in ord er to wring the maximum poss ibl e amount of liquid out o f it. It is also used in
indu stri al processes aimin g to reduce the water content in a sludge. From a
mechani ca l point of view, modeling the filtration of th e liquid within the porou s
medium (Darcy ' s law) needs be compl emented, in order to take into acco unt th e
294 Fluid Mec hanics for Chemica l Engineerin g

deformati on process of the so lid skeleton of th e porous medium , whi ch res ults fro m
press in g and produces th e draining of the liquid.

Fi gure 14. 8(a ) shows th e geometry for whi ch the dynami cs of drain ing by
press in g is formali zed . The porous medium is pl aced betwee n two plates in side a
verti ca l co lumn. Th e lower pl ate is fluid ti ght, wh ereas th e upper pl ate is porous.
Th e porous upper plate is subj ected to a vertical force of intensit y R,. Thi s force
compresses the porou s medium . whose thickness H(r) dimini shes ove r tim e as the
liquid leaves through the porous upper pl ate. We denote by U (::.. r ) th e th roug hfl ow
ve locity in side the porous medium , which is ori ented along the 0::. ax is.
Incompress ibility results in U(::., r ) be ing pos iti ve and increasi ng with ::., since the
liquid can onl y lea ve through th e top in the confi gurati on show n in Figure 14 .8 . We
denote by U, (f ) = U ( H (r ),r ) the draining veloc ity through th e upper plate.

11 (1)

(;t) Prirh.' ipk

I H it

Figure 14.8. Sketch of draining by pressing

It is ass umed th at the characteri stics of th e poro us medium - press 111 g

and filtration - are homogeneous in any plan e perpendi cular to th e 0 ::. ax is.
Consequentl y, all th e quantiti es in vo lved in th e problem depend on tim e r and
pos iti on::., but not on x and v . Fi gure 14.8( b) represents a slice of porou s medium
between pl anes z and z + d::.. Within that sli ce, soli d- and liquid-fill ed zones are
identifi ed. The force R, appli ed on the porous medium at its surface is onl y part iall y
 Fl ows in Porous Med ia 295

transferred to th e so lid . Th e remainder is retransferred to th e fluid in order to force it

out o f the porous med ium . We denote by R(::) th e total force appli ed on the
so li d surface at alti tude:: by th e so lid undern eath . By conventi on, R(z) > 0 , and the
bo un da ry co nditi on at the sur face of the porous medium is R( H (t )) = R, .

Fo rmali zin g th e prob lem requires several steps, diffe rent in natu re, whi ch are
treated in sequ ence.

14. 7.1. Draining the liquid

We denote by &(::,t) the poros ity ins id e the porous medium . Thi s va ri es with ::.
It is obse rved that pressi ng does not occur simul ta neo usly in the entire layer. The
poro us med ium is grad uall y co mpressed from th e top to the bottom of the layer.
Conservation of the liqui d mass li nks U(::,t) to &(::,1):

au at:
[1 438]
8:: at
The liquid fl ow is deduced from Darcy ' s law:

aP P
- - = - U(::, I ) [1 4.39]
o:: k( l' )

with P(::,t) the pressure of th e li qui d in side the porous mediu m.

14. 7. 2. Mechanical equilibrium offorces applied on th e solid skeleton and on th e

liquid

It is ass umed th at the intrin sic permeability of th e porous medium is small .

Compress ion of th e porous medium is co ntroll ed by the drainin g of liquid out of
the porous med ium , whic h is slow. The press in g of the granular medium therefore
depe nds chi efl y on th e permea bility k and the viscos ity p of th e liquid . Th e
equili brium of mechani ca l forces exe rted on th e so lid is verifi ed at all tim es.
Sin ce the prese nce of liquid in side th e porous medium prevents the instantaneous
co mpress ion of the ca ke, th e fo rce d fi;q /sol exerted by the liquid on th e so lid through
all so lid- liquid surfaces within the sli ce of porous medium between z and z + dz
pl anes contributes to the equili brium of forces appli ed on the so lid , which is written
as fo ll ows for th e co mponent directed along k:
296 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineering

[14.40]

By vinue of the principle of action and reaction , the so lid subj ects the fluid
within th e porous medium to a force di ,ollliq = -dl~,q rso l which establi shes a
press ure field in the porous medium . As it fl ows slow ly, the liquid is almost at
eq uilibrium , which is written in a similar manner to [ 14.40] for the sa me sli ce:

- - - -
- P( z+ dz)S,( z+ dz)k + P(::)SL(::)k + dFsolliqk = 0 [ 14 .4 1]

Here, S,. (:) is the throughfl ow crosssection , which varies with:: as a res ult of
changes in porosity:

c (t , ::) = s, (1 , ::) 1 S r14 .42J

Here, S is th e cross-secti on of th e co lumn . Eq uati ons [ 14.40]- f 14.42], togeth er with
the acti on- reacti on principl e, lead to:

aR = _5 a(P r:)
[ 14.43)
a:: az

whose first integral is:

R( z, t) = - SP( z ,t) r:(z, t) + R., [ 14.44]

usin g the boundary conditi ons R( H (! )) = R, and P( /-/ (I )) = P.um = 0 at th e surface

of the poro us medium to determine the co nstant of integrati on. We thu s have:

P( :,t) = R,- R( z, t) [ 14.4 5]

Sr:( z ,t)

Us in g basic principl es o f algebra, we derive from [ 14. 38 ], [ 14.39], and [ 14.45]:

ar: = j_{ k( r: ) j_( R(z,t))}

R., -
[ 14.46)
at a: pS az r:(: ,t)

14.7.3. Force transmission in the structure

The de li cate matter is to separate the fract ion of th e forces transmitted to th ~

so lid structure from those tran smitted to the liquid , in order to determin e R(z .t ),
 Flows in Porous Media 297

and then th e evo luti on of c(::,l) by so lving [1 4.46] . Hypoth eses regarding the
mechani ca l behav ior of th e so lid structure need to be introduced at thi s stage. We
di scuss in the fo ll owing the simpl est behavi or we may think of, because di scuss ing
more so phi sti cated models is relatively peripheral to the phys ical principles on
whi ch we are foc used, and such di sc uss ion necess itates a speci ali st debate that is out
of pl ace here.3

We consider the simpl est poss ibl e behav ior fo r force transmi ss ion within the
so li d structure. Before the applicati on o f th e force to press the cake ( R( z, 1) = 0 ), the
porosity o f th e porous medium is homogeneo us. It is des ignated by &max . At the end
of the ex perim ent, the poros ity aga in beco mes homoge neous within the cake (thi s is
denoted by E mm ). The pressure is th en equal to the atmospheri c pressure throughout
th e liquid , and R( :: ,l ) = R., . We ass ume th at, at all points in th e porous medium , the
force transmitted to the structure is related to the porosity of the medium at the sa me
locati on. Additi onall y. we adopt a lin ear relationship which verifi es th e condition s
both at th e beg innin g and end o f the ex perim ent . Thi s leads us to represent
mathemati ca ll y the follow ing behav ior observed in the E mu' <<&max and
0 < R < R, interva ls as:

C- Cmin
R,- R = R, [ 14.47]

Th e quantit y:

[ 14.48]

is the compress ibility coe ffi cient of the cake . The linear behav ior of the porous
medium in compress ion, ex pressed by [ 14.4 7], can be associ ated with an el asti c
be hav ior law. alth ough we do not imagin e it to be reversibl e (wh en the force is
re laxed, th e ca ke does not recover its initi al thickness). The coe ffi cient = I I x is
therefore interpreted as the Youn g's modulus of the materi al, characteri zin g its
subsidence for a given force. ~ Introducin g [ 14.4 7] and 14.48] into [ 14.46] yield s:

oc _ a {k(s-)-I- -ac}
--- - [ 14.49]
al a:: 1-'X c- 2 az

3 A useful compl ement is foun d in G. Baluais, " Post-traitements a Ia tl ltrati on (broc hure J 3
502), Techniques de l'!ngenieur, vo lume Geni e des Procedes.
-+ See Chapter 6, secti on 6.3 .
298 Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineerin g

Despite its simplifi cati ons, thi s model has the advantage of hi ghli ghting the fac t
th at th e ph enomenon behaves lik e a di ffusion process. whi ch both presses th e so lid
stru cture and drain s the liquid , starting at th e top and prog ress in g to th e bott om o f
the ca ke.

14.7.4. Characteristic time of draining by pressing

It is relati ve ly easy, albeit a littl e tedi ous, to ca lcul ate th e space and time
vari ati ons of porosity durin g a draining by press ing operati on. By taking an average
poros ity to introduce an average di ffu sion coeffi cient into [1 4.49]. a reso luti on usin g
a Lapl ace transform leads to an ex press ion of the so luti on 5 It is noted th at the
characteri stic time of drainin g by press ing takes on th e form :

HJpx
f pr~ss lihrauon ::::::: - - - [14.50]
k

whi ch in vo lves th e initi al thi ckn ess H 0 of the cake, its permeab ility k. and the
dynami c viscos ity f.' of th e liquid , along with the compress ibility coeffi cient o f th e
cake. Th e order of magnitude of the amount of liquid di sc harged by th e drainin g by
press in g operati on is:

Vprcss ji hra1ion :::: H 0 R., X [ 14.5 11

Area S intervenes indirectl y throu gh R,. whi ch is the total force exe rted on the
surfaceS.

14.8. The reverse osmosis process

We have indi cated in th e introdu cti on to thi s chapter th at physico-chemi cal

processes related to th e diffusion of constituents or to their so lubilit y in th e flui d
in side a dense membran e should be taken int o account in order to model me mbrane
separati on of very small parti cles di spersed in a tluid . We di sc uss thi s as pect now,
by desc ribin g the reverse os mosis process.

5 See agai n G. Baluai s. " Post-traitern ents it Ia filtration" (brochure J 3 502). Techn iques ae
I "!ngenieur, volume Geni e des Procedes.
 Flows in Poro us Media 299

Dense wal l

C=O

(a) Non-equilibrium situati on (b) Equilibrium silllation

Figure 14.9. Osmosis phenomenon und notion ofosmutic pressure

The impl ementati on of Darcy 's law is modified when the particles are very small
and in suffi cientl y hi gh co nce ntrati on, due to osmosis whi ch th en occ urs through a
membran e. Th e noti on of os moti c pressure is easi ly brought to th e fore by carry in g
out the ex periment depi cted in Figure 14.9. Consider a jar partition ed into two
co mpartments by a dense porous wall. The membran e is semi-permeabl e: it lets
so lvent molec ul es through, but retain s ve ry small particl es whose size is of the order
of a few nanometers. Initi all y (F igure 14.9(a)), equal vo lumes of a liquid are
introduced into both the compartm ents. The ri ght-hand side compartment contains
pure so lvent, whil e in the leti- hand si de compartment the sa me so lvent contain s very
small particles with a concentration C0 . Th e ex perim ent shows that thi s situati on is
not at equilibrium . Some so lvent transits from the right compartment to the left
compartment until the liquid inside the compartment containing the parti cles
stabili zes at a leve l that is hi gher than th e leve l in the right co mpartment by a
height H (F igure 14 .9(b)). The pressure difference across the porous wa ll is then
P os m = pgH . Thi s quantity is ca ll ed the osmotic press ure.

The osmoti c pre sure is, in fac t. related to a diffusion process between th e ri ght
and left compartments. If th e concentration of parti cles is su ffi cientl y hi gh in side the
!e li co mpartment , and the mass fraction of water is lower in the le ft compartment
than in th e ri ght compartment, then a flow of water occurs by diffusion from ri ght to
left through th e membran e. For the case illu strated in Figure 14.9( b), the water leve l
stab ili zes in the left co mpartm ent when th e advecti on flo w from left to ri ght due to
the pressure difference (Darcy 's law) is equal and oppos ite to the diffusion flu x due
to osmosis. In other word s, the osmotic press ure allows the diffusion flu x to be
quanti tied .
300 Fluid Mechani cs fo r Chemi ca l Enginee rin g

Th e va lue of the osmoti c pressure is ca lcul ated using th e va n ' t Hofl re lati on for
osmos1s:

Posm = C,.RT [1 4.52 ]

Thi s relati on is formall y identi ca l to th e idea l gas law, si nce C.. is the concen trat ion
of parti cles in molm- 3, T th e abso lute temperature, and R th e uni ve rsa l gas co nstant
(R = 8.3 1 J mol- 1 K- 1). The Van' t Ho ff relati on is in fac t deri ved from the difference
of chemi ca l potenti als of th e so lve nt on eith er side of the po rous membrane. ow ing
to the presence of parti cles in the left compartment.

Os moti c press ure in sa lt water is easy to ca lcul ate. For a sal t concentrati on of
I0 g L 1, we obt ain Posm = 8.5 bar at a temperature of 25C. The mo lar mass o f
NaC I bein g 58 g (35 g + 23 g), 10 g L- 1 of sa lt corres pond to 345 molm 3 of ions.
Now, it is observed that a factor 2 appea rs, since NaC I di ssoc iates into Na' and Cl
ions (i. e. th ere are 172.5 molm 3 of Na' ions and 172.5 molm 3 of Cl - ions). The
main findin g is th at th e osmoti c pressure is very hi gh beca use, for a reaso nab le
concentrati on of parti cles in g L 1, the co nce ntrati on of parti cles in mol m 3 is large
if the particl es are ve ry sma11 6

Effec ts of th e noti on of osmoti c press ure are obse rved in everyday life:
- Th e absorpti on of water by pl ants: a pl ant absorbs any wa ter depos it ed on it s
leaves clue to th e presence of min eral sa lt s inside the pl ant.
- Flowe rs are dri ed out if watered with seawater. Th e sa lt in th e sa lt water on th e
leaves ca uses the water co ntained inside th e plant to move to the out side.
- Raw ham is prepared by dryin g it thanks to hav in g sprinkl ed it with sa lt , just
like sa lt di spersed in box where snail s are lefi fo r so me tim e to help them disgo rge
before bein g cooked.

In order to filt er a so luti on containing very fin e parti cles, as is th e case when
seawater is to be desa lin ated, it is th erefore necessary to ap pl y. between th e
co mpartm ent co ntainin g th e parti cles (upstrea m) and th e downstrea m co mpartment ,
a press ure difference !1P = P+ - P greater than th e osmoti c press ure. As long as
6.? - Posn' < 0 , th e flu x of so lvent is an os mos is flu x. Filtrati on occurs for
6.? - Posm > 0 . Thi s is termed reverse osmos is, sin ce th e flu x of so lve nt is in th e

6 Some auth ors use th e term so lute, rath er than parti cles. to refer to molec ules dispersed in a
Ouid . However, it may be noted th at mode li ng the dynami cs of such elements bui lds on
the same fo und ati ons int rod uced in thi s part for spheri ca l particl es. For example. it is common
to rely on Stokes la w in modeling di ffusion through Brow ni an movement (C hapter 16.
secti on 16.3).
 Flows in Porous Media 30 I

opposite direction to the os mos is flux. The effecti ve pressure variat ion prod ucin g the
filtration (or reve rse osmos is) flow is 8.? - P usm . Darcy 's law (equat ion [ 14.1]) can
be used simpl y to eva luate the fl ow rate, by writin g:

pU Jl Q /',.? - P osm
[14.53)
k k S L

This exp lains why reverse osmosis processes empl oy very high-pressure leve ls.
An exercise at the end of thi s chapter exam in es various aspects of the dimen sioning
of a seawate r desalination process.

14.9. Energetics of membran e separation

The hi gh pressures empl oyed in membrane separati on processes, in particul ar

when th e particles are ve ry minute, as we have seen in the prev ious secti on with the
reverse os mosis case, do not mean that membrane separati on is a cost ly process in
terms of energy. The pressure drop between th e upstrea m and downstream sides of
the membrane is an amount of energy per unit vo lume of fluid treated whi ch is
irretrievably lost when passing through the membrane. Thu s, I kWh is spent to filter
I m3 of water with 8.P = 36 bar. If the aim is to su ppl y potable water, the cost is
modes t in compari son with th e price of suppl yin g I m3 of potable water. This
eva luation sets as ide th e constraints of a hi gh-press ure membrane separation process
(safety, mec han ica l forces, pumps to suppl y hi gh pressure, etc.), whi ch also have an
impact in energy terms. It is, however, worth reca lling that membrane separati on
processes are energy effi cient , particularl y in compari so n with th ermal processes
(distill ation).

14.10 Application exercises

Exercise: Study of a seawater desalination process

In order to desalinate seawate r in a sma ll-sized plant, it is envisaged io use a

hollow-fiber modul e (Figure 14. 10), the sketch of whi ch has been found in the
Techniques de l' ln geni eur 7 Sa lt water fl ows in si de circul ar cy lindrical holl ow fibers
of inn er diameter 40 11m and ou ter di ameter 80 ~un through whi ch th e permeate
(sa lt free) is filt ered by reverse osmos is as it passes fro m the in side to the outside
of the fibers . In this cross- flow tlltrati on dev ice, a su bstanti al fracti on of the sa lt feed
fl ow rate leaves without being filtered.

7 Brochure J 279 1, '' Filtration membranaire (0 1, NF, UF): Presentation des membranes et des
modul es". J. C. Remigy and S. Desc laux. Techniques de l'ingenieur, Genie des procedes.
302 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemica l Engineerin g

Holl ow llh!.:rs

2.

Figure 14.10. Hollowfib<Tmodule

The concen trati on of sa lt in th e seawate r is ass umed equal to 35 g L- 1 The molar

mass o f sodium is 23 g and that of chl orin e is 35 g. Based on thi s information, now:
- Ca lcul ate the osmotic pressure.
- Prov ide an order of magnitude for th e permea bility of a membrane all ow in g
9
the filtration o f partic les whose size is I 0 m. Eva lu ate th e membrane resistance to
fi ltrati on for one holl ow fibe r.
- The fi ltrati on plan t under considerat ion wo uld have an in let press ure o f 70 bar
and an outl et pressure of I bar. Eva luate th e flow rate of fi lte red wa ter in liters per
day and square meter of fi It ration area.
- Th e compactness of the fi ltration dev ice is importa nt. Remi guy and Dec laux
indicate a filtrati on area of th e order of 15,000 m ~ for a module whose vo lum e is
I m3 For a I m3 modul e, eva lu ate:
-The fl ow rate of filtered wa ter in cubi c meters per day.
- The number of houses that could be suppli ed on a dail y bas is, based on
Western standards of consumpti on.
 Flows in Porous Media 303

-The total length of th e fibers contained in the mod ul e.

-The vo lum e occ upi ed by the fibers inside the modul e.

Fro m a process point of view, why is it so important to use small-diameter

holl ow fi bers?
- Th e hi gh press ures in vo lved raise th e iss ue of th e mec hani ca l strength of th e
ho ll ow fibers, whose thickn ess is particularly small . The pressure difference
between the inside and outside is balanced by a force f which stretches th e fib er
(Figure 14.1 I). For a sma ll element of hollow fiber, of length L along the fiber axis
(perpendi cul ar directi on to th e plane of the figure) and correspondin g to an arc of
angle 2d8, the equilibrium of forces in th e e,. direction is written as

LR;2d8P+- LRe2d 8P_ - 2 sin(d 8)T = 0

Figure 14.11 . Equilibrium o(j(Hces exerted on a hollo~<".fiber

The stretching force is rel ated to the normal stress T = CJL(Re- R;) , which is
easi ly ca lcu lated under the small -ang le hypothes is:

Holl ow fibers used in reverse osmosis can be made of cellulose acetate or of

po lyamid e. Maxima l stresses (beyond whi ch th e materi al brea ks) are as follow s:
- fo r ce llul ose acetate: CJmax ~ 10 - I I 0 M Pa .

- for pol ya mid e: CJmax ~ 78 M Pa .

Ca lc ulate th e stretchin g stress for the conditions app li cable in thi s exercise.

Ex pl ain wh y th e fiber does not break.

 Chapter 15

Particles Within the Gravity Field

In thi s chapter, we discuss seve ral aspects of the mec hani ca l behavior of parti cles
si tu ated wi th in the grav ity fi eld.

The den sity p, of the parti cles often differs from th e density p1 of the fluid
111 whi ch they are immersed. Within the grav ity fi eld , this produces a relative
movemen t of the particles with respect to the fluid , either upward (ri sing) or
dow nward (settling), depending on whether the particles are less or more dense than
the fluid . In section 15. 1 we study how to eva luate the fall ve loc ity of a ri gid
spherical particle in a fluid at rest, before discussing in secti on 15.2 the settling of a
set of pa rti cles. The relati ve grav itat ional movement of a small-sized fluid particle is
then di sc ussed in sect ion 15.3 for a gas bubbl e in a liquid, a drop of liquid in a gas,
or a drop of non-mi sc ible li quid in another liquid .

We th en study, in sections 15.4 and 15.5, how th e stirrin g of a fluid can mai ntain
a dispersed set of particles in suspension. Practitioners of underwater diving have
rema rked that water beco mes turbid in the event of a storm ; sediments are kept in
suspe nsio n within th e wate r laye r by turbulence. In a fluid at rest, Brownian moti on
can also maintain a co ll oidal suspension (e.g. paint), which is composed of very fine
parti cles. Both physical awareness and observati on show that the denser and th e
larger the parti cles are, the greater is the energy of turbul ence or th e molec ul ar
stirring energy req uired to keep the particles in suspension.

Finall y, we present in sect ion 15.6 the mec hani ca l principl es gove rnin g fluidi zed
beds. By direct ing an upward fluid strea m through a bed of parti cles deposited on a
sieve, it is observed th at the fl ow of the fluid inside the bed pl aces the particles in
306 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineeri ng

suspension when the fl ow rate exceeds a criti ca l va lue. and keeps th em in a sta te of
stirring that is steady on average.

I 5.1. Settling of a rigid particle in a fluid at rest

Consider an iso lated so lid parti cle pl aced in a fluid at res t. If the de nsity p , of the
parti cle is greater than the density Pr of th e fluid , th e parti cle settl es in the grav ity
field. In the reverse situati on, it ri ses.

Th e Stokes ex periment consists in dropping a spheri ca l parti cle of diameter D

where p , > Pr. Th e ba ll ra pidl y reac hes a constant fa ll ve loc ity ~V, parall el to th e
grav itati onal acce lerati on g. When steady-state ve loc ity is reac hed, th e equili brium
of the fo rces appli ed on the ball reduces to the equilibrium betwee n th e red uced
weight Fr; (difference betwee n the we ight and Archimedes ' force) and the
hydrodynami c drag force FR exerted by th e fluid fl ow on th e parti cle.

z
D

f..l = P rv

g
P., > P r

(a) Parameters of Stokes (b) Balance of forces

experiment in steady state

Figure 15. 1. Para111eters o/the Stokes experimen/ o/dropfJing a spherical hall

in afluid at rest. am/ halance nfforces

The parameters of th e Stokes ex periment are reca pitul ated in Figure 15. 1. Th e
reduced weight h is written as:

- D.l-
Fe= -(p,- PJ )g;r- k , [ 15. 1]
6

where k des ignates a unit vector in the directi on oppos ite to grav ity. T he Stokes
experiment is a classi ca l probl em, whi ch we have di scussed in secti on 3.4 as an
 Parti c les Within th e Grav ity Field 307

exe rcise in dimensional analys is. We reca ll its main res ults here. Th e hydrodynami c
drag fo rce, whi ch res ists the relati ve di spl ace ment of th e particle with respect to th e
tlui d, is th e res ult of press ure and fri cti on forces exerted by the fl uid fl ow on the
pa rticle. Th e order of magnitude of visco us forces exerted on the parti cle is:

[1 5.2]

Di me nsional analys is of the fo rces estab li shes th at th e hydrodynami c drag fo rce

(fri cti on force and press ure fo rce exerted on the parti cle) takes on the foll ow ing
for m, whi ch in vo lves th e undetermined functi on J1 :

[ 15.3]

where I' is th e kinemati c viscos ity of the fluid .

In a steady-state regime, the equality of magnitudes of Fe; and FR leads to

express ion of the fa ll ve loc ity as a fun cti onal relati on between two non-dimensional
num bers:

_ { W, D (p,- p; )gD
.... \ _2 '
2
}- o
-
[ 15.4]
v p rvW,

Thi s formul ation, even if we were abl e to ex press functi on J 2 is not easy to use
beca use the fa ll ve loc ity appears in both dimensionl ess num bers. Conseq uentl y, it is
expressed in an equi va lent manner as a relation Re == J {Ar} between the Reynolds
numbe r and Archimedes' number:

W, D Ar == (p, - Pt )gD 3 [ 15.5]

Re ==-- and
v p; v 2

Arc himedes ' number Ar does not depe nd on th e fall ve loc ity, but onl y on the
phys ica l characte ri sti cs of the parti cle and the fluid .

In the asymptoti ca l case where the Reynolds number is very small , as we ll as

whe n it is very large, the form of the relati on linking the Reynolds number to
Archimedes' number ca n be determined. The order of magnitude of the pressure
fo rce exerted on th e parti cle is writte n as a fun cti on of the sca le P of the pressure
vari ati ons on th e surface of the parti cle,

[ 15.6]
30R Flui d Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engi neerin g

Th e order of magnitude of P is establi shed on th e bas is of th e orders o f

magnitude of th e vari ous terms in the Nav ier- Stokes equati on. For a low Reyno lds
number, di me nsional analys is or th e av ier- Stokes equ ati ons 1 shows that th e
pressure scal e P is such th at th e press ure force is of th e same order of magnitude as
th e viscous force. Consequ entl y, with [ 15.2]:

[ 15.7]

and the fall ve loc ity, deri ved from the equ ality of the magnitudes of th e grav ity force
and the hydrodynami c force, is therefore ex pressed as:

(p ,- P t )gD 2
w, ~ --'------"---- [ 15.8)
P! V

In contrast. for hi gh Reynold s num be rs. th e press ure term in the Nav ier- Stokes
equat ion is or the sa me order of magnitude as the nonlin ear te rm (w hi ch it se lf, by
definiti on, is large co mpared to the visco us term ), and the viscous fo rce is
neg li gibl e. We therefo re have success ive ly:

[ 15.9]

(p,- P t )gD
[ 15. 1OJ
Pt

Both laws relating to the fa ll of ve loc ity, [ 15.81 and [ 15. 10], are recall ed in
Ta bl e 15. 1 in their dimensional and non-dim ensional forms. In th e lamin ar regime,
th e coe ffi cient of proporti onalit y 1/ 18 i exac t.2 wh ereas it is empiri ca l in the
tu rbul ent reg ime. Also in clud ed in the tabl e is the Van All en correlati on, whi ch
covers th e int ermedi ate domain 32.9 < Ar < 1.04 x IO"- Thi s empiri ca l co rrelati on is
ve ry comm onl y used, as it co rrespond s to the charac teri sti cs or typi ca l parti cles ,
parti cul arl y in natural environm ent s (coastal shorelin es, lakes, and ri vers).

When using Stokes, Va n All en, or ewton co rrelati ons, it is necessa ry to check.
by estim atin g the value of Archimedes' number, if it is indeed in th e domain of
va lidity of th e co rrelati on. Di screpanci es can be very large in the case o r error.

I See appli cati on exercise (sec ti on 3.4) in Chapter 3.

2 In a laminar reg ime. the exact ex press ion of th e fri cti on force exert ed on a rigi d
parti cle is F, = 3p1 vW,D. Thi s ve ry class ica l relati on will be used in thi s chapter and th e
subsequent ones.
 Particles Within th e Gravity Fie ld 309

Characterizes the physical

Archimedes ' (p ,- P r )gD 3 properti es of the fluid and
number Ar = partic le
p ,v2 Determines the settling regime
Reynolds number WeD
Re = - - Re = J(Ar)
v

Domain of val idity, Dimensional form Non-dimensional

Archi medes number of W, form

Laminar regime (p ,- PJ )gD 2

W cStokl':. Ar < 32 .9 Re = Ar
18p1 v
Stokes' law 18
Intermediate
regime
32.9 < Ar < 1.04 x 10 5 Re = 0. 153Ar 0 7 1
Van Allen' s Jaw
Turbulent regime
(p,- Pr )gD
W c N'-wton Ar > 1.04 x 10s 3 Re = (3A r)
05

Newton's Jaw Pt

Table IS. I. Sell ling velocily We ()/a rigid spherical parlicfe in afluid a/ res /, as a(l1nCiion
of /he phlsical charac/erislics oj"lhe fl uid and parlicle

15.2. Settling of a set of solid particles in a fluid at rest

The settling of a set of partic les in a nuid at rest may depart signifi ca ntl y from
th e laws presented in the previous sect ion for an iso lated particle. Thi s is mainl y due
to tw o phenomena:

- The formation of clusters

A sufficiently den se set of particles (in terms of the number of particles per unit
Yo lu me) can give rise to clusters (often also ca ll ed noes), whi ch gather particles
together. Inter-particular forces such as the Van der Waals force s and electrostati c
forces are responsible for these phenomena. The Van der Waals force is attracti ve. It
therefore promotes the formation of clusters. Th e electrostat ic force is repulsive, and
opposes it. We have brieny described in section 13.2.5 the interpart icular forces and
their effects , but we shall not di scuss these issues any furth er. It is nonetheless useful
to recall that, generall y speak ing, the more spontaneous is the formation of clu sters,
the sma ll er is the size of elementary particles. For natural particles, sed iments are
sa id to be cohes ive (si lt s) when the elementary part icles have a size under 60 ~-tm .
Particl es of a size greater th an 60 ~un are non-cohesive; they are referred to as sands.
3 10 Flu id Mec hanics for Chemical Enginee rin g

As both th e Vander Waals forces and th e e lec trostati c forces are of electri ca l orig in.
the presence of ions in th e liquid influences the formati on of c lu sters. It is thu s fo und
that the fo rm ati on of fl oes is promoted for cohesive sediments in seawa te r in
comparison to what is obse rved in fresh water.

The formatio n of clusters in a fluid is encouraged if th e co nce ntrati on in parti cles

is suffi cient and if a suffi cient leve l of stirrin g is maintain ed in the fluid , as both
parameters increase the probability that th e particl es will move suffi cientl y close to
one another for the inter-particular forces to act and fo rm c lusters . O n the other
hand , a hi gh leve l of turbul ence breaks up the clusters whose size is too large .

Whil e th e occurrence of c luster form ati on can be relati ve ly we ll predicted usin g

th e tools presented in Chapter 13, it is much more difficult to de termin e th e size of
floe s and th eir density. For practi ca l appli cati ons, one ca n reasonabl y consider
ca lcu lat in g the fa ll ve loc ity of a c luster usin g the laws of fa ll ve loc ity estab li shed in
the prev ious secti on, prov ided the clu ster' s sizeD" and density p" are invo lved. The
density of th e cl uster depends on th e porosi ty p in side th e clu ster (F ig ure 15.2). Its
va lue is intermediate between th ose of the fluid and so lid , whi ch tend s to s low down
the sett lin g movement. On the other hand , the size of the c lu ster is greater than th at
of th e element ary particl es, whi ch tend s to increase the fall ve locit y. The effect of
the size usuall y preva il s. This exp la ins th e use of fl occul ant s in a purifi cati o n plant
or a sw1mmmg pool to acce lerate settlin g by fo rmin g clusters of e lementary
parti cles.

Figure 15.2. Characreris lics ofclu.llers

- The phenomenon of hindered settling

Wh en the parti cles are in suffi ciently large number in side the flui d. the ir settlin g
ve locity is slowed down in comparison to th at o f an iso lated parti c le, because
th e downward move ment of part icles has to be compensated by the up ward
displacement of an equal vo lum e of fluid . The proximity o f particl es to one another
hinders the ri se of the fluid and slows dow n settling. Suc h a situati on is represented
in Figure 15 .3(a), which depicts the settlin g of a set of particles ins ide a closed
co lumn .
 Parti cles Within th e Grav ity Field 3 1I

(b) Turbidity current

/ Mixed particles suspension

/ Removable gate t=O

(a) Hindered settling

in a closed tank

Figure 15.3. Hindered sell ling (a) and turbidirv currelll (h)

Th e impediment to settlin g is not neg ligibl e as soon as the rati o of the average
d istance f! between two particl es to the di ameter D of the particles is of such an
o rder of magnitude that ( I D < 5 . This situati on may be reached for moderate
concentrati ons of parti cles . For exa mpl e, for sph eri ca l parti cles of density
p , = 3, 000 gi L di spersed in a tluid with a concentrati on C = I 0 gi L, the number
of parti c les per uni t vo lume is N = 6C I rrp, D.1 . The average di stance between the
particles (C hapter 13, Tabl e 13.2) equals eI D::::: N - 113 I D = (rrp, I 6C) 113 = 5.4 (th e
va lue does not depend on th e parti cle di ameter) . In such a situati on, the particles
may draw th e surrounding fluid with them as they settl e. One consequence of thi s is
represented in Figure 15.3(b). which shows th e principl e of a laboratory ex periment
in whi ch a turbidity current occ urs. A channel is initiall y divided into two parts by
a removabl e partiti on. The ri ght-hand -s ide part is fill ed with cl ea r water and the
left-h and-side part contain s a concentrated suspension o f parti cles homogeneously
mi xed. Wh en th e removabl e partiti on is taken away and the stirrin g th at kee ps the
parti cles in suspension is simultaneously stopped, the particles are seen to settl e,
drawin g th e surroundin g fluid with them. Thi s generates a fl ow of th e particulate
mi xture, whi ch spill s onto the bottom of the channel in a turbidity current th at
moves in time from left to ri ght. Beyond the interest of thi s type of flow for studying
phenomena th at occur in natural environments, thi s experiment shows that, if the
3 12 Fluid Mechanics lor Chemi ca l Engineerin g

concentration of parti cles is suffi cientl y hi gh. the fluid/particl e mi xture behaves like
an ''equiva lent fluid " whose density is:

(p,- pflc
P h = p I + ---'---'---- [ 15.1 1]
p,

P h ts ca ll ed th e wet (or total) density. Such phenomena exp lain why we have
introd uced thi s quantity in Chapter 13 (equation [ 13.6] and Table 13.2) as a
cha rac teri sti c quantity of a particulate med ium.

15.3. Settling or rising of a fluid particle in a fluid at rest

The most co mmon fluid particles are an air bubbl e in a liquid , a drop of water in
a gas, or a drop of a non-miscible liquid di spersed in another liquid (oi l drops in
wa ter, for examp le). The sett lin g or ri si ng of a fluid particle in a fluid at rest is
mod ified relative to the case of a rigid parti cle di scussed in sec ti on 15. 1, because of
friction stresses appli ed by the flow ou tside the pat1i cle set the fluid in side the
particle in motion. The fl ow needs to be determined both inside and outside th e
particle, wh il e verify ing the continuity of ve locity and stress at the surface of the
fluid particle. Thi s so luti on depends on th e va lue of th e Reynolds number associated
with the settlin g ve loc ity, Re = W,D I v, as well as on the ratio K = f../rl I p , of the
dynamic viscosi ti es of the fluid s inside (dispersed phase) and outside (cont inu ous
phase) th e parti cle. The Reynolds number is identi ca l to th e one introduced in
sec ti on 15. 1 for a ri gid particle, but the subscript c is used to spec ify that v, is th e
kinematic viscos it y of the fluid outside the particle. We only prese nt here th e resu lts
regardin g a s mall -s ized particle, for which th e Rey nolds number is suffi cientl y
sma ll . The so luti on to th e prob lem was provided independen tl y by Hada mard and
Rybczynski ' at the beg inning of the 20' 11 Ce ntu ry . It is written, in a formul ati on
equiva le nt to Stokes ' law for a rigid particl e as given in Tab le 15. 1, by bring in g in
Archim edes ' number:

= It: D = Ar {~} = (pr~ - p , ~gD

1
Re {~} [ 15 .12]
V, 6 2 + 3K 6p, Vt 2 + 3K

This law, whi ch is indeed verifi ed for Re < 0.1 , is the cou nterpart to Stokes ' law
for a ri gid parti cle. As a matter of fact , Stokes ' law is obtain ed as a limitin g case
when K ~ CJ . For such low va lues of the Reynold s number, the deform ati on of th e
fluid parti cle by th e stress fi eld appli ed to its surface is neg li gibl e, and th e parti cle
may be considered to retain its spherical shape (see Chapter 13, section 13.3 ).

3 Hadama rd. 1911, CR. Acad Sci. Paris. Vol. 152, 1735- 1738. Rybczy nski, 19 11 , Bull
Kruko11 A cad Sci. A. 40-46 .
 Particles Within the Gravi ty Fi eld 3 13

a. Spherica l coordinate system wi th its origin 0 at the center of the particle. oriented
along the ve loci ty we

h. Air bubble in water ( K = 0 , W,. = 3WcStokcs I 2 ).

c. Liquid drop in another liquid ( K = I , W,. = 6W,.s,okcs I 5 ).

-'

d. Asymptotical case of the rigid part icle (If. - "' W,. = W,.s,okes ).

Figure I 5.4. Srrewnlines. in rhe relari ve fra me all ached ro rhe cenrer ~~l rh e parricle,
oj' rhe .flo,.. ar a low Reynolds nu111ber ( Re = OJ! I ) inside and ours ide a spher ica l
.fluid parricle. Th e parricle is moving wirhinrhe.fluid arrhe g ra virariona l sellling
velociry W,. (Figure hy A. Saboni)

In Figure 15.4. the strea mlin es inside and outside the fluid particl e have been
plotted for a spheri ca l part ic le mov ing at a ve loc ity W, , equal to the grav itati ona l
fa ll or ri se ve locity within the surroundin g fluid. The flow is desc ribed in the
3 14 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

spheri ca l coordinate system illu strated in Fi gure 15.4(a). The ori g in o f th e

coordinate system is at th e center 0 of th e parti cle and moves wit h veloc it y W,
along th e 0:: ax is. The relati ve ve loc ity of th e fluid u(r , {},lfJ) = u,e, + u0 e11 + ""'e,, in
the fram e attached to th e center of th e parti cle is ex pressed at an y point by it s three
ve loc ity co mpon ent s in the spheri ca l coordinate system (0, e, . eo , e'l' ). Ang le
determin es th e pos iti on o f the meridi an plane pa ss in g through the 0:: axis an d
containing point M. Any one parti cle remain s in side a give n meridi an plan e. The
steady-state so lution for the velocity fie ld , whi ch is ax isymm etri c about th e 0:: ax is
without a rotational component about th at axis, is deri ved from the strea m fun cti on
VJ via th e relat ion:

I 8 v; I c v;
u, (r,{)) = - - - - - - , uo( r ,{}) = - - - , and u"' (r,{}) = 0 [ 15.13]
r2 sin {) ag rs in {)ar
The characteri st ics of the parti cle and flui d are such th at th e Reynolds number is
low ( Re = WeD I v, = 0.0 I). The co nt our lines of the dimensionl ess strea m funct ion
4v;( r , {}) I WcD 2 are pl otted in Fi gure 15.4 for three va lues of th e viscos ity
coefficient K = f.'" I f./ c . The strea mlin e v; = 0 is pos iti oned, by co nventi on, on th e
surface of th e fluid parti cle. The co ntour Iines represent the trajectories, outs ide or
in side the fluid particle, o f the fl ow in th e refe rence frame attac hed to the pa11icl e in
translat ion.

The asymptoti ca l case K ~ oo (Fi gure 15.4(d)) is that of the ri gid parti cle
described in section 15.1 . whose moti on ve loc it y is th e ve loc ity W, s 10 ~ "' given in
Table 15. 1. Th e ve loci ty o f th e fluid fl ow goes to zero at the surface of th e parti cle.
and there is no tl ow in sid e th e particl e. For th e low Rey nolds num ber consid ered.
th e fl ow does not prod uce a separation at the rea r of th e pani cle fo r any o f the three
cases. The K = 0 case is very similar to th at of an air bubbl e in water. The kin emati c
viscosi ty of air, at room temperature, is 15 times large r than that o f water. but its
dynamic viscos ity is 55 tim es lower th an the dynami c viscos ity of water. as the
density of air is small co mpared to that of water. Th e " .= I case is illustrati ve of a
drop of li quid in another liquid . Liquid drops encountered in liquid- li quid ex tract ion
problem s have a viscosity rati o K that usuall y va ri es in th e interval 0.05 < K < 10.
By vi11u e of [ 15. 12], the relati ve ve loc ity of th e parti cle in creases as K decreases,
go ing from the va lue of W,stokcs (Tabl e 15. 1) fo r K ~ oo to 6Wcstokc> I 5 for K = I
(liquid drop in a liquid), and th en to 3Wcstoh, I 2 forK = 0 (gas bubbl e in a liquid )
Whil e th e strea mlin es are simil ar in th e air bubbl e and li quid drop cases, th e
ve loc iti es are signifi cant ly larger in side th e air bubbl e than in th e li quid drop,

4 The friction force exerted on an air bubble in wa ter is F,. = 2p rvWcD .

 Parti cles Within th e Grav it y Fie ld 315

because when co mparing the first case with the second , the abso lute value of the
minimum in side the parti cle is hi gher and the ve loc ity W,. serv in g for pl otting the
dimensionless va lue of the strea m function is larger in the first case.

For a Re ynolds number exceeding 0. 1, nonlinear terms have to be taken into

account to determine the settling ve loc ity of a spheri ca l fluid parti cle. From
correlat ions given in literature, 5 it is possible to deri ve th e va ri ati on of th e settling or
ris ing ve loc ity with the viscos ity rati o K and the Reynold s number Re inside the
inte rva l 0. I < Re < 400. For a va lue of the Reynolds number greater th an 400, the
reso lution of the fl ow can no longer be formulated in the same contex t, as the
deformation of the spheri ca l particle has to be taken into account.

Altho ugh the resu lts presented in thi s secti on show that a small -s ized fluid
pa rticle settl es more rap idl y than a so lid particl e of the sa me size, such di ffe rences
are sometimes ignored, and , in ce rtain cases, th e settling laws of a solid parti cle are
used fo r a fluid parti cle. Phenomena of interface contaminati on by surfactants are
observed in some cases; these stiffen the interface and bl oc k the fl ow inside the fluid
parti cle 6

15.4. Particles being held in suspension by Brownian motion

It is co mmonl y observed that st irrin g is ca pable of keeping particles in

suspens ion, counteractin g the gravitati onal settling of parti cles when p , > Pr . We
co nsider in this sec tion th e sustenance of particles in suspension under the so le
effec t of Brownian moti on. This approach is compl eted in secti on 15.5 with the case
of turbulent fl ows. It is ass umed that parti cles are numerous. We are th erefo re
dealing not with maintaining a sin gle parti cle in suspension, but with maintaining a
pop ul at ion of parti cles present in a fluid , their concentrati on being denoted by
C(x.y .z.t).

For a particl e of mass m, Brownian moti on, which consists in random molec ul ar
stirrin g of the particl e due to th e temperature of the medium , is characteri zed by a
kinetic energy that increases with medium temperature:

[15 .14]

5 See Saboni , Alexandrova & Go urdon, Chernical Engineering) , Vo l. 98( 1- 2), pp. 175- 182
2004 .
6 Su rfac tan t effects are discussed in the rev iew paper by Magnaudet and Eames, ''The moti on
of hi gh-R ey nolds number bubbles in homoge neous fl ows", Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. , Vo l. 32,
pp. 659- 708 2000.
3 16 Fluid Mechanics fo r Chem ical Engin ee rin g

Thi s quantity is th e average kin eti c energy of a parti cle se lected from a se t of
particles, as indi cated by the bar ove r the sq uared ve locity. T is the absolute
temperatu re and k = 1.38 x I0 23 J K 1 is Boltzmann 's constant.

Brown ian moti on di sperses th e particl es. In [ 15. 14] , .\'(!) desi gnates the
in stantaneous disp lacement of a particle from an orig in al pos ition. These
di splacements are governed by the fundamental law of dynami cs. The forces applied
to the particle are the th erm al ag itati on force of the Brownian moti on and the fr iction
force exerted by the fl ow. which opposes the relati ve move ment of th e particle wit h
respect to th e fluid. We th erefore wri te:

d 2 .1' - - dl' -
111 -d ? = Frriclion + G1gllalion = - 3iTp f I' D-+ F""""'"" [ 15.15]
{- d!

The friction force is eva luated usi ng Stokes' law for a sphe rical particl e of
diameter D (see sec ti on 15.1 ). Ass uming th at the fluid is not experi encing a so li d-
body moti on, the relative ve locity of the parti cle with respec t to the fluid is dl' I d1 .
The ag itati on force is time dependent. The Brow ni an motion is mode led ass uming
that the direction of the ag itati on force is en tirely random. Forces are uncorrelated
from one time point to another, but the ir intensity is lin ked to th e energy of
Brownian motion (equation [ 15. 14]). Under th ese hypoth eses, the mathematica l
th eory of Brownian agitation states that time-averaged displacements are such th at:

[15.16]

for a set of parti cles whose position at time 1 = 0 is .1'(1 = 0) = 0. Thi s result stem s
from the integrati on of [ 15. 15] and the stati sti ca l averag ing or displ ace me nts over a
set of parti cles. The form of [ 15. 16] is remarkab le. Whil e we have esc hewed
7
mathema ti ca l proofs. we do recogni ze in [ 15. 16] th e classical result tor a diffusion
8
phenomenon , where the increase in time of the size L(l) of a zo ne in whi ch the
parti cles are dispersed follows a law of th e fo rm L(l) = fu. It is th ere fo re poss ibl e
to assoc iate with Browni an moti on a diffu sion coeffic ien t, th e va lu e of whi ch is
link ed to the ag itati on energy of particl es and to th e viscos it y o f th e tluid th at slows
down th e di splacement of th e parti cles :

kT
K =--- [15. 17]
3iTpj vD

7 They can be fo und in Chapter 3 or Colloidal Dispersions. RusseL Savi ll e and Schowa lter.
Ca mbridge Uni ve rsity Press, 1989.
8 See Chapter 8.
 Parti cles Within th e Grav ity Field 3 17

For a set of parti cles whose concentration is C(x.v.::.t), the space and time
evo luti on of conce ntrati on can thu s be obtained as the so luti on of th e advecti on-
d iffu sion equati on:

ac - [1 5. 18]
- + (ii + w.). V'C = K~C '
0/

111 wh ich the dispersion of particles by Brownian motion ap pears via th e diffusion
coeffic ie nt K. Parti cles are carri ed in the fl ow with a ve loc ity ii + W, , which is the
sum of the ve loc ity ii of th e fluid and the relati ve ve locity W, of the particles with
respect to the fluid, due to settlin g.

z z

z+dz
C( ~ )
--
CJ:
C(z)
L
C( z)
j -
l W,.
9, (:) = - w, .C( : ,t)

Figure 15.5. Muss halance o(parlicles in suspension in a slice offluid. Evaluuliun oft he
scll ling .flux <
Ps ( z ) and o{1he j/ux f/Jb(z) associuled with Brmmian motion agilalion.

Let us now consider the sustenance in suspension, by Brow nian motion , of

particles that are denser than the su rroundin g tluid, as depi cted in Figure 15.5 .
G rav ity tend s to ca use th e parti cles to settl e with velocity W, parallel to th e
gravitational acce leration. Fo ll ow ing th e conventi ons give n in Figure 15.5, the
verti ca l directi on Oz is ori ented in the oppos ite directi on to gravit y. We ass ume the
situ ati on to be homogeneous in any pl ane perpendi cular to the z direction .
Dependence on the x and y coord inates is ignored both for concentrati on C(z,!) and
for the mass flu x of particl es per unit surface through a plane perpendicul ar to th e
0:: ax is, denoted by t:p(z ,t). The flu x rp(:: , l) is, by conventi on, pos iti ve if the flux of
particles is directed up wa rd .

The mass ba lance of the parti cles contained in a sli ce of fluid located between
the :: and z + d:: planes is written as:

o{C(z ,t )d::}
__o__----'----'- = r/J( z ,I ) - r/J ( z + d:: , I ) [ 15. 19]
01
 3 18 Fluid Mechani cs for Chem ica l Engin ee rin g

Th e !lux is ex pressed as th e sum of the settlin g flu x rp, (z, t ) assoc iated with th e
fall of particles and the flu x rph(::: ,l ) due to Brow ni an moti on agitati on:

aC(z ,t )
rp( z,t) = - W,C(z , l ) - K -...:...._~ [ 15.20]
a:::
Beca use it is customary to do so, th e fall ve loc ity W, of the settlin g move ment is
taken pos iti ve, alth ough th e ve loc ity is ori ented in the oppos ite direc ti on to th e 0:::
ax is. Th e minu s sign before rV, th erefore ensures th at th e settlin g flu x is actuall y
dow nward . The flu x assoc iated with Browni an moti on ag itati on is mode led usin g
Fick's law with diffu sivity K . A pos iti ve flu x correspond s to a concentrati on profil e
th at dec reases with increas in g:::, as represented in Figure 15.5.

Th e steady state, for whi ch the popul ation of parti cles is kept in suspension, 1s
obtained when th e flu x rp(:::J) is independ ent from 1 and::: . It is necessaril y equal
to zero if no particl e fl ow is imposed at the top and bottom of th e co lumn .
We therefore have:

ace:::)
rp(:::) = - W, C( ::: ) - K- - = 0 [ 15.2 1]
a:::
Integrating [ 15.2 1] shows that th e concentrati on of parti cles dec reases ex ponenti all y
when go ing upward along th e z direction:

'
C(z)=Cex p {- --;-:::
w, } [1 5.22]

Thi s relati on takes on a ve ry simpl e fo rm when th e parti cles are very small
and the fa ll ve loc ity is give n by Stokes' law (Tab le 15. 1). In troducing also th e
ex press ion for the diffusion coeffic ient of Brow ni an moti on (equa ti on [ 15. 17]),
eq uati on [ 15.22] is readil y ex pressed in term s of th e mass 111 of th e sph erica l particl e:

C(:) =C, ex p{ (p, -p , )mg::: } [ 15 23]

p, kT

It is remarkabl e that th e vi scos ity of the fluid does not interve ne in the verti ca l
di stributi on of th e parti cles, even though this parameter influences both th e fall
ve loc ity of th e parti cle and the va lue of the di ffu sion coe ffici ent assoc iated w ith
Brow ni an moti on.

The constant of integrati on C0 , whi ch is th e reference co nce ntrati on taken at

0, is undeterm ined at thi s stage. The model needs to be compl eted with a mode l
::: =
characterizing th e phenom ena occurring at the lower and upper ends of the water
co lumn (s uch as a model describin g the entrainm ent of a parti cle from th e bottom),
 Par1i cles Within the Grav it y Field 3 19

in order to determin e the va lu e of concentrati on C.,. Nevertheless, th e effecti ve ness

of Brownian motion to sustai n the suspension can be eva luated on the bas is of
[ 15.23]. For a vo lume of height h, the rati o of concentrations at th e top and bottom
of th e co lumn is:

C( h) { (p,- p f )mgh } 1 [ 15.24]

- - = ex p - -- <
C( O) p, kT

The parti cles are concentrated 111 the lower part of th e co lumn if
(p ,- p 1 )mg h I p ,kT >> I , whereas the suspension is quas i-h omoge neous if
(p ,- p 1 )mgh I p ,kT I . This dependence on the quantity (p,- Pi )mgh I p ,kT
9
is signifi cant , as the vari ati on is ex ponenti al It can therefore be considered that
Brownian motion mai ntain s the particles in suspension on the vertica l pl ane if:

.:..:
( P_.-_-.:..:P-'t--'--) _m_g_h < I [1 5.25]
p, kT

For parti cles of density p, = 3,000 gi L. immersed in water at a temperature of

300 K, thi s crit eri on indi cates that th e parti cles are maintain ed in suspension by
Brownian moti on over a height of I 0 em if their diameter is small er th an 16 nm. The
in ev it ab le conclu sion of thi s is th at Brownian moti on ca n onl y maintain very small
particles in suspension. These are termed co ll oidal suspen sions.

15.5. Particles being held in suspension by turbulence

The sustenance of parti cles in suspension und er the acti on of turbu lence is
modeled in identi ca l fashi on to what has been done for Brownian ag itati on. Under
the same hypothesis whereby no particles are fed into the bottom or top of the fluid
laye r, the steady-state distribution of parti cles along the vertica l ax is of the fluid
layer corresponds to an average mass flow of particles th at is ze ro at all points.
We can th erefo re return to [ 15.2 1], rep lac in g th e diffusive flu x assoc iated with
Brownian moti on with the turbul ent concentration flux , nam ely:

tp(.:) = - W, C(z)+ w 'c ' = 0 [1 5.26]

The mi xing length model (Chapter 8, secti on 8.6) can be used to ex press th e
turbul ent conce ntration flux w'c'. We write:

tp(.:) = -W, C(z)-

ac
Kt - [1 5.27]
oz

9 See Exe rcise 15. 1 at the end of thi s chapter.

32 0 Fluid Mec hani cs lo r Chemi ca l Engineerin g

The turbul ent diffusion coe ftlci cnt is evaluated using the turbulent ve loc ity ll nns and
the integ ral scale rr :

[ 15.28]

If the charac teri sti cs of turbul ence are homogeneo us within the water laye r, the
verti ca l di stributi on of th e parti cle co nce ntrati on is ex ponenti al, as in ( 15 .22 ]:

C(z) = C, exp {-We- -::} [ 15.29]

U rm s (

The effec ti ve ness of turbul ence at maintainin g th e suspension is quantifi ed by

the rati o of the fa ll ve loc ity to th e turbul ent ve loc ity. Thi s dimensionl ess para meter
is ca lled the Rouse number:

We
Rou = - - [ 15.3 0]
llrms

For Rou > 4 , th e co nce ntrati on leve l dec reases ve ry strongly on a ve rti ca l profil e
between two point s spaced apart by a length equal to the integral sca le; suspension
sustenance by turbul ence is then wea k. In contrast, if Rou < 0 .5, the co nce ntrati on
leve l dec reases by onl y 40% between its value at a give n pos iti on and it s va lue at a
di stance of one integral sca le above. In the latter case, turbul ence e ffecti ve ly
maintain s th e parti cles in suspension.

The abiliti es of Brow ni an moti on and turbul ence to maint ain suspensions are of
rather different orders o f magnitude, as evidenced by a comparison betwee n th e
turbul ent diffus ion coeffi cient and th e di ffu sion coeffi cient due to Brow ni an moti on.
Typi ca l turbul ent ve loc iti es are or th e order o f centimeters per second , whil e
the scal e of turbul ence is usuall y larger th an a centimeter. In water. th e turbul ent
diffu sion coeffi cient A:1 is grea ter than I0-1 m 2 s- 1 (the turbul ent Reynolds number
is greater th an I 00 in order to be in a turbulent reg ime). On the other hand , for
parti cles or diameter D = 10 nm in water at a temperature T = 300 K, the di ffu sion
coe ffi cient o f parti cles by Browni an moti on is K. = 4.4 x I0 11 m 2 s 1. While
Brow ni an moti on cannot maintain in suspension pa11icles of a size grea ter than a
few nanometers, turbul ence ca n. 10

I 0 The analogy betwee n turbulence and th e Browni an moti on goes furth er. The turbul ent
di ffusion coe fti cient is evaluated as th e product of th e turbul ent veloc it y by th e integral
sca le of turbu lence . Likew ise, the coeffi cient of di ffusion by Browni an moti on is th e product
of th e ag itati on veloc ity ll h = JkT l m with th e di splace ment sca le of th e particl es.
 Parti cles Within the Gravity Field 32 1

15.6. Fluidized beds

Fluidi zed bed s tlnd numerous industri al appli cation s, lo r exa mpl e, in chemica l
reactors emp loy in g catal ysts, in waste incineration furnaces, or for th e desiccation of
so lid s. Fluidi zation makes it possible to pro vide a very good contact between the
fluid and so lid . Th e exc hange surface is at a max imum and the fluid is repleni shed.
Transfers are therefore facilitated. Th e stirrin g of particles also all ows for good
homogeni zat ion within the bed. Thi s is so metimes useful from a thermal viewpoint ;
temperature is more homoge neous and th e occ urrence of hot spots, a class ic
drawback of fi xed beds, is thu s avoided.

15.6. 1. Flow regimes

The principle of fluidi zati on is represe nted in Figure 15.6. A mass M " of
particl es is initiall y deposited on a sieve inside a ve rtical co lumn of cross-sectional
area S. An upward flow of fluid is forced through the porous bed. As long as the
ve locity of the verti ca l fluid fl ow remain s low, the bed remain s lying on the grid.
The particles are put in suspension when the ve loc ity exceeds a certai n level. This
marks the onset of a fluidi zati on reg ime. The particles are subjected to stirring
movement s, but they remain trapped in side th e fluidi zed bed. The thi ck ness Hr ofthe
fluidi zed bed stabili zes at a ce t1ain leve l. The greater the tl ow rate, th e more thick
the bed and the more dispersed the particles.

The control parameters for th e ex periment described in Figure 15.6 are th e mass
or particles per unit surface, M" I S , the area-averaged empty-bed ve loc ity of the
fluid in the co lumn , U QIS, th e den sity p , of th e particles, and th e density PJ of
=

th e fluid . The diameter D of the particles, as will be seen in secti on 15.6.3, chi efl y
influ ences the fluid flow in a porou s medium , jointly determining with the kinematic
viscos ity v of the fluid the min imum fluidi zati on veloc ity u,~ and th e tern1inal
entrainm ent ve loc ity U,, between which a steady-state fluidi zat ion regim e is
obtained. Furthermore, for a given ve loc ity U of the fluid , th e thickness of the
flu idi zed bed in creases if the diameter of the particles decreases, for the same mass
of particles in the co lumn .

r h = ll h/11 I 37TpD. The length f h is directl y derived from the integration of [1 5. 15], when the
Browni an ag itati on force is ze ro. u h is typical ly of the ord er of I m/s for a panicl e of diameter
D = I 0 nm and density p, = 3,000 g/L, whereas f h is of the order of Io-11 m when the fluid is
wa ter. Veloc iti es are large and di splacements are small.
322 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

(a) Deposited bed (h) Fluidized bed

(or fixed bed ) s
U = Q!S

:\ icvc -----+
r r
Me
r

...J....... .j.. ......j.. ... .

l H ,CQJ

Gas or liquid flow Gas or liquid fl ow

Ql Q2> Q l

Figure 15.6. Fluidizarion of a solid parricle bed in a 1errica/ srrewn

The typology of flow s is more complex for gas/so lid fluidization than it is for
liquid/so lid fluidi zation. The rea son for this is that the den s ity rati o between th e
so lid and the fluid is much large r fo r the gas/so lid pair. Five regimes may be
disti ngu ished in gas/so lid fluidizati on, and are illu strated in Figure 15.7. The change
from one reg im e to another is brought abo ut by increas in g the area-ave raged
ve loc ity of the gas.

b
6: ..
,.

6:
.. 6~ :~~
;.;..~~~ ~~ ""- -:.....;.~ ~

(a) Homogeneous (b) Bubbling (c) Sluggi ng (d) Turbulent (e) Circu lating
fluidiza tion fluidizati on fluidiz ation fluidi za tio n fluidization

Figure IS. 7. Caslsolidfluidi::arion regimes (figure repmducedjimn C. Lagueric .

.. Techniques de mise en cnnlacr enlre phases so/ides e/ g a::C'uses .
Techniques dC' I 'fngenieur. Tmire de Genie des Procedes)

The characteristi cs of different regi mes are as follows:

- Homogeneous .fluidization: th e thickness of th e flui dized bed increases as the

gas ve loc ity increases. The poros ity in th e bed subsequent ly in creases but remain s
homogeneo us within th e bed. The upper surface of th e bed is c learl y identifi able.
The movements of particles in side the bed are small.
 Particl es Within the Grav ity Fi eld 323

- Bubb ling .fluidi::ation. bubbles form at the bottom of th e fluidi zed bed and
grow by coa lesce nce while ascendin g. until th ey burst at th e surface of th e bed .
T hese bubbl es are visuall y identifi ab le; th ey do not contain any parti cles. The bed
beco mes inhomoge neo us in terms of poros ity. Th e formati on of bubbl es produces
pressure flu ctu ati ons within the bed.

- Slugging .fluidization: th e size of the bubbl es reaches th e width of th e co lumn .

A stratifi ca tion of the bed is th en observed in th e ve rtical direction , characteri zed by
a lternate layers of particles in suspension and particl e-free gas . Th e surface of the
bed osci ll ates as gas bubb les pass through. Press ure flu ctu ati ons are substanti al.

- Turhulen l .fluidi::ation: stirrin g within th e bed is very strong, frag mentin g the
bed into small elements of fluidi zed bed and gas bubbles. Th e surface of th e bed
becomes difficult to id enti fy. Pressure flu ctuati ons decrease . Some parti cles may be
carri ed away in th e gas fl ow. Thi s reg ime differs from th e bubbling reg ime by the
very powerful stirring occ urring inside the bed.

- Circulating .fluidizmion: the upper surface of the bed is no longer clea rl y

visible . The particl es are graduall y ca rried away in the gas flow . Howeve r,
dow nward movements of small lumps of particl es may be observed along the walls.
This is in fact no longer a fluidi zed bed reg ime, sin ce there ex ists a so lid-body
moti on of parti cles, or of a frac ti on th ereo f.

The noti ons of bubbling or slugg ing fluidi zati on reg ime Vanish for a li quid/so lid
fluidi zed bed. The tran siti on from a homoge neous regime to a turbul ent regime is
continuous. with th e turbul ent stirring o f parti cles increasing with th e ve loc ity of the
liquid .

Depo, ited hed

(or li xed)
(p_,- Pt! M,g
------
p, s

Fluidi zed bed

umj u, u

Figure 15.8. Evolulion o(1he head drop across a f lu idized bed as a(imction offluid velocity
324 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engin ee rin g

The fluidi zati on reg ime is obtained wh en the ve loc ity U of th e fl ow li es between
the mini mum fluidi zati on ve loc ity U , 1 and th e termin al entrainment ve loc ity U,.
From a mec hani ca l standpoint , th e major ch aracteri sti c of tluidi zed beds is th at the
head va ri ati on tJ. P, betwee n th e und ersid e and top side of the fluidi zed bed is
independ ent from the ve loc ity U of the fluid when th e bed is in a fluidi za ti on state .
Thi s result is illu strated in Fi gure 15.8 . The property is eas il y ve rifi ed
ex perimentall y. It all ows us to delin eate th e conditi ons for whi ch th e bed is
fluidi zed. As long as the bed remains se ttl ed (" fi xed bed"), the head loss grows with
th e ve loc ity of the fluid . The head loss decreases aga in when the ve loc ity ex ceeds
th e va lu e for whi ch th e particl es are ca rri ed away . For thi s reason. results rega rdin g
fluidi zed beds are given accordin g to the tluid ve loc ity.

It is readil y understood that the term inal entrainmen t ve loc it y U , is equal to th e

fall ve loc ity W, of th e parti cles co nsti tuting th e bed. The fa ll ve loc ity is th e
max imum relati ve ve loc ity th at a part ic le can have in a fluid at rest, whereas the
termin al entrainment ve loc ity is th e max imum relati ve ve loc ity that the fluid can
have with respect to a stat ionary parti cle without ca rryin g it away. The class ica l laws
fo r the fa ll ve loc ity of a spheri ca l parti cle in a fluid at rest (S tokes', Van All en's, or
Newton's law - see secti on 15. 1 and Tabl e 15. 1) are th erefore used to es tim ate th e
terminal entrainment ve loc it y.

15.6.2. Mechanical equilibrium in a fluidi zed bed

Th e momentum theorem ex pl ain s why th e head va ri ati on tJ.P, aero s a fluid ized
bed is independent of the area -ave raged ve loc ity. The usc of th e mome ntum th eore m
requires the hypoth es is th at the tl ow is in a steady-state reg im e. In rea lity, parti cles
are stirred (even acti ve ly so, if the fluidi za ti on is turbul ent ) but th e pos iti on o r
particl es remains steady on ave rage, since th e particl es are trapped in side th e bed
whose thi ck ness is constant. The momentum th eorem is th erefo re appli ed by
considerin g average qu antiti es. Th e mechani ca l ba lance is analyzed in two stages.
tirst by co nsiderin g th e mec hani ca l system consistin g of all th e parti cles, and seco nd
by consid erin g the fluid vo lum e surro undin g the parti cles. Figure 15.9 depi cts th e
control vo lumes considered. In thi s appli ca tion , onl y the balance of fon.:es along th e
vertical direc ti on is co nsidered.

15.6.2. 1. Applicalion oj" the momentum theorem to the spstem constitllted by th e

particles

The mec hanical syste m con sidered co nsists of th e parti cles in th e fluidi zed bed .
Ass umin g th at th e parti cles are stati onary on ave rage. th e balance of forces along the
verti ca l reduces to th e equilibrium between gravi ty forces and the hyd rodynami c
force exerted by the fluid fl ow past the particl es. Grav ity forces are th e diffe rence
 Parti cles Within th e Grav ity Field 325

between th e total we ight of th e parti cles and th e Archimedes ' force exerted by the
fluid on th e parti cles. This force . ca ll ed reduced \\eight. ca n be written as:

[ 15.3 1]

Thi s ex press ion includes. bes ides th e so lid and fluid den siti es, the di ameter D of th e
particl es (whic h are ass umed to be spherical). the number N" of particl es in the bed,
the total mass M1, of the particles. and th e gravitational acce lera ti on g. The minus
s ign appea rs because of the ori entati on of th e 0:: ax is. The balance of the
hydrodynamic force Fr' P= exerted by the fluid flow on th e particles with reduced
weight yields :

[ 15.32]

This is oriented upward.

Figure 15.9. Applicalinn v{ 1he 111011/elltlllll 1heore111to af/uidized hed

I 5.6.2 .2. Application of th e momentum th eorern to the .fluid surrounding the

particles
We now consid er, as the mec hanical system, the fluid th at surrounds the
parti cles. The control volume con sidered is indi cated in Figure I 5.9 as the shaded
rectang le co ntaining th e particles, exc ludin g th e pa11icles themselves. The surface of
th e parti cles is therefore part o f the surface surrounding the con trol vo lume.

Si nce, by usin g the reduced wei ght , Archimedes' force has been subtracted from
th e we ight of the parti cles, the pressures used herea fter for momentum bal ance over
.326 Fluid Mechanic s for Chem ica l Engineerin g

th e tluid phase wi ll be pressures t=:'"~'"' = P ahs.uppcr + Pr g!-1 r and R ower = ?.rhs.lowcr at

th e top and bottom surfaces of th e laye r. from which the hydrostati c press ure has
been deducted. 11 The quantity:

[ 15.33]

is the head va ri ati on between th e bottom and top of th e fluidi zed layer. sin ce th e
mea n strea mwi se ve loc ity is identical in both cross secti ons. f-1 1 is the thickness of
the bed.

The momentum flu x is conserved between th e lowe r boundary (in comin g flu x)
and the upper boundary of the domain (outgoing flux ). The balance of verti ca l forces
appli ed to th e vo lume is therefore limited to the press ure force s app lied on th e
lower and upper boundaries. the friction fo rce exerted by the sid e wa ll on th e
fluid (de noted by Fi'"= ), and th e force r~1 t t.= (p ress ure an d friction) exerted by
th e particles on the tluid , whi ch is equ al and of oppos ite direction to F 1 1p.= by
virtue o f' the acti on/reaction principl e. Us ing the notati ons for press ure indi cated in
Fig ure 15.9, the momentum th eorem (eq uati on [2.1 8] of Chapter 2) can therefore be
written along th e vertical directi on as

[ 15.34]

Forces are positi ve when they are ori en ted up ward along the 0::: ax is. With [ 15.32]
and [ 15.33], [ 15.34] becomes:

1'1.?, = (p , - p i ) M p g - Fim .:
[ 15.35]
p, s s
If th e co lumn is suffi cientl y wide, th e friction fo rce exerted by the sid e wall on th e
fluid becomes neg li gibl e compared to the Io ree exerted by the partic les on th e tluid ,
beca use th e latera l surface is red uced to r th e sa me amount of particles (the thi ckn ess
o f the bed is small er). Thi s leads to:

1'1.?, = R"""'- F:rppcr = '~bs.kmw - p,bs.uppcr - p r g f-l t = (p , - P.t ) !vf I' g [1 5.36]
p, s
Conservation of the mass of parti cles:
M p = CS!-1 t = p,( l - t- )S!-1t [ 15.37]

prov id es an alternati ve ex press ion for th e head va ri ati on given by [ 15.36] based on
th e concentration C in particl es or the porosity r: within the bed .

II The lin k between hyd rostati c press ure and Arc him edes' forc e was di sc ussed in secti on I. E
of Chapter I.
 Par1i cles Within the Grav it y Fie ld 327

Relation [ 15.36] estab li shes some essenti al res ults:

- It demonstrates that the head va riati on ac ross the bed is ind ependent from th e
tl ow rate, for a fluidi zed bed of a given mass.
- It establi shes a link between th e head vari at ion and th e reduced weight of the
parti cles. In a way , a fluidi zati on ex periment co uld be used as sca les, sin ce the
pressure meas urement s all ow the determin ati on of the mass of the bed usin g the
plateau measured on a pl ot such as in Fi gure 15.8.
- Kn ow ing th e mass of a fluidi zed bed , it is easy to determine the porosity of the
bed us ing mass conse rvati on (equation [ 15.3 7]), through a simple height measurement.

15.6.3. Fluid flow in a fluidiz ed bed

The fluid tl ow in a fluidi zed bed is related to a fl ow in a porous medium . The

so li d latti ce constituted by th e parti cles slows dow n the fl ow and produces a head
loss. For th e tluidi zed bed, the situati on is more co mpl ex than for a sett led bed. As
the ve loc ity of the fluid is increased, the thi ckn ess Hr or th e bed grows and its
poros ity c in creases. These two quantiti es are not geometrical data characteri zing the
bed ; they va ry acco rding to the fluid fl ow. The more the bed ex pand s via the
fluidi zati on process, the greater it s permeability beco mes. Beca use o f the increase in
fluid ve loc ity and th e increase in th e permeab ility k of the bed res ultin g from
fluidi zati on, the critical Re ynold s number Re = p ruJk I p = 10 (whi ch sets th e
limit for the va lidity o f Darcy's law) is oft en exceeded for a fluidi zed bed. It is
th erefore necessary to ca ll upon other models, such as Ergun ' s rel ati on (secti on
14 .6), whi ch ex tends Darcy's law into the turbul ent regime, in ord er to descri be the
fl ow in th e fluidi zed bed. With th e notati ons used for th e fluidi zed bed, Ergun 's
correla ti on is writt en as:

t:,.P, {36 hr;( l -c ) 2 U 6h,J (l - c: ) u ' } [ 15.38]

- = 1-' + Pt -
Ht &. J D2 c3 D

(II A= 4.5 I and h8 = 0.3 0.1 ). In [ 15.38], !':,.? ,, U, H1, and E: are variab les. Ergun 's
relat ion is assoc iated with th e dynami c equilibrium of the bed [ 1536] and mass
conservation [ 1537]. By mea ns of th ese two additi onal relati ons, th e characteri stics
or th e fluidi zed bed can be compl etely determined for a given fluid ve loc ity. By
in troducing [ 1536] and [ 15.3 7], relation [ 15.38] is transform ed into a relation
linkin g poros ity with th e ve loc ity of the fluid :
2
&3 = 2hK (J- E : )u
- - - + J8h/J ( u ) } [1 539]
{ WcStokl'~ WcNcwton
328 Flui d Mechani cs for Chemi ca l Engineering

W.stokcs is the ex press ion of the Stokes ' fa ll ve loc ity for small parti cles , and
We ""'"" that of the Newton fa ll ve loc ity for large part ic les (see Table 15. 1).
Relati on [ 15.39] shows th at th e poros ity of th e bed (a nd therefore it s thi ckness)
in creases with ve loc ity. Th e poros ity and thi ckn ess of the bed also in crease when th e
di ameter of the parti cles dimini shes. Relati on [ 15.39] can be used to eva luate th e
minimum fluidi zati on ve loc ity Umt theo reti ca ll y. Thi s onl y req uire so lvin g th e
second-degree equati on constituted by [ 15.39], by tak ing the poros ity equal to th e
porosity c 0 of th e settl ed bed (deri ved from th e mass ba lance [ 15.3 7] if the mass
M " of th e bed and the thi ckness H 10 of th e settl ed bed are kn own) .

Usage li mits
U ! U, =
1.09 8. 47
Re, < 2
0.89 c" 97
Lewis- Bowe rman 2 < Re, < 500
0.72 6' 2.32
Re, > 500 : c < 0.9

f 11 = 4.65 + 20 -
D Re, < 0.2
CJ)

11 =( 4.4 + 18 ~ ) Re; 001 0.2 < Re, < I

Richardson- Zaki c" with n = ( 4 .4 + 18 D)Re,

CJ)
0 1 I < Re, < 200

n = 4.4 Re; 0 1 200 < Re, < 500

17 = 4.4 Re, > 500

Table 15.2. Correlations characteri::ing the fl uid flow in a j lu id i::ed bed U is

the mean stream wise velocit\ '. D the dia meter of' the part icles. U, the term inal
entrainme11t elocitr (equal to the f all elocit1 (~{ th e particle see Tahle 15. I).
and r/J the dia meter rif the w lumn. Ret = U 1 D I \'.

Engin eers otien use the Lew is- Bowe rman and Ri chardso n- Zaki corre lati ons to
characteri ze fluidi zed beds by determining poros ity as a fun cti on o f the fl ow
veloc ity. Th ese correlati ons, empiri ca l in nature, are reca pitul ated in Ta ble 15.2.
Whil e the di ameter of th e column is taken into acco unt by th e Ri cha rd son- Zaki
co rrelati on, its effect remain s very weak as long as the size of th e pa rti cles is small
co mpared to the di ameter of th e co lumn . Co mparin g the Lew is- Bowerma n and
Rich ardso n- Zaki correlati ons with Ergun 's relati on, ex pressed in th e fo rm [ 15.39],
 Parti cles Within the Gravity Field 329

confe rs so me physical se nse to these empirical co rrelati ons. The three relati ons
determin e the variat ions of porosity inside a tluidi zed bed with th e ve loc ity of the
flow , and the characteri sti cs of the parti cles are demonstrated through th e fall
ve loc ity. The va lues of fall ve loc ity in Stokes and Newton reg imes appear ex pli citl y
in Ergun 's relation, whil e th e fall ve loc ity for the parti cles and the fluid is directl y
used in Lewis- Bowerman and Ri chardson-Za ki correlations.

15. 7. Application exercises

Exercise 15.1: Distribution of particles in suspension and grain size sorting

resulting from settling

A gran ul ar set is constituted by weighing from three classes of homogeneous

sa nd particles (the density of sand is taken equal to 3,000 g/L). The set includes :

- 200 g of parti cles of di ameter d 1 = I mm

- 200 g of parti cles of di ameter d2 = I 00 pm
- 200 g of parti cles of di ameter d3 = I 0 pm

The shape o f the parti cles will be assimilated to spheres, and the cohesive
character that mi ght be show n by th e small er parti cles will be neglected.

I. The parti cles are mi xed in water at room temperature in a rectangular vessel
with a side L = 20 em, wherein the water height is !-/ = 150 em. Determin e the fall
ve loc ity of each of the three parti cles. It is postul ated th at the particl es are in
suffi cientl y low concentrati ons that each particle settl es with the fall ve loc ity of an
isolated particle.
2. Stirring is maintained inside the tank . The characteristics of turb ul ence are
homogeneOUS w ithin th e tank , with the following va lu es: Unn s = 3 cm/s and er = 5
em. Determine the concentration pro fil e within the tank while turbul ence is
sustain ed, and ca lcul ate for each class of p<u1i cles the concentrat ions at the top and
bottom of th e tank. Ass ume all particl es to be in suspension. Comm ent on the results
obtain ed. For the three parti cle di ameters, ca lculate th e height Z, above th e bottom
for which the upper part of the tank (Z, < z < H) co ntain s a sin gle parti cle.
3. At time r = 0. stirring is stopped and it is ass umed that turbul ence Vani shes
instantaneously. Us ing th e height Z, obtained in Question 2, determine th e settlin g
time for each class of particl es. Characteri se the grain size di stribution in th e settl ed
bed. It will be ass umed that the gra in size di stribution is homogeneo us in the
different depos ited layers , and that small par1icles do not slip between large r ones to
fill in the gaps.
330 Fluid M echani cs for Chemi ca l Engi neerin g

Exercise 15.11: Fluidization of a bimodal distribution ofparticles

We co nsidered in thi s exe rcise a fluidi zati on pl ant to in cin erate waste, the grain
size analys is of which shows that th e grain size di stributi on is bimodal : 15% of th e
particl es by mass have a size between I00 and 400 pm. and th e remaining 85% have
a size between 2 and I 0 mm .

The density of the so lid co nstituting th e parti cles is taken equ al to p, = 3,000
kg/m3 and the density of th e gas as p 1 = I kg/m3 The kinematic viscos ity of air is
v = I .5 X I o-s m ~/s.
I. In side a co lumn whose cross-sectional area on the ground isS = I m ~, a mass
of waste M" = 300 kg is depos it ed on a grid . In th e absence of fl ow, the height o f the
waste bed is H = 15 em. Determin e th e poros ity in side th e bed.
2. A first stage in vo lves exa minin g th e poss ibility of se lec ting ex perimental
conditi ons such that th e enti re waste is fluidi zed. Determine the ve loc ity Uma., that
the upward gas fl ow should not exceed.
3. Us in g Ergun' s relati on, show th at it is not poss ible to flui dize the ent ire bed at
the fl ow ve locity U""". Di sc uss a way of se lectin g th e size D of th e parti cles to
ca lcul ate the coefficients in Ergun 's relati on. and eva luate th e ex tent to whi ch th e
res ult depend s on thi s se lecti on.
4. Would the conclu sion of Qu esti on 3 be modifi ed if more or less waste were
put into the column?
5. Desc ribe a fluidi za ti on reg im e th at ca n be performed in the co lumn . Suggest a
ve loc ity va lue, for whi ch it could be verifi ed that such a fluidi za tion reg ime ca n
actuall y be set up .
6. Wh y is it important to dim ension such a pl ant in a closed loop rega rdin g th e
gas fl ow')
 Chapter 16

Movement of a Solid Particle in a Fluid Flow

This chapt er deals with the movement o f a small so lid particle in a fluid fl ow.
We start by presenting the eq uati ons govern ing parti cle movemen ts, which we refer
to as th e Basset, Boussi nesq , Oseen, and Tchen (BBOT) equati ons, to name a few
key co ntributors to thi s mode ling. Rather than deriv ing th e eq uati ons, we endeavor
to iden tify and di sc uss the ph ys ica l meanin g of th e different term s: acce lerati on,
added mass , Basset term, etc.

This approac h is embodi ed by applying th e BBOT equation s to describe the

behavior of a particl e in three configurati ons of particular signifi cance by their
app li cati ons:
I. the movement of a fluid particle under the effect of grav ity in a fluid at rest ,
2. the movement of a parti cle in a unidirecti onal sheared fluid flow , and
3. th e cent ri fugati on of a particle in a rotating fl ow .

The BBOT eq uati ons all ow the determination of th e characteristi c time with
which the dynamics of a so lid parti cle pl aced in a fluid fl ow adapt s to its
environment. This chapter is quite theoreti ca l, although we have presented few
derivati ons. Thi s enabl es the reader to understand the hypotheses used in Chapters
15 (behav ior o f particl es within grav it y field) and 17 (centri fugati on) .

In secti on 16.5 . we di sc uss the lifi force appli ed on a particle in a unidirect ional
flow. This Ioree is not taken into account by the BBOT equations. Fin all y, we
conc lude wi th the app li cati on of the results presented in thi s chapter to lamin ar
fl ows, and th en to turbulent fl ows (section 16. 7).
332 Fluid M ec hani cs for Chem ica l Eng ineerin g

16. 1. Notations and hypotheses

We consider a sph eri ca l parti cle whose rad iu s we de note by u. The mass of th e
parti cle is m" = p , 4Jru 1 I 3 , whereas m 1 = p 1 4Jra 3 I 3 is the mass the fluid wo uld
have had if it occ upi ed the vo lu me of th e parti cle.

Y( t ) designates the vector describing th e trajectory or the particle in th e flu id .

We denote by V, (t ) th e three ve loc ity co mponent s of the partic le, ex pressed in th e
Cartesia n coord in ate system (0 , x , r , :) = (0. x 1, x 2 x ;).

The partic le is pl aced in a flui d !low whi ch is ass um ed to be kn ow n. We

designate by u,(.,1) th e three compone nts of the fluid ' s ve loc it y l~e l d, which verify
the Nav ier- Stokes equat ions:

[ 16. 1]

The ve loc it y vector u, (Y( t ), t ) is the ve loc ity the fluid wo uld have had at the
locati on where the fluid partic le is situated at time 1, if the particle were not th ere.
We denote by W;(l) = V, (t ) - li ;(Y( t ),t) th e relati ve ve loc ity of the parti cle with
respect to the tluid .

The ve loc ity sca le of the llui d fl ow is des ignated by U and its spat ial sca le by L.
The modeling will app ly to lamin ar as we ll as turbul ent !lows. The Reynolds
number of th e tluid fl ow,

UL
[ 16.2]
II

(w here v is the viscos ity of th e tluid ), may be small or large .

The parti cle's di sp lace ment will be ca lcul ated ass umin g th at th e parti cle is small.
Thi s hypoth es is translates not onl y into th e geo metri ca l condit ion ,

(/
-<< I , [ 16.3]
L

but also into hydrodynami c conditi ons spec ify ing that th e relati ve fluid fl ow
wi th respect to the parti cle is a low- Reynolds- num ber fl ow. Thi s result s in three
conditi ons on th e ve loc ity sca le U of the fluid , on the sca le W" of th e relati ve
 Movement of a Solid Particle in a Fluid Flow 333

ve loc ity of the fluid with respect to th e parti cle, and on the angul ar rotational
ve loc ity w of the par1icle:

[ 16.4]
v
)
(1){1 -
Re p.ro = --<< I
II

The movement of the particle is described in the followin g under th e four

hypotheses ([ 16.3] and [ 16.4 ]).

16.2. The Basset, Boussinesq , Oseen, and Tchen equation

Writing th e fund amental law of dynamics to describe the movement of the

particle requires a balance of forces exerted on th e particle. These fo rces are grav ity
on one hand and the hydrodynami c forces exerted by th e tluid fl ow on the particl e
on th e other hand. The parti cle disturbs the ve loc ity fi eld u ; (x, t ) of the fl ow in its
vicin it y in such a manner as to verify the boundary conditi ons on the sur face of the
particle. The difficulty of the probl em li es in ca lcul atin g the per1urbed ve loc ity field
in order to then derive therefrom the hydrody nami c forces whi ch app ly on the
particle. While , as stated above, th e fluid fl ow may be laminar or turbul ent,
hypotheses [ 16.3 ] and [ 16.4] mean th at the per1urbati on of the ve loc ity fi eld ca used
by th e particle is laminar. This is a dramatic simp! ification , but we will find in thi s
chapter that the problem nevertheless remains very co mpl ex. A so luti on within the
framewo rk of the theory of creepin g flows ' is incomplete; the nonlinearities of the
flow need to be co nsid ered in order to in corporate ce rtain pheno mena, such as th e
li ft force exerted by a fl ow on a particle, into the th eory . Rather than replicate here
the ca lcul atio ns lead ing to the equati ons of moti on for a small particle in a fluid
fl ow , we merely stat e the final result and refe r the reader to a few major
publications. Our aim is first and foremost to di sc uss th e result of thi s modeling, by
elu cidating the phys ica l meaning of the different terms and by reca llin g the
hypotheses of the modeling. This process will build upon the stud y of severa l
appli cati on cases.

I A creeping fl ow is a fl ow for which nonlinear terms are neglected in the Navier- Stokes
equati ons, and the pressure gradient balances out the viscous terms. The book by Happe l
and Brenner (Low Revnolds Number 1-fydrod)'namics, Kluwer Academ ic Publi shers, 199 1)
di scusses these questions.
334 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineering

In the following we res ume the notati ons used by Maxey and Riley ( 1983) 2 and
write th e Basset , Bouss inesq , Oseen, and Tchen (BBOT) equa ti ons in a fo rm th at is
quas i-id enti ca l to th at of Maxey and Ril ey. This formul ati on is int eresting in sofa r as
it hi ghli g hts th e relative move ment o f th e particle with respect to the fluid . The three
co mpo nents W; (l) of the parti cle's relative ve loc ity with respect to the fluid are
obtain ed by so lvin g th e fo ll ow in g differenti al eq uati ons:

VI
-fL]dW
[ ~ 1

m p+- m t - - ' +6Tra p f 1 I dW1 ,----!_L

d r+6TrapW,
2 dt 0
JTrv( ! - r) dr

v Ill IVcorr
du , Du , ~ ~
- m p-+ 111 t - - + (mp - m 1 )g, + Jra ' pi}u,
dt 01

I W I , ou,
D( !}u, )
-- m t 1 - - +- a-m l - - - + Tra 4 J1
I f
1
d(!}u , ) d
r
[ 16.5)

2 OXJ 20 Dt 0
J Jrv(t - r) dr
llcorr VI

Th e differences with th e equ ati ons obtain ed by Maxey and Riley are the co rrecti ons
brought in by Auton ( 1987, 1988). An in -depth di sc uss ion of th ese equati ons can be
found in the book by Michaelides 3

The notat io ns appearing in [ 16.5] have already been introd uced , with th e except ion
of the two tim e derivatives. Indeed, equati on [1 6.5] di stin gui shes between:
- the particle-tracking time deri va ti ve :

~ ( Y(l), I) =( ~+ v, !!!!!._J (\: =Y(l)) [16.6]

dl 81 OX;

2 Maxey and Riley, 19t0 , .. Equat ion of motion for a small ri gid sphere in a non-uniform
fl ow, Phr sics F/uic/.1". Vo l. 26(4), ~83 - 889. Gatigno l publi shed a simil ar stud y the sa me year
(J Mecunique Th~uriqu e e1 Appliqu~e. 1983. Vo l. 2(2). 143- 154).
3 Michaelid es, Particles. Bubbles and Dmps (World Sc ient ifi c 2006). The eq uati ons [ 16.5)
correspond to those given by Michaelides, whi ch incorporate the correcti ons made by Auton
( 1987 , J. Fluid Mech. , Vol. 183, 199- 2 18) and Auton. Hunt & Prud'homme ( 1988. J. Fluid
Mech , Vol. 197 , 241 - 257).
 Movement o r a Solid Parti cle in a Fluid Flow 335

a nd
- the fluid-track in g time deri vati ve:

Du,
- -(>
; ()
f ,/ ) = (au,
-+U j - ou; )(-X = Y- (/ )) [ 16. 7]
Dr ar ax,

both these deri vati ves being taken at the pos iti on of the parti cle center.

In the left-hand side of [ 16.5 ] are gath ered the terms re lated to th e un know ns W,
and on the ri ght-hand side are th e forcing terms assoc iated with th e ve loc ity fi eld of
the tluid tl ow and with grav ity. In [ 16.5], th e numerals I- VI id enti fy vari ous term s
that in flu ence th e movement of th e particl e:

Term I is the acceleration of th e parti cle with res pect to the fluid , th e generi c
term in th e eq uati on of moti on.

Term II is called the "added mass .. term , as it is equi va lent to adding a mass of
fluid to that of the parti cle in orde r to ca lculate the contributi on of acce lerati on. Thi s
only appears when the parti cle acce lerates or dece lerates with res pect to the fluid ,
th at is, in a transient regime. It is ph ys icall y interpreted by the fac t that, in order to
acce lerate the parti cle, some momentum also has to be imparted onto the fluid
surrounding the pa rticl e. Th e added mass term depend s heavil y on the di fference
between the density of th e particle and th at of the flu id. For a parti cle in air, th e
added ma ss term is neg ligibl e, wh ereas it is signifi cant fo r a parti cle in water. Th e
ex perience of waterskiing all ows us to ve ri fy that the fo rce required to lift a
stati onary ski er fro m the water is fa r larger th an that applied if the ski er starts from a
pontoo n. Wh en the relati ve ve loc ity of the parti cle with respect to the fluid becomes
constant , th e effect of added mass fades away , because the surroundin g fluid has
acquired the necessa ry momentum . Th e coeffi cient 1/2 assoc iated with the added
mass corresponds to the case of a spherica l parti cle. Two tem1s (l lcorr terms) related
to the concept of added mass also appear on the ri ght-hand side. Th ese correcti ons
with respect to th e formulati on of Maxey and Ril ey are due to Auto n.

Term Ill is the reduced weight of the particle, whi ch is the di fference between
th e weight of th e parti cle and the buoyancy force th at applies to it. We reca ll that th e
buoyancy force is the result of hydrostati c pressure forces appli ed on the pa11icle
(see Chapter I).

Term I V is the fric tion force applied by thejluid on the particle in a steady-state
regime. As th e Rey nolds number is small , we recover here the class ical result
assoc iated with Stokes ' law (C hapter 15, Ta bl e 15. 1). A compl ementary fri cti on
term (!Vcorr term) appears on the ri ght-h and side, and is link ed to th e shear of th e
ve loc ity fi eld ofth e fluid fl ow .
336 Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineerin g

Elemen t V consists o/ tH 'U terms representing pressure and inertia eff'ects applied
to th e particle. These intervene in centrifugation processes, among others. It will be
seen that th e first term in V correspond s to th e centrifuga l forc e applied to th e
par1icl e, and th e second to th e pressure force appli ed on the particl e by the loca l
press ure gradi ent.

Terms VI ore called "Bass et terms ... Indeed , th ey render an effect of th e hi story
o f the particl e's movement with respec t to th e fluid. The Basse t terms that appea r in
[ 16.5] are associated with an initial co nditi on for wh ich it is assumed that the
perturbation of the ve loc ity fi eld is zero at time 1 = 0 when the parti cle is placed in
the fl ow at a given locati on and with a given ve loc ity, except at th e particle 's surface
where a non-slip conditi on is applied .

16.3. Movement of a particle subjected to gravity in a tluid at rest

The BBOT eq uati ons lead to the classic results on the sedimentati on of a small
particle within th e grav ity field when the surroundin g fluid is at rest. They describe
the acceleration of the particl e which is dropped with ze ro ve loc ity, and determine
the characteristic time needed to reac h Stokes' fall veloc ity. Sin ce u, = 0 . equation s
[ 16.5] simplify into:

I ) d W1 o
( 111 p+- m t --+ 6Tra - p
'I I dW1 d r + 6Tra pW1 = (m , - mt)g [1 6.8]
2 dt 0
JTrv (l - r) d r

The velocity component with index I has been chosen to be ori ented along the
directi on of grav ity and [ 16.8] is th e BBOT equati on in th at directi on. In th e oth er
two directi ons, th e equations reduce to th e sa me equation without th e ri ght-hand
sid e. Thi s result s in W, (l) = 0 for i = 2 and i = 3, since W,(l = 0) = 0 . The particle 's
move ment occurs in th e directi on of gravity.

In a steady-state regi me, the first two term s equ al zero. thus reve rtin g to
Stok es' law (see Table 15. 1 of Chapt er 15) for th e fall ve locity of a small sph eric al
parti cle:

[16 .9]
 Movement of a So lid Particle in a Fluid Flow 337

Thi s result helps underscore th e fac t that the BBOT equati ons appl y only to small-
s ize pa rti cles (equ ati on [ 16.4]).

The transient stage durin g whi ch the parti cle acce lerates is described by th e
BBOT equ ati ons. Neg lecting the Basset term in a first step, di fferenti al equati on
[ 16.8] si mplifi es into the form :

dV1 I I
--+-VI = - WcStokes [ 16 .1 0]
dt lp , ,,

The so lu tion of [ 16. I OJ is V1(I) = Wcstokes {1- cxp(-1I 1" l), whi ch in vo lves the
charac teri sti c tim e of th e tra nsient regime:

2
PP )a [ 16. 11]
' " = ( 2 -+ I -
Pr 9v

Numeri ca l appli cati ons for co mmon cases (Table 16. 1) show that the particle
reac hes , after a very short time, a ve loc ity va lue very close to Stokes' fall ve loc ity.
The time '" does not depend on th e nature of th e force that produces the fl ow (in thi s
case, grav ity) , sin ce it stems fro m the left-h and -s ide terms in [ 16.8] , but onl y on
the properti es of th e fluid and the parti cle. It is substantiall y shorter fo r a parti cle
in wate r than for a parti cle in air, ow in g to th e fact that the rati o p P I pI is much
lowe r in the former case. The added mass term is negligibl e for a parti cle in air. In
any case, the small er the parti cle, the shotter the time 1" .

2
Fl uid Pp i P f v ( m 1s) Charac teristi c time t" (s)

Ai r 3,000 1. 5 x l0 5
I I X 10 5
1.1 X 10 .1 1.1 x 1o-1
Water J 10 (>
1.9 X I0 7
J.9 X J0 S 1.9 x l0 3

Dia meter d of the parti cle (p m) I 10 100

'---

Table 16. 1. Charucterislic time 1" (ins) ofthe acceleration oj"u particle in afluid.
according to the diameter d oflhe particle and to thefluid"s properties

The Basset term is a fri cti on term whi ch is added in a transient regime. In th e
present case, dW11d r > o, the Basset term is pos iti ve and the fr icti on assoc iated with
thi s te rm is added to th e steady-state fri cti on fo rce 61ra p W1 . Because of the Basset
338 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engin eerin g

term , the parti cle takes more time to reach th e limitin g ve locity ll ~ swk<s than
eva luated as time 1" . Non-dimensionali zing the ve loc ity by wcSokc' , and time by 1" .

all ows the differenti al eq uati on [ 16.8] to be written in the foll owin g non-
dimensional form:

d W1 + 3 f dW1 d r+W, = I
I [ 16. 12]
dl 110
"
2 -- + I 0 Jff( l - r) dr
Pr

This formulation shows th at th e relati ve signifi cance of th e Basset term depe nds
onl y on th e density rati o between th e parti cle and th e fluid (more spec ifi ca ll y. it does
not depend on the size of the particle or on the viscos ity of the fluid ). Figure 16. 1
compares the time evo luti on of the ve loc ity of a particl e dro pped with zero ve loc it y
in the grav ity fi eld , obtained by taking into account th e Basset term and by omittin g
it. The two cases with a Basset term correspond to a parti cle in air or water. It is
verifi ed that the Basset term has almost no effect for th e partic le in ai r
( PP I P l = 3,000 ). For the particle in water ( p,, I Pt = 3 ). th e Basset term slows
down th e parti cle's acce lerati on, but th e characterist ic time of th e acce lerati on
remains short (for the va lues indi cated in Tabl e 16. 1). The characteristic time
(defin ed by V(r ' p) I W, s 10 kc s = ( 1- exp( - 1)) ) , obtained by taking into acco unt th e Basset
term , is t'" = 3.3 1 '"

The Basset term incorporates, via th e time integra l, th e recent hi story of th e

parti cle's move ment. The quantity I I Jff (t - r) in side th e integra l all ows fo r a
damping of the hi story effect th e furth er back we go in time. The Basset term
becomes asymptoti ca lly zero when approaching a steady state. Indeecl , if dW11d r = o
for 1 > 1,, we then ha ve:

IJff( lI- r) ddrW, d r

I

0
;e
I
,-
v![f
dW
I-
I,

- d r for 1>>1.,
dr
1
[ 16. 13]
0
 Movement of a So lid Parti cle in a Fluid Flow 339

;;;.o' ' ,.. .- -- --

--- ----- -------

Oil
"J

' ',JI#'~. ':":"': .......

~
0
...
,. .... ..... .
Vi
0.6
"::: /
/
:/
0.4 i
I
I
I
02 I

0
0 2 3 7 8 9 10

Figure 16. 1. voh11ion of the velocity o{a particle dropped in the gravity .field _ __ :
calculation without Basset term (equation ( /6 . 10}), -.-.-.: calculation with Basset term fo r
Pp I Pf = 3,000 : ---- calculation with Bassettermfor p p I p f = 3

16.4. Movement of a particle in a steady, unidirectional shear tlow

We now analyze the movement of a particl e in a steady unidirectional sheared

fl ow obtained by so lving th e BBOT equations. Gravity is not taken into account.
The fluid flo w occurs in th e direction with index I, and the ve locity gradi ent is along
the direction with index 3, whi ch tran slates into:

111= u , (z ) u2= 0 u3= 0 [ 16.14]

denoting by z the coord in ate with index 3 to facilitat e interpretati on of the fi gures.

Writin g th e BBOT equation s does not pose any problem in thi s particul ar case.
The forc ing terms are zero for directi ons 2 and 3, which are perpendicular to
th e directi on of the fluid fl ow (equations [ 16.16] and [ 16. 17]). In the directi on of
th e fluid flow (eq uation [ 16.1 5]), non-zero forcing terms related to the gradient
of th e fluid fl ow (IIcorr and IYcorr terms in [ 16. 5]) remain. For element Y in [16.5] ,
the term related to th e fluid-trackin g material derivative is zero since u 3 = 0. Onl y
the term related to th e particl e-tracking material deri vative is non-zero. Thi s is
written by bringing in th e relati ve ve locity component, since w3= v3
340 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chem ica l Engineering

[ 16 .1 5]

I dW, '
(m p + - m t ) - - - + 6ffa - p
If I dW,
- dr +61TapW2 = 0 [ 16.16]
2 dt 0
Jffv(l - r) dr

1
(m p+- m 1 ) - -
d w1 , If
+ 6ffa - p
1 d W1
d r + 6ffaJ1W3 = 0 [ 16. 17]
2 dt 0
JffV(t - r) d r

The so luti ons of equat ions [ 16. 16) and [ 16.1 7] are of the sa me nature as those
obtain ed in sect ion 16.3 . The relative ve loc iti es W 2 and W 3 rap idl y tend toward
zero if th ere is an initi al ve loc ity in th ese directions. The characteristic time of the
tran sient regime is identical to [ 16. 1 I] :

- (2 PPPr + IJ9v
0 2
,, - [16.18)

Thus , the particl e's move ment ali gns itse lf very rapidl y with the direct io n of th e
fluid fl ow.

Eq uati on [ 16. 15] is so lved in a simil ar mann er. The ve loc ity of th e parti c le 111
direction I becomes asy mptoti ca ll y, in a steady-state reg ime,

[ 16. 19]

The shear of the fluid !low produces a re lati ve ve loc ity of th e pani cle with
res pect to the tluid. T he difference is ofte n very smalL For a Poiseuill e fl ow , fo r
exa mpl e, th e ve loc ity of the particl e is less th an th e ve loc ity of the fluid , but th e
correcti on is of th e order of (a I L) 2 , whi ch is very small (eq uat ion [ 16.3 ]).

It is important to ana lyze the forces exe11ed on th e pa11i cle in terms of drag force
and li ft fo rce. Th e drag force F11 is the component of the hydrodynami c force
exe11ed on the parti cle, proj ected onto th e directi on of th e parti cle's relati ve ve loc ity
w ith res pect to the fluid , whil e the lift force F1_ is the component perpendi cul ar to
 Move ment of a Soli d Particle in a Fluid Flow 34 1

th at directi on. In Figure 16.2 we spec ify th e notati ons and sketch th e balance of
fo rces exe rted on the parti cle by the fluid fl ow. Wh en the directi ons of the parti cle
and fl uid ve loc iti es are not parall el, th e li ft and drag are not always simpl e to
interpret fro m a ph ys ical point of view. On th e other hand , when the move ment of
the pa rti cle has ali gned with th e directi on of th e fluid fl ow, it is important to note
that the BBOT eq uati ons correspond to a lift force that beco mes zero. Th e shear of
the fl uid fl ow produces onl y a drag fo rce:

[ 16.20]

whi ch is ba lanced by th e fri ct ion res ulting from the relati ve movement of th e
part icle wi th res pec t to the fluid .

Velocities Balance of forces

~
~

-,.

Figure 16.2. Movem ent of afluid particle and balance offorces in a unidirectional sheared
flo\\', modeled hy the BBOT equations. The trajectmy of the particle. in das hed lines.
hecomes parallel to the direction ofthe jluidflow

16.5. Lift force applied to a particle by a unidirectional flow

The example discussed in the prev ious secti on using the BBOT equ ati ons shows
th at the trajectory of a so lid parti cle tends to ali gn with the directi on of the fluid
fl ow. The fluid fl ow does not exert a li ft force on the parti cle, even if it possesses a
ve loc ity gradi ent in the directi on perpendi cul ar to that of the fl ow. Thi s result
contradi cts some obse rvati ons of fluid mechani cs. The lac k of a lift force, fo r
exampl e. does not all ow fluid parti cles to mi grate in th e directi on perpendi cul ar to
th e directi on of the fl ow, or th e fluid to pick up a parti cle lyin g on a wa ll. Th e study
of th e lift force has given ri se to a considerabl e amount of research, of whi ch we
4
summari ze a few important results. The reader will find in th e book by Michae lides

4 Mic hae lides, Particles. Bubbles and Drops (World Scientific, 2006).
342 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engi neeri ng

a prec 1se hi story of that work. In the foll owin g, we onl y menti on a few essen ti a l
arti cles.

We sha ll study success ive ly th e li ft force app li ed on a parti c le in a fluid tl ow in

an infinite medium and then th e case where the particl e is near a wa ll .

165.1. Liji force exerted on a particle in a fluid flow in an infinite medium

Figure 16.3 depi cts two co nfi gurat ions for which theoreti ca l eva luati ons of th e
lift fo rce are establi shed. The case of Figure 16.3(b) has prompted numerous studi es,
aimin g at th e following:
- Understanding how the shearing or the ve loc ity fi eld produces a Iift force. We
will focus on th e case where the shear is uniform ( du , I cl: == C = constant ).

- Understanding th e ro le o r th e particle 's rotation . Two cases are usua ll y

conside red : (i) th e parti c le ca n rotate free ly with out friction abo ut an ax is that is
perpendicu lar to the pl ans of th e fl ow ; the shear of th e fluid tl ow th en causes th e
particle to rotate; and (i i) the partic le is prevented from rotating .
- Understa nding th e effect of the relative move ment of the particl e w ith respect
to the fluid , in th e direction of th e fluid fl ow. W1 denotes the relative ve loci ty of th e
particl e with res pect to the tluid .

z z
u' (~) = "o u ... ( :) = G:

.I

(a} (b)

Figure 16.3. Conjigurationsfor stud1ing the lifi./(Jrce exerted una particle in afluid
flO\v in w1 infinite mediu111. (a) Magn us effec t: in a unifon nJlo\1' 1171! particle is rotated
about afi.red aris. (h) Th e particle 11/0l'es in the direction of afluidflow with constant shear.
T11 '0 sub- cases are considered: (i) the particle is prevemedjiwn rotating ( rv = 0 ):
(i i) the particle rotates withour. jiictionunder the e./Jeer o{shear ( rv = G I 2 ).

The first case (F igure 16.3(a)) is that of th e ve ry class ic Magnu s e ffect fo r a

hi gh-Reyno ld s- number tl ow. If a rotati on with angu lar ve locity rv abo ut the Ov axis
 Movement of a Solid Parti cle in a Fluid Flow 343

is fo rced on a parti cle of radiu s a placed in a uniform fluid flow u 0 (s uch th at

u 0 u I v >> I ) along th e Ox directi on, a lift force is generated on th e parti cle in th e Oz
direc ti on:

- 3 - 3 -
Fj_ =- mF[i x O. =- mFuowk . (16.21]
4 4

The rotation vector is 6 = w] for the confi gurati on of Figure 16.3(a). Viscosity
IS absent from relati on [ 16.2 1], and the force is of an inerti al nature . Whil e the
rotat ion of th e particle produces, because of visco us fri cti on, a rotating movement of
the fluid aro und the particl e, in a steady-state regime the kinematics of the fl ow is
independent from viscos ity. The pressure along th e streamlines that pass the parti cle
is calc ulated usin g Bernoulli 's th eorem, and only the velocity on the surface of
the particle intervenes to vary the pressure. The Magnus effect is well known to
ae rodynamici sts, since it is the analogy with the potenti al flow past a rotating
cylinder that explain s the lift applied to a thin aircraft wing at incidence. It also
exp lain s the effects obtained when a tenni s pl ayer uses topspin on a ball or sli ces it. 5

Let us now consider th e configuration of Figure 16.3(b ). The fluid , in an

infinite medium , has a constant-shear flow (du , I dz = C). Th e particle has a relative
mov ement with velocity W 1 in th e Ox directi on of the fluid flow . Similar hypotheses
to [ 16.4] , meaning that th e particle is small , are:

w,a
Rc ,. w = - -<< I,
v
cva 2
Re p.tu = - - << I, [16.22]
v
Ca 2
and Rep.c; = - - << I
v

Th e th eo reti ca l difficulti es in calculating the lift force are significant. It was

proved by Breth erton6 that no lift force is exerted on a body of revolution by
a parallel fl ow if we remain within the scope of the theory of creeping flows
(removing nonlin ear term s from the Navier- Stokes equations). It is there fore
necessary to take into account the inertial (nonlinear) term s. This difficulty had been
identified in 1910 by Oseen, who had indicated that the nonlinear tenllS cannot be

5 These notions refer to the category of potentia/flows, which are not di scussed in thi s book
despite their importance in fluid mechanics, as their applications are not common in process
engineering. The reader ma y refer to the book by Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics (Cambridge University Press, 1967), in parti cular sections 6.4- 6.7.
6 Bretherton ( 1962,1. Fluid Mech.. Vol. 14, 284- 304).
344 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineering

neglected if the loca ti on is suffi cientl y far from the center of the particl e. For th e
characteri sti cs of the fl ow under considerati on. we naturall y introd uce th e two length
sca les related to the slip ve loc ity:

[16 .23]

or to th e shea r:

[16.24]

The so luti on for th e flow aro und the sph ere cann ot be ca lculated properl y
beyond these di stances with out taking int o account the nonlineariti es assoc iated
respec ti ve ly to the relative ve loc ity of the particl e with respect to th e fluid or to the
shear of th e fluid flow . The conditions [ 16.22 ] whereby the particl e is small simpl y
mea n that Lw1 I a >> I and Lc; I a >> I .

Mathematical deve lopments so lving for the fl ow around th e parti cle di stingui sh
the inn er reg ion within the distance min { Lw 1 , Lc; } from th e center of the particl e,
where the fl ow is essenti all y governed by viscos ity, and the outer region beyond that
distance, where nonlin eariti es have to be tak en into acco unt. The general so luti on of
th e prob lem needs to merge th e so luti ons between both domain s.
7
Saffman showed that viscosity produces. for the configuration of Figure 16.3( b),
a lift force:

-
F1_ =
rc-
6.42,uW 1 a 1 y --;;k . [16 .25 ]

ori ent ed as indicated in Figure 16.3( b) in term s of th e directi ons of th e fl ow and

shea r. The rati o o f th e lift force to the drag force (of magnitud e 6;rpW 1a) is of the
order of J Rec ; it is therefore small co mpared to the drag force. Th e lift force
obtain ed by Safli11an is identi ca l whether th e pm1i cle can rotate free ly or its rotati on
is blocked. If the particl e can rotate free ly. its rotationa l speed establishes itse lf at
(V = C I 2, so as to cancel out. in a steady-state reg ime , the rotation torque exerted
by the fluid flow on the parti cle. The independence of th e lift force from the rotati on
of th e parti cle can be understood by notin g th at th e ratio of the lift force after
Saffman [16 .25] to the lift force related to the Magnu s effect is of the order of

7 Saffman (J Fluid Mech., 22. 385-400 1965) and (J Fluid Mech , 3 1. 624 corri ge ndum
1968). McLaughlin (J Fluid Mech.. 224. 26 1- 274 199 1).
 Move ment of a Solid Parti cle in a Fluid Fl ow 345

I I ) Rec . Saffman 's math ematical developments are subj ect to th e conditi on
W, << Jc;; (i.e. Lc << L11 1), whi ch, in practi ce, is restri cti ve with respect to
typi ca l conditions. Either the fluid 's viscosity has to be very hi gh or the relative
ve loc ity of th e particle with respec t to th e fluid has to be parti cularl y small .

McLaughlin genera li zed Saffman's work for an arbitrary value of the ratio
t: = Jc;; I W, = L11 1I Lc (Saffm an studied th e case where & = oo ). The lift force is
ex pressed in the form

[16.26]

In Table 16.2 we provide a few va lues of functional J( &). For ttending towa rd
infinit y, 9J ( & = oo ) I 1r = 6.46 , so that [ 16.26] is very cl ose to Saffman ' s result. The
factor J( &) decreases by a factor of 100 when & dimini shes from infinity to 0.25.
Th e lift force changes directi on for & ;:::: 0.22 . J( &) tends toward zero when & tends
towa rd zero (the shea r goes to ze ro). For & > 0.25 , the value of J( c ) is sufficiently
large for th e lift force to differ only slightl y depending on whether the particle can
rotate freel y or its rotation is preve nted. Thi s no longer holds for & < 0.25 as the
abso lute va lu e of J( &) beco mes very small .

r; J (&) [; J( &) r; .J( H) C' J(&) C' J( c )

0.025 - 0.0000 13 0.2 - 0.01 2 0.5 0. 74 0.9 1.58 5.0 2.23
0.05 - 0.00028 0.25 0.028 0.6 1. 02 1.0 1.69 10.0 2.247
0. 1 - 0.0047 0.3 0. 12 0. 7 1. 26 1.5 1. 98 20.0 2.252
0.15 - 0.0 15 0.4 0.4 1 0. 8 1.44 2. 0 2. 09 00 2.255

Table 16.2. Valu es o(the fim ction .J(H) related tu McLaughlin 'sformula [16.26}

Also, for th e confi gurati on of Figure 16.3(b), Auton 8 obtained the lift force :
- I - I -
F 1 =- ml-(ii - V) x curl(ii) =- m r W1Ck , [16.27]
2
...L. 2

whi ch is worthy of some comment, as the hyd rodynamic conditions di ffer from
those studied previously. Auton 's ca lculati on is invi sc id , with the fluid slipping on
th e surface of the parti cle. Result [ 16.27] differs from that of the Magnus effec t,
despite the similarity of th e equations, because the calculation does not take into
accou nt a possible rotation bein g imparted to the particle. The lift force obtained by

8 Aut on (J Flu id Mech. , Vo l. 183, 199- 2 18 1987).

346 Fluid Mechanics lo r Chemi ca l Engin eerin g

Auton res ults from the deformati on in th e ve loc it y curl tield produced by th e
presence of the sph eri ca l parti cle. The calculation is performed under the -o le
conditi on that the shea r is small . that is, Ca I W1 << I. Auton 's result appli es ma inl y
to large-size particles and not to small pat1i cles in th e sense o f [ 16.4]. Vi se sity
ca nn ot be neglected fo r small parti cles, and it is found th at th e lift force given
by relati on [16. 26] or [1 6.27] is I I J Rec; larger th an what Auton' s ca lcu lat ion
predicts, unl ess J( E: ) is small in the conditi ons considered.

16.5.2. Liji force exerted on a particle in the vicinity of a wall

The prox imity of a wa ll influences the li ft force appli ed on a particle . Figure 16.4
shows three co nfigurati ons studi ed more spec ifi ca ll y.

(a ) (c)

u, (:) = C:
h

u/11

(b) :
u , (: ) =G:

I~
rr
Figure 16.4. Con{tguratiunsfor studring the lift .force exerted una pcm icle pluc"C'd in ofluid
flow near a wall. (a) f-lo111ogeneous shear /low where the direction o/the.flo H is parallel to
the direction of"gmvity. (b) Particle deposited on a HDII perpendicular to the direction of
gravin . Homogeneous shearflow. (c) Particle in a plane Poiseui//e flm t' whose di rection
is pam/lei IU the direction ofgravitr

Confi guration Figure 16.4(a) is modi tied. compared to that of Figure 16.3(b ). by
the additi on of a plane wa ll at ::: = 0. Th e distance from th e center of the parti cle to
the wa ll is denoted by h. The di agram is rotated by 90 with respect to Fi gure 16.3 in
 Movement of a So lid Particle in a Fluid Flow 347

orde r to represe nt conventionall y the case where the directi on of th e fl ow is parall el

to the directi on of gravi ty. Thu s, if the particl e is dense r th an the fluid , thi s
confi gurati on depi cts the simpl e case where the influence of the wa ll on the
grav itati onal sedimentati on of th e parti cle is studi ed.

A compari son of the di stance h between the center of the parti cle and the wa ll
with the sca les Lw 1 = v i W1 and Lc =Jv i C (equati ons [ 16.23- 16.24]) helps
assess the nature of the effect of the wa ll on the lift force appli ed to the parti cle. If
h << mi n { Lw 1 , Lc}, the wa ll crosses the inn er zone of th e fl ow around the parti cle.
T he so luti on in that zone, for whic h the contributi on of the in erti al terms is
neg ligible, can sati sfy both the boundary co nditi ons on th e parti c le and on the wa ll.
If h"' min {Lu 1 , Lc}, the wall is situated in th e outer zone of th e fl ow aro und the
pa rti cle. The effect of th e wa ll on the lift force invo lves the inerti al terms. Finally, if
h >> max {LrVI , Lc } , then the wall is too fa r to alter the li ft force.

When the wa ll is situated in the inner zone around the partic le and the relati ve
9
ve loc ity W 1 is non-zero ( h << min { Lw1 , Lc } ), Cherukat and Mc Laughlin have
estab lis hed that th e li ft force takes on the form :

[ 16.28 ]

with the length rati o K = a I h (note that K < I necessaril y) and the ve loc ity rati o
of the fluid fl ow to the relati ve ve loc ity of the parti cle 1\ c = Ca I W 1 We
have Ac; > 0 if the particl e is faster than the fluid (as in Figure 16.4(a)) and
1\ c < 0 if the reverse is true. Ex press ion [ 16.28] has th e remarkabl e propert y of
be ing independent of viscos ity. Res ults of numeri ca l ca lcul ati ons were used by
Cheru ka t and Mc Laughlin to ta bul ate the functi ona l I (K,I\c) into th e fo llow ing
correlati ons:

I (K , 1\ c ) = (1. 77 16 + 0.2 160K - 0.7292K 2 + 0.4854K 3 )

- (3.2397 I K + I. i 45 + 2. 084K - 0.9059K 2 )/\ c; [ 16.29]
+(2. 0069 + J.0575 K - 2.400 7 K 2 + J.3 J74K 3 ) /\ ~

for a no n-rotatin g sphere, and:

I (K, 1\ c ) = (1.763 1+ 0.356 1K - 1.1 837 K 2 + 0.8452 K3 )

- (3 .24 14 I K + 2.6760 + 0.8248K - 0.46 16K2 )1\ c [ 16.30]
+(1. 808 1+ 0.8796K - J. 9009K2 + 0.98 J5K3 ) /\ b

9 Chcrukat and Mc l aughlin (J. Fluid Meclr. , Vol. 263 , 1- 18 1994).

348 Fluid Mec hanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

when the sph ere ca n rotate free ly under th e effect of shea r. Th e fi gures pl otted in th e
arti cle by Cherukat and Mcl aughlin help interpret relati ons [ 16.29) and ( 16 .30].
When th e sphere is suffi cientl y far from the wall (hla > 5). th e wall repels th e
particl e (I > 0) if the parti cle is mov ing fa ster th an th e fluid ( Ac; < 0 ), whereas it
attrac ts it in th e reverse s itu ati on. Wh en the parti cle is nea r the wall (hla cl ose to I ).
th e wall repels th e parti cle (/ > 0) irrespective of th e sign of ;\ c (a nd th erefore o f
the sign of the relati ve ve locity WJ), exce pt inside an interva l of pos iti ve va lu es of
Ac (between 0 and 2.5) for whi ch sli ghtl y negati ve va lu es of I are obtain ed. Th e
rotati on of th e parti cle is ge nerall y found to have littl e impact on th e li ft force.

The parti cul ar case fo r whi ch th e relati ve ve loc ity W1 is zero is worth discuss ing .
Th e term "neutral parti cles" is used, in the sense that. for th e confi gurati on of Fi gure
16.4(a ), th e parti cle has th e sa me density as th e tluid , and th ere fore does not settl e in
th e grav ity fi eld . The asy mptoti c limit of [ 16.28), assoc iated with th e co rrelati on
[ 16.29) or [ 16.3 0], when W 1 tends towa rd ze ro. is written as:

[ 16.3 1]
for a sph ere th at is prevented from rotatin g, and :

[ 16.32]

fo r a sph ere that ca n rotate free ly. As K = a I h < I , it ca n be ve rifi ed that the force
Fj_ is always ori ented in th e sa me directi on as k , which mea ns th at th e shea r in th e
veloc ity fi eld produ ces a fo rce whi ch repels the parti cle away from the wa ll.

In the case where th e wa ll is situated in the outer reg ion wit h respect to the
ce nter of th e parti cle ( h > max{ Lw1. L0 } ) . a prev ious stud y by Mc l aughlin 10
shows th at th e wa ll exe rts an additi onal fo rce whi ch att racts or repe ls the pa rt icle
depending on wh ether th e parti cle is mov in g parall el to the wa ll fas ter or s lower th an
the fluid . Thi s force:

[ 16.33 1

is added to th e li ft force [ 16.26] ca lculated by Mcl aughlin ( 199 1) in an in finite

medium . The minu s sign in [ 16.33) indi cat es that th e additi onal fo rce is ori ented in
th e oppos it e directi on to th e shear-induced lift force (when J (t; ) > 0 ). The wa ll -
induced additi onal lift force decreases to zero wh en h in creases.

I0 McLaughlin (J Fluid tlkch.. Vo l. 246. 249- 265 1993 )

 Movement of a Soli d Parti cle in a Fluid Flow 349

C heruk at's and McLaughlin 's relati ons also enabl e th e determinati on of the
lift fo rce exerted by a boundary layer flow on a parti cle th at is se ttl ed at rest
on a hori zont al pl ane (F igure 16.4( b)). In th at case, K = I and Ac; = - 1
sin ce V1 = Ca + W1 = 0 . By substituting these va lues , we infer from [ 16.29] th at
I = 9.29 and:

[1 6.34]

T hi s exp ress ion enab les th e determinati on of th e condi ti ons fo r whi ch th e fluid
flow entra in s th e pa rti cle in suspension, if the parti cle is denser th an the fluid and the
grav ity fo rce is pe rpendi cul ar to the wa ll (F igure 16.4(b)). For that to occur, the li ft
fo rce must exceed the redu ced we ight of the parti cle. whi ch leads to th e condi tion:

C = du , > 4;r (pp- p 1 )g

[ 16.35 ]
cl- 3 x 9.29 p 1a

The grad ient of the ve loc ity fi eld determines the takeo fT conditi on.

There is co nsiderabl e literature concerning the lift force exerted on a parti cle in a
Poise uill e fl ow. The current deve lopment o f mi cro fluidi cs opens new prospects for
such wo rk s, whi ch have hi stori ca ll y been strongly moti vated by appli ca ti ons in the
med ica l fie ld for understandin g the transport of blood ce ll s in arteries and ve in s. We
co ns id er th e situ ati on o f Figure 16.4(c) wh ere th e wall s are parall el to the directi on
o f grav ity . The pioneering ex periments of Segre and Silberberg 11 have demonstrated
the lateral mi grati on o f ri gid neutral parti cles (equality of densiti es between th e fluid
and parti cles). An inhomoge neo us di stributi on of parti cles occurs in a cross secti on
o f th e fl ow , with a max imum conce ntrati on around the radi al pos iti on r = 0.6R.
Work on the lift fo rce exerted on a particle in a homogeneously shea red fl ow
(confi guration of Figure 16.4(a)), which we have previously mentioned , prov ides the
math emati ca l framework to stud y the case of Poiseui li e fl ows, with the concepts of
inn er and outer zones around the parti cle for di sc ussing th e phenomena producin g
the li ft fo rce. It is however not suffic ient to co mpl etely study th e case of Poiseuill e
fl ows. Shea r dec reases linearl y in a Poiseuill e fl ow when mov ing from the wa ll
towa rd the center of the pipe. In a simil ar manner to what is demonstrated by
Cheru ka t and Mc Laughlin ( 1994) in a homogeneously sheared fl ow, it is obse rved
in a Poiseuill e fl ow th at th e wa ll exerts a lift fo rce whi ch repels a particl e located
nea r the wa ll . In th e central part of th e pipe, th e shea r beco mes small . The ratio
= ~ I W1 = Lw 1 I Lc; of th e in erti al sca le Lw 1 to the inertial scale Lc;

I I Segrc and Sil berberg (J Fluid Mech, Vo l. 14. 11 5- 135 1962) and (J Fluid Mech., Vo l.
14. 136- 157 1962)
350 Fluid Mec hanic s for C hemical Eng in eerin g

becomes small at the center of th e pipe. Refe rrin g to th e work of McLaughlin ( 199 1)
for a homogeneo usly shea red fl ow in an infinite medium , we can understand that th e
lift fo rce exerted on a particle, although smaller in magn itude in the central part of
th e pipe than it is near th e wall, pushes toward th e wa ll a particle situ ated in th e
central part whereas it repels it away from th e wa ll when it is close to it. This is
indeed the phenomenology observed ex perimentall y by Segre and Si lberberg and
hi ghli ghted by theoreti ca l studi es. We limit ourse lves to citing a few important
arti cles , 12 from which it is easy to reconstitute a comprehensive bibli ography. The
ca lcul ati ons by Asmo lov ( 1999) hi ghli ght the difference in th e di rect ion and orde r of
magnitude of lift force s between the near-wa ll region and the central part of the pipe
for different va lues of th e Reynolds number Re c = U 111 L I v of th e Poi seuille fl ow
(U 111 is the ve loci ty maximum of the Poiseuille fl ow, Figure 16.4(c)). Thi s work
builds on previous research by Schoenberg and Hin ch ( 1989) and Hogg ( 1994 ).
Sc hoenberg and Hinch ' s work , in particular, sets out the specificity of th e Poi se ui li e
fl ow. The curvature of the Poiseuille flow causes a pressure grad ien t effect , which
also contribu tes to repelling particles situated in the centra l part of the pipe toward
th e walls.

16.6. Centrifugation of a particle in a rotating flow

To conclude our in ve ntory of a few appli cati on cases of the BBOT eq uati ons, we
now consider a ro tating flow about 0::. ax is, omitting gravi ty. In th e cy lindri cal
coordinate system (F igure 16.5), th e onl y non- ze ro ve loc ity compo nent is the
azimuth al compo nent. We consider a ve loc ity field for the tl ow in the form:

u,. = 0
A
uo(r) = rur +- [ 16.3 6]
r
II: "" 0

The rotatin g !low is the combinati on o f a so lid-body rota ti on fl ow and a vortex

!low. As will be seen in Chapter 17, thi s case corresponds to many configurations
for whi ch centrifuga l separati on is impl emented. Theoreticall y speak in g, such tlows
verify th e property t..ii = 0. This property greatl y s implil~ es th e BBOT equati ons. It
also makes it eas ier to identi fy the terms and mechani sms respons ibl e fo r cen trifuga l
separati on.

12 Sc honberg and Hin ch (J. Fluid Mech. , Vo l. 203, 5 17- 524 1989). Hogg (.J. Fluid Mech .
Vo l. 2 72 , 285- 3 18 1994), As mo lov (J. Fluid Mech., Vo l. 381 , 63- 87 1999).
 Movement of a So lid Particl e in a Fluid Flow 35 1

Veloci ty in the Ca rtesia n coordinate system ~ = .r,

Velocity in the cy lindrica l coordinat e system

e,

Figure 16.5. Cartesian coordinate SLI'tem and cylindrical coordinate ~~\'s t em notations

As the BBOT eq uati ons [ 16.5] are written in the Ca rtes ian coordin ate system
(O, x 1,x 2,x 3 ), the first step is to tran scribe th e ve loc ity field into the Cartesian
coordinate system:

Xo
u J(.I"J , x2, x3) = - uo(r) __::_
,.
Xi
u2(XJ , X2,X3) = uo(r) - [ 16.37]
r

In th is co nfi gurati on, the BBOT equati ons [16.5 ] are written as:

[ 16.38]

Since /':,u = 0 , the onl y non-zero quantiti es on the ri ght-h and side of [16.5]
pe1tain to terms V and llcorr. Analyzing the three term s on the ri ght-hand side of
[ 16.38] leads to th e identifi cati on of the centrifuga l separation mechani sm. Th ese
terms eq ual zero for th e directi on parallel to the ax is of rotation (i = 3). Fori = I and
i = 2, th e first two term s are written as :

[ 16.39]
352 Fl uid Mechanics for Chemi cal Engineerin g

Bring ing to th e fore th e relati ve ve loc ities of th e part icle with res pect to the Ouid ,
w, = v, - u, and w2 = v2 - " 2' leads to:

so that th e right-hand sides of eq uati on [ 16.38] fori = I and i = 2 are:

[16.41 a]

[ 16.4 1b)

Substituting th e ve loc ity field [ 16.3 7) into [ 16.4 1], we can write [ 16.38] in th e
form:

[ 16.42a]
= ( m f! - u'/;x1
m I ) - - - -I m I { X1 - o(uu)( WI -x1 + x" )+ uo}
- w" - w2-
r r 2 Dr r r r r

I d W2
(m ,, +- m l )--+ 6Tra -p
, 's I d W,
--- d r + 6TrapW2
2 dt 0 JTrv( ! - r) d r
[1 6.42b]
u[;-x2
= (m , - mf )- + -I m r { x1 -a (ur')(
- x1
W1 -+ W1x2) uo}
- +WI-
r r 2 ar r r r r

I d WJ
(m, + - m r ) - - + 6Tra 2 f.'
's I - dW3
- dr + 6TraJIW.J = 0 [1 6.43)
2 d! 0
JTrv (t - r) dr
 Movement of a Solid Parti cle in a Fluid Fl ow 353

The nex t step is to transcribe th ese eq uati ons into th e cy lindri ca l coordin ate
system by ex press ing the BBOT eq uati ons for the radial and azimuth al component s
o f the particle' s ve loc ity:

[16.44]

Li kewise, the radial and azimuthal co mponents of the part icle's rel ati ve ve loc ity
w ith respect to the fluid are:

W
W,. = Wi -X i + W1 -X 1and X1
Wo = - Wi - + 2-
Xi
. [ 16.45]
r r r r
The BBOT eq uation for th e radi al component is obtain ed by multipl yin g
respectively [ 16.42a ] and [ 16.42 b] by x 1 I r and x 2 I r , then summin g the two
eq uati ons. Length y but not espec iall y difficult ca lculati ons yield the foll owin g
equation , in which th e relati ve ve loc iti es in th e Cartes ian coordinate system W 1 and
W 2 a re eliminated to brin g forth th e relative velocities W, and W0 in the
cy lindri ca l coordinate system:

d W,.
(m p +-I m 1 )--+(m p +-I m; ) ( - -WJ - -
Wouo)
- +61ra pW,.
2 dt 2 r r [ 16.46]
uJ I uo
= (m " - m r )---mt Wo -
r 2 r

In order to simpli fy th e calculations, we have omitted the Basset terms, which

have been found not to alter the nature of the phys ics. These esse nti all y amount to
an additi onal fri cti on term , which slows down the adaptation of the particle's
move ment to the surrounding fl ow, but thi s adaptati on remains very rapid anyway .
On th e left-hand side, the second term appears when the acce lerati on is ex pressed
wh il e changing the reference fram e. Transferring thi s tem1 to the right, we infer:

I dW,. ub ( WJ Wouo ) I WJ
(m p+- m r )--+6:rrapW,. = (m , - mJ )-+ m, - + - - + - mf -
2 dt r r r 2 r
[16.47]

The acce lerati on term in [ 16.4 7] is written on the basis of coordin ates r and and e
th e radial and azimuthal components of th e parti cle's vel oc ity , since the coordinate
change veri ti es with [16.44] :

d~ a~ a~ ~ a~ a~ a~ a~ a~ a~
- - = - - + V,. - - + - - - + V- --=--+Vi--+ V? - - + V- - -
dt ar ar r ae - az ar axi - ax2 - az
[ 16.48]
35 4 Fluid Mechani cs for Chem ica l Engin eering

By a simil ar procedure, th e BBOT equati on for th e az imuth al co mpone nt is

obtain ed by multipl yin g res pective ly [16.42 a] and rl 6.42b] by - x2 I r and X I I r'
and th en summin g th e tw o equati ons. T hi s lea ds to:

(m" + -I m 1 ) ( -
dWo
- +W,-Wo) o (-
- + 6;ra,uWo=-I m , W, r - uo) - m,, W,uo
-
2 dl r 2 or r ,.
[ 16.49]
Th e equati on for th e ax ial compone nt remain s [ 16.43].

Th e left-h and-side term s in equation s [ 16.43] , [ 16.4 7], and [ 16.49] arc in
identi ca l form to th ose deri ved when we studi ed the fa ll of a small parti cle wi thin
th e gra vity fi eld (secti on 16.3) or its displace ment in a unidirecti onal fluid fl ow
(secti on 16.4). The tim e peri ods charac teri zi ng th e acce le rati on phase of th e pa11icle
are id enti ca l (eq uati ons [ 16.1 1] and [ 16. 18]). We reca ll th at these were short . Our
disc uss ion rega rding th e Basset term s (secti on 16.3) also transposes to th e case o f
centrifu ga ti on.

We co nclud e from [16.4 3] that the relati ve ve loc ity of th e parti cle W3 = W~. in th e
directi on o f th e ax is of rotati on goes to zero rap idl y if the W, was non-ze ro at th e
initia l time. As th e ve loc ity u= of th e fl ow in that directi on is ze ro [ 16.36] , the
trajectory of th e parti c le is rapid ly co nfined to a parti cul ar pl ane perpendi cul ar to th e
ax is of rotati on.

T he fo rcin g term s for th e relati ve move me nt in th at pl ane o f th e parti cle with

res pect to th e fluid bring forth in [ 16.4 7] and [ 16.49 ] term s o r eli ITe rent natures:

3
- T he (m P - m 1 )u I r te rm in [ 16.4 7] is the one th at ca uses th e centrifu ga ti on
of parti c les in th e ax ial direc ti on (eq uati on [ 16.47 ]) . The parti cle moves away from
th e ax is o f rotati on if Pp > P ( . It moves towa rd it if th e reve rse is true. The term

m pu~ I r correspond s to th e cen trifuga l force . Th e te rm -- 111 / 11 ~ I r is th e pressure

force exe rt ed by the rotatin g fl ow on th e parti cle. We wil l establi h th at in C hapt er
17 (secti. on 17. 3). T he term ( m P - mr )u (j' Ir is esse nti a ll y balanced w ith th e
friction term 6rra,uW,., thu s determinin g th e relati ve radial ve loc ity W,. of
ce ntri fuga ti on.
- The other term s appea rin g in [ 16.4 7] and r 16.49] are aki n to Corio! is fo rces for
move ment in a rotatin g re ference fram e. Tran spos in g th e criteri a [ 16.4] accordin g to
whi ch th e flow has a low Reyno lds number, th e rotatin g flow mu st be such th at:

uo a 2 ouo a 2
- - < < I and - --- << 1
r II or II
 Moveme nt o r a So li d Part icle in a Fluid Flow 355

nde r th ese cond iti o ns. we verity th a t th ese Cori o li s te rms a re sma ll co mpa red
to the centri fugati o n te rm s. Th e re la tive ve loc ity o f th e pa rti c le in th e az imutha l
directi o n is a lso s ma ll re la ti ve to th e re la ti ve ve loc ity in the radi a l direc ti o n
( Wo I W, << I ).

In a ro ta ting fl ow, the BBO T equa ti o ns th ere fore desc ri be a centri fugati o n
move me nt o f a s ma ll pa rti c le, th e c ha rac te ri sti cs o f whi c h are dri ve n by rath er
s im p le mec ha ni s ms. Th e dura ti o n of the tra ns ie nt reg ime be fo re equilibrium
betwee n th e ce ntri fuga l fo rc in g term and the fri c ti o n is ve ry sho rt . Th e
ce ntri fugati o n process is described approx im ate ly by:

[ 16.50]

The diffe re nce be tween th e ce ntri fuga l fo rce a nd the press ure fo rce exe rted by
the ro tatin g fl ow o n th e pa rti c le, whi c h ge ne rates ce ntri fugati o n, is ba la nced by the
(drag- like) fr icti o n fo rce assoc iated w ith th e re la ti ve radi a l mo ve me nt of the pa rticl e
w ith respect to the fluid . Thi s result will be used in C hapte r 17.

16.7. Applications to the transport of a particle in a turbulent flow or in a

laminar flow

T he exa mpl es o f a ppli ca ti o n o f the BBOT equati o ns di scu ssed in thi s chapter
a ll ow so me use ful g uid a nce to be dra wn in o rde r to e luc id ate a nd justifY th e
hy po th eses fo rmul ated in the o th er c ha pte rs o f thi s pa rt. By keepin g in mind that
th ese equat io ns a re o bta in ed fo r small pa rticles , the fo ll ow ing po ints s ho uld be
e mph as ized :

- The c ha rac te ri stic time '" o f th e tra ns ie nt reg ime leadin g to the ada pta ti o n of
th e pa rt ic le's moveme nt in th e fluid fl ow is sho rt. M ec hani ca l equ ilibrium is reac hed
ve ry rapidl y be twee n th e fo rc in g te rms o f th e pa rti c le's moveme nt and the v isco us
drag fo rce res is tin g th e re la tive move me nt o f th e pa rticl e with respect to the fluid .
W e have used thi s res ult in C hapte r 15 by ass umin g , in th e co ntex t of g rav itati o na l
sepa ra ti o n, th a t th e re lative ve loc ity o f a pa rticl e with respect to th e fluid is e qu a l to
th e fa ll ve loc ity o f a pa rti c le . We sha ll reve 11 to it in C ha pte r 17 (secti o n 17.3 ) w he n
di sc uss in g ce ntri fuga I sepa rati o n.

- The Basse t te rm s (te rm s VI in equa ti o n [ 16. 5]) are additi o na l dra g term s whi c h
interve ne d uring a tra ns ie nt regime. The ir s ig nifi cance de pend s o n the va lu e o f
the de ns ity rati o p , I p 1 . They a re negli g ibl e for particl es in a gas. Th ey a re not
neg li g ibl e w he n th e de ns iti es o f the parti c le a nd fluid are compara bl e, a lth o ug h th ey
d o no t modify th e o rde r o f mag nitude o f th e c ha rac te ri stic time '" of th e tra ns ie nt
regim e, whi c h re ma in s ve ry short. Fo r thi s reason, they a re o ften ig nored.
356 Fluid Mechanics tor Chemica l Eng ineerin g

- The BBOT equati ons have enab led th e introdu ction of the added mass effec t.
which intervenes durin g the acce lerat ion and decelerati on phases of th e particl e in
the fluid . In a transient reg im e. the added mass is esse nti al for a bubble in a liquid
( p " I p 1 << I). because the bubb le has to transmit momentum to th e liquid in order
to be ab le to acce lera te itse lf.
- Th e centri rugati on of a particl e in a rotatin g fl ow is gove rned by th e ce ntri fuga l
force link ed to the rotati on of the fluid flow and by th e press ure force exerted by th e
fluid flow on the particl e (term s V in [16.5]). We will use thi s res ult in C hapte r 17
(section 17.3 ).
- For a steady unidirecti onal sheared flow. we have fo und (sect ion 16.4) th at
the trajectory or a small tluid particle rapid ly ali gns with direction of th e fluid fl ow.
T he hyd rodynamic force exe rted on the fluid partic le is esse nti all y th e drag fo rce
- 6!fpa W;. We have used thi s result on va ri ous occasions in this part (C hapte r 15 ,
secti on 15.4 regarding Brownian moti on. amo ng others). The BBOT equation s do
not bring forth a Iift force. Our rev iew of Iift forces (section 16.5) shows tha t, for
small pa rticles. th e magnitude of th e lift force is small co mpared to th at of th e
drag force. This ex pl ains wh y th e lift force is not taken into account in th e BBOT
equati ons.

The applicati on o f th e res ult s presented in thi s chapter is differenti ated

depending on wheth e r th e move ment of a panicl e is conside red in a laminar or in a
turbul ent fl ow.

16. 7.1. Application to laminarflows

The deve lop ment of micro lluidi cs mak es the stud y o f th e move ment o f a small
particl e in a laminar flow an es peci all y dynamic topic nowadays. The co ntent s or
thi s chapter. without hav in g go ne into th e detail of th eore ti ca l de ve lopment s. show
th e complexity and diffi culty o r th e subject. A pertinent modelin g o f th e move ment
of a particl e. in order to enc ompa ss ph enomena such as th e resuspension o f parti cles
from wa ll s or the mi gration o f particles in a direc tion perpendi c ular to th e !low
streamlin es. should in corporate the lift force exerted on a particle. eve n th ough it is
much weaker th an th e dra g force.

16. 7.2 . Application to turbulent jlmvs

For a parti cle in a turbulent fl ow whose characteristi c scales of ve locity and

le ngth are den oted respectively by u"'" and (, . th e results described in thi s chapter
mean that the move ment of the parti c le aligns wi th the directi on of the turbul ent
fluid fl ow if the characteri stic tim e '" of the tran s ient reg ime. durin g which the
 Movement of a So lid Parti cle in a Fl uid Flow 357

movem ent o f the pa rticl e ada pts to th e surro undin g fluid fl ow, is s ma ll co mpa red
to th e c haracte ri stic time r, = r, I !I nns of turbul e nce, whi c h is often th e case
( 11, << r, ). In s uch a s itua ti o n, the BBOT equati o ns justify modelin g the trans po rt of
a part ic le as a random wa lk process, wherein the move me nt of the particle ada pts
rap id ly to fo ll ow th e va riati o ns o f the turbulent flow . The turbul e nt diffusion process
described in C ha pter 8 res ults in the migration of parti c les perpe ndi c ul a rl y to the
directi o n of th e mea n tlow much fa ster than the lift force contributes to it. That is
th e reason w hy we have prese nted in C hapte r 15 (secti o n 15.5) the s uste nance
in sus pens io n of part ic les w ithin a turbul e nt fl ow as a bal a nce betwee n th e
sedimentati o n flu x a nd the turbulent diffusion flu x. The lift forc e remain s esse nti a l
lor de te rminin g w hether a particl e depos ited on th e bottom can be res uspended
(as we have done w ith equation [ 16.35]). Howeve r, in conditi ons w here turbulence
is suftlcientl y strong to ma inta in a c loud of particles in s uspe ns ion , the model
prese nted in sec tion 15.5 of C ha pt er 15 shows that th e conce ntrati o n of pa rticles
in s uspens io n decreases ex po nenti a ll y w he n moving upwa rd from the bott o m . The
suspens io n is associa ted wi th a mob il e laye r of sediments o n the bott om (bed- load
layer). and th e di sp lace me nt of parti c les canno t be cons id e red in a restri c ted way
by foc us ing on a s ing le, iso lated particle, as we have just d o ne in thi s c ha pte r.
Literature o n sediment tra nsport in nat ura l e nviro nmen ts tack les th e problems of
13
resus pen s io n in a turbul e nt fl ow and the dynamics of dense fluid/ parti c le laye rs.

13 See the books by Nielse n (Coas tal Bollom Boundan Layers and Sedimen t Transport,
World cienti ti c. 1992) and Fredsoe and Deigaa rd (Mechanics of Coastal Sediment
Transport , World Sci entific , 1992) .
 Chapter 17

Centrifugal Separation

Centrifuga l separati on of so lid parti cles in a fluid , but also of non-mi sc ibl e
dropl ets in another liquid or of gas bubbl es in a liquid , is a frequentl y employed
process. It s principl e has already bee n described in th e previous ch apter on the bas is
o f th e BBOT equati ons.

Thi s chapter dea ls with several important applicati ons. It describes in sections
I 7.4- 17.7 th e principl es of dimensioning apparatus such as centrifuge decanters,
centrifugal separators, centrifuga l filters , and hydrocyclones . It seeks to describe the
dimensioning methodology by considering simpl e but illustrati ve confi gurati ons
based on real-life cases . It is not a substitute for technical documentati on regarding
1
ce ntri fuga l apparatus, whi ch can be found in various technical publi cati ons. The
fl ow models empl oyed are rudimentary. The fl ows encountered in centri fuga l
apparatu s are class ifi ed into two typi ca l flow s, so lid-body rotation on the one hand
and vortex fl ows on the other hand . These are desc ribed in secti on 17 .2. In order to
und erstand the reason s th at cause eith er of th ose fl ows to be produced in th e
different apparatus for centrifuga l separation , it is necessary to have some th eoreti ca l
kn ow ledge, such as the noti ons of circul ati on and ve loc ity curl , as we ll as Kelvin 's
theorem. Th ese are introduced in section 17. 1.

I This chapter was partl y in spired by the handouts of the course taught at ENS IC by
N. Midoux (Les operati ons unitaires mecaniques du geni e chimique, ENS IC-CRI FIC
Doc ument) .
The fo llow ing references, of a more techni ca l character, are also menti oned: Ri ve t, P., Gu ide
de Ia separation liquide-solide (Ed. ldex po, Cac han ) 19R I.
Houot, R. and Joussemet, R., "Class ification hydraulique en dimensions", Techniques de
l'ingenieur, traite Genie des Procedes , document J 3 130.
360 Fluid Mechanics tor Chem ica l Engi neerin g

Separat ion criteria are fundam en tall y different dependi ng on whether the lluid
fl ow is of so lid-body rotati on type or vortex type . By way of exa mple, th e quality o f
separation is affected when the !low rate through a centrifu ga l sepa rator is in creased,
whil e the inverse property is obtained in a hydroc yc lone.

17. 1 Rotatin g flow s, circulation, and ve locity curl

A fluid fl ow is usua ll y termed a rotating tl ow when it is possible to identi fy an

0:: ax is abo ut which th e fluid partic les have a move ment of rotati on . Thi s notion is
s impl e to visuali ze when the flow is steady and the traj ectory fo ll owed by a fluid
particle is closed curve. When this is not the case, the concepts of circu lation and
ve loc ity cur l (or vorti cit y) need to be introd uced in order to detine the not ion of a
rotating fl ow.

The circul at ion of a fl ow along a closed line Cis de tined by:

1(1) = 1Uil) d/ [ 17. 1]

c

Virt ual curve C ca n be chose n arbi traril y, irrespective of th e kinematics of the

fl ow. I is the unit vector tangen ti al to curve C and d/ an eleme nt of length along C
(F igure 17. 1). ii(x, t) is the ve loci ty vector along curve C. In the most general case,
the circu lati on 1(1) va ri es in time. In a steady-state regime, when th e closed lin e C
is a trajectory traveled by a fluid parti cle in th e sa me directi on, I is necessa ril y non-
zero . The ex istence of a non -zero circul ati on along certa in su itab ly chosen closed
curves all ows a rotating fl ow to be characteri zed.

'I

Figure 17. 1. Circulalion ~~lafloH over 11closed cune. Lines L1 and Lc are slreamlines
o/lhe flow . The l'irlual curve C is in dashed lines. Vec!Ors I are Iangen! 10 if.
Th e surjc1ce S lo ll'hich vee/Orn is normal is hounded h1 curve C
 Cent rifuga l Separati on 36 1

The vorti city of a fl ow is defined as th e curl vector of the ve loc ity fi eld. Thi s is
ca lcul ated at any point in th e fl ow using:

au: -au,.
8) 1 az
-
(V =
aux au:
curl (i:i) = - - - [ 17.2)
a: ax
au,.- au, J
ax cy
(11 ,, 11 , , II : ) are the ve locity co mponents in a Cartes ian coordinate system (x,y,z).
Ci rcul ati on is mathematicall y related to vorticity. It can be proved th at the
circul ati on o f a tl ow around a closed curve C is equal to the flu x of vorti city through
any (non-c losed) surfaceS bounded externall y by C, which is written as :

r = cju.l dl = fJ curl (ii ) n ds . [ 17.3 )

c s

ii is the normal vector at a point on surfaceS and ds is th e area of an element. As a

consequence of relati on [ 17.3) , if a fl ow has a non-zero circul ati on along a closed
curve C, th e fl ow possesses non-zero vorti city in a domain go in g through surfaceS.

The prac ti ca l interest of di scriminatin g between flow s based on th eir rotati onal
or irrotati onal character results from Kelvin 's theorem, one main consequence of
whi ch is that, in the absence of viscos ity. it is impossible for an irrotational .flow to
spontaneously become rotational. Vorti city can onl y be produced in a fl ow at the
bound aries of the domain , th ro ugh the acti on of viscos ity. It onl y appea rs within th e
fluid by tra nsport or diffusion from the boundari es . Vorti city is produced in
boundary layers near the wall s.

We are therefore led to class ify rotating fl ows based on whether they are
rotational or irrotational. Th e tl ow is irrotati onal at a given point (or in a given
domain ) if the ve loc ity curl vector is zero at that point (or at all points in that
domain ). It is rotati onal at a point if th e veloc ity curl vector is not zero at that point.
Thi s class ifi cati on is relevant , since the property whereby a fl ow is irrotation al or
rotati onal is co nserved when a particle is foll owed in its movement.

Wh en it is poss ibl e to id enti fy naturall y an Oz axis about whi ch the fluid rotates,
the movement is often described in th e cy lindri ca l coordinate system whose main
ax is is th e 0::: ax is (Fi gure 17.2). Th e three ve locity components are the radial
component u,. , the az imuthal component u0 , and th e axial component II : . Whil e
we have already familiari zed ourse lves with the use of th e cylindrical coordinate
362 Fluid Mec hanics for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

system in Chapter I, th e azimuth al ve locit y component was alw ays zero in th e

exa mpl es treated. In thi s chapter, the main ve loc ity co mponent is th e az imuthal
co mponent u 0 whi ch characteri zes rotati on. Th e fl ow also o ften ex hibit s symme try
of revo luti on with respect to th e 0::. ax is. Th e three ve locity co mponents th en depe nd
not on th e angle e, whi ch loca tes the point where ve loc ity is obse rved, but onl y on
the di stance r to the axis and to the pos ition ::.. The u,. and u= co mponents
determine th e tl ow in a meridi an pl ane, whi ch is oft en referred to as seco ndary fl ow.
Th e Navier- Stokes equati ons, ex pressed in a cy lindri ca l coordin ate system, are
reca ll ed fro m Ta bl e 1.1 (C hapter I). The ve loc ity curl vector. ex pressed in a
cy lindri ca l coordin ate system, is add ed.

Navier-Stokes equations in cylindrical coordinates

011,. OU,. Il l) OUr CUr Op .

p { --+ u,.--+---+ u - - - - - = - - + 1r
113}
0/ or r ?e - a::. r or
a (-I o-(ru- ,.-) ) +I-iJ2-u-,. +o-2 u-,. - -2-o u-o }
{or r or
+p -
r 2 () ()2 o::. 2 r2 ?e

ou o ou o u o Du o ou o u,. u o} I o.p .
p { --+ u,.--+---+ u---+ - - = - - - + 1o
rl ar r ae - a::. r r ae .
8 ( I o (ru o)) I 8 uo 8 uo
+ p - - -- - + - - - + - - + - --
2
2 2
ou,.}
{ ar r or 2
r a fJ2 8z 2 r2 ae

OU : OU: U y OU :
p { - -+ u,.--+---+ u=--
OU:}=- -Dp + f =
Dt or r ae 8::. oz .
+p - ou-) + -I -8 -u-- +---
8 ( r ---
I - 8 u-}
2 2

{ r Dr Dr r 2 DB2 8::. 2
Velocity curl
Incompressibility

I au= Du o
--- - --
r ae az
011,. au=
curl (ii ) = -----
az or
l o ( r uo ) l ou ,.
- - -- - - - -
r ?r r ae

Table 17.1. Navier-Swkes equalions. incompressibilin. and velocill ' curl expressed in u
c\lindrical coordin(l(e srslem wilh en is Oz
 Centrifuga l Separa tion 363

Figure 17.2. Dejinitions of the position ofa point M and the velocity vector in a circular
( \lindrical coordina te srstem ofaxis Oz

The centrifu ga l fl ows considered in thi s chapter are th ose dominated by rotati on.
The azimuthal component of the velocity is preponderant, that is, u,. << uo and
u ~ << u 0 in the cy lindrical coordinate system. In such a confi guration, the fl ow
tends to become two-dimensional in a plane perpendicular to the Oz axi s. Th e u,.
and u 0 co mponents of the veloci ty are quas i-independent from coordinate z. The
2
proo f o f thi s proper1y goes beyo nd the scope of thi s chapter Our goa l is to desc ribe
the centrifugation of so lid particles in a rotating fl ow . We simpl y choose to consider
steady-state ax isy mmetri c fluid flow s, whose ve loc ity and pressure fi elds possess
the following kinematic characteristi cs :

u,. (r)
uo(r) [ 17.4]
u : (r ,z )
p(r , ::::)

in th e fluid doma in , outside the wall boundary layers.

The seco nd restricti on within which we shall place ourselves is th at of hi gh-

Reyno lds-number flow s, that is , Re = VR I v >> I . V is the ve loc ity sca le of th e
azimuthal co mponent and R is a characteristic dimensi on of th e flow in the Oxy
pl ane. Viscosity will therefore be neg li gibl e outside the boundary layers, and the
properti es resulting from Kel vin 's th eorem will be applicable.

2 The reader may refer to the book by H.P. Greenspan , The Theory of' Rotating Fluids
(Cambridge Uni versity Press, 1968).
364 Flui d Mechani cs lor Chemi ca l Engineerin g

17.2. Some examples of rotating flows

17.2.1. Solid-body rotation in a rotating tank

We co nsider (Fi gure 17.3) a circul ar cy lindri ca l tank o f radiu s R initi all y fill ed
(th e tank being stati onary) with liquid up to a height H , . Th e tank wa ll s are rotated
about the 0:: ax is with an angul ar speed (tJ. Th e upper surface of the liquid is in
contact with air through an interface on whi ch th e atmos ph eri c pressure prevai ls.
In the cy lindrica l coordinate system, the steady-state so luti on for th e tl ow is in
th e form :

II ,. =: 0,
ll o = uo( r ), [ 17.5 ]
ll ; =0

h(r )
-
g

,.
I?

Figure 17.3. Pmfile oj'thefree sur/il(e f(J r a so lid-hrn h m tationflo" i11 a ro tati11g tank

Th e velocity components have to sa ti sfy the Nav ier- Stokes equati ons, sati sfy the
conditi ons of incompress ibility, and ve rify th e foll owin g boundary conditi ons:

- on th e sidewa ll: u 0 ( R, B, :: ) = rv R [ 17.6]

- on the bottom: uo( r , e , :: = 0) = (tJr [ 17.7]

- at the free surface: p(r , B,:: = h( r )) = Rum [ 17.8 ]

 Centrifuga l Separation 365

One o f th e un know ns to be determined is the pos iti on h(r) of th e free surface

re lati ve to the bottom of th e tank .

In our problem, the grav itati onal acce lerati on vector is orie nted dow nwa rd along
0:, that is, f = f o = 0 and I =- p g . With [ 17.5], the Nav ier- Stokes equation s
red uce to:

uJ
- p -- = - - ,
ap [ 17.9a]
,. ar

0= f.1 .3__( _1_ a(ruo)), (17 .9 b]

a,. ,. ar
ap [1 7.9c ]
0 = - - - pg.
a::.
Because of the sy mmetry of revo lution, the press ure does not depend on angle B.
The ve loc it y fi eld verifi es the conditi on of incompress ibility. The onl y so lution to
[I 7. 9] that verifi es th e bo undary co nditi ons [ I 7.6] and [I 7. 7] is:

uo(r , B, :) = cvr . [ 17. 10]

The pressure fi eld is determined by so lvin g the Navier- Stokes equati ons fo r th e
radi al and ax ial co mponent s. We obtain :

I
p(r , B,z) =c- pgz +-prv >
-r '- + A, [ 17. 1 I]
2

whi ch should ve ri fy bou ndary co nditi on f 17.8]. From thi s, we derive the parabo li c
shape of the free surface:

[ 17. 12]

Co nstant A is determin ed by th e conse rvati on of th e vo lum e of li quid. Thi s

leads to:

[ 17. 13]
366 Fluid Mec hanics fo r Chem ica l Engineerin g

Thi s simpl e so luti on has ce rtain charac teri sti cs whi ch a re important to note:
- Th e tlow is rotati onal. The curl vector, whi ch is or iented a long the 0:: ax is. is
uniform in th e domain :

curl(ii ) =[ ~]
2{V
[ 17. 14]

- Th e free surface has the shape of a parabo la (F igure 17.3), where the th ickn es s
of th e tluid is small est at the ce nter. There is a radi al press ure gradi ent whi ch
balances th e centri fuga l fo rce, as show n by th e av ier- Stokes eq uati on [ 17.9a] fo r
the radi al component of the ve loc ity.

It is not straight forwa rd to determine th e transient so luti on th at lea ds to th e so lid -

body rotati on of th e tluid startin g from rest. Th e so luti on of th e Nav ier- Stokes
equ ati ons in th e form ( u ,. = 0 , u 0 (r , :: , t), U : = 0 ), for whi ch th e az imuth al
component u 0 evo lves in time und er the effect of a process o f vo rti city diffu sion
fro m the lateral circul ar wa ll toward th e tank ax is, does not portray rea lity. A
secondary now ( u,. * 0 and II : * 0) actuall y occ urs, whi ch ca rries vo rti city from
the bo undary layer on the hori zon tal bottom wa ll int o th e water laye r. Boundary
layers pl ay a key part in ro tating tl ows ; they all ow steady-state nows to be
establi shed more ra pidl y 3

17.2.2. Vortex flow

A second , ve ry class ica l rotating tl ow is th e vo11ex n ow , o r whi ch a practical

exa mpl e in hydrocyc lones will be seen in secti on 17.2 .3. For now , let us seek a
simpl e so luti on o r the av ier- Stokes equati ons, in th e form give n by [ 17.5] , whi ch
is steady and irrotati onal. The ge nera l solut io n o f [ 17.9 b] for th e azimuth al
component of th e ve loc ity ca n be writt en as:

B
uo(r) = Ar + - . [ 17. 15]
r

3 Sec also Greenspan, The Th eon of" Rotating Fluids. The book by Stern (Ocean Circulation
Physics, Academ ic Press, 1975) also di sc usses the role of boun da ry laye r Oows in a rotati ng
fluid .
 Centri fuga l Separati on 36 7

Th e vorti city of th e ve loc ity fi eld is:

[1 7. 16]

Th e fl ow is irrota ti onal if A = 0. The irro tati onal fl ow , called a vortex fl ow , takes

on the form :

r [ 17. 17]
ll f! (l') = - - .
2m

T he vortex is cha racteri zed by the quantity r , which is th e circul ati on of the fl ow
along a circle o f radiu s ,. (thi s obse rvati on ex pl ain s th e 2Jr factor in [ 17. 17]). The
circul ati on is the sa me irrespecti ve of the radius r of the circl e considered. The
ve loc ity is infinite on th e Oz ax is. Vorti city is zero ex cept on the ax is (r = 0), where
it reac hes an infinite va lue.

To avo id diffi c ulti es link ed to the sin gul arity at,. = 0, an edd y- (or vortex -) type
fl ow is comm onl y model ed using Rankine' s model:

r
uo(r ) = - - r for,. < a
2;ra 2
[ 17. 18]
r
u0 ( r ) = - - fo rr > a
2m

a is the radius of the eddy. The fl ovv is irrotati onal outside a disk of radius a ,
whereas it is a so lid-body rotati on fl ow for r < a. The ve loc ity is at a max imum at
r = a. Th e radi al profile of the azimuthal ve locity is pl otted in Figure 17.4. It is
eas il y ve ri ti ed th at th e circul ati on is equal to the vorticity flu x, as di ctated by [ 17 .3 ].
Th e Rankin e vo rtex is characteri zed by two quantities: the circulati on r and the
radius u. Th e radi al va ri ation of pressure is calcul ated by integratin g th e Navi er-
Stokes equati on for the radial component of the vel oc ity,

u~ Of! [ 17.1 9]
- p -=- -
1' 01'
J<il\ Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineering

uJr) 2:n:alf

0 0 2 3 5 6 8 9 10
r/a

Figure 17.4. Rankine l'OI"/ex model

For th e Rankine model , we deduce:

11
p(r , ::.) = p o + p - - - -
r" fo r,. < o
4;r 1 o 4 2 (1 7.20]
f2 11 I
p(r,::.) = po + p --,-, - - -
1
--
1
fo r,. > a
4;r -u- 4;r - 2r -

The small er th e radius a, th e more loca li zed the press ure va ri ati ons at th e vic inity
of th e 0::. ax is. This is an obse rvati on that ca n be made by lookin g at a bathtu b bei ng
empti ed. When a rotation sets in , the fl ow is of vortex type. It is co mmon to observe
a deep depress ion in th e free s url~1 ce ente rin g th e drain orifi ce, wh ich is
charac teri stic of a vortex tl ow and quite eli fferent from th e paraboli c shape observed
fo r so lid-body rotati on tl ow (F igure 17.3).

The Rankin e model is of great practi ca l interest, alth ough it is not an exact
so luti on of th e Nav ier- Stokes equati ons. In th e presence of viscos ity, the vorticity
di scontinuity at ,. = o is removed. Th e radiu s o of th e vo rtex widens in time if a
secondary fl ow does not co unteract the effect of viscos ity.
 Cen trifuga l Separation 369

17 .2.3. Flow in a hydrocy c/one

Hydrocyc lones are centrifugal separators which enab le the separa ti on of so lid
panicles that are denser th an the fluid , or of less dense particles (th ose are often non-
miscible droplets in another liquid). Such apparat us present the advantage of not
including any mov ing parts. The rotati on results from the windin g of the fl ow in a
circul ar cylindri ca l cav ity.

Figure 17.5 shows the geometry of a hyd rocyc lone. While the case represented
corresponds to an ap paratus for separating particles denser than th e tluid , th e
hydrodynamic prin ciples desc ribed in thi s sect ion are general. They app ly, unless
spec ifi ca ll y ind icated otherw ise, to both the cases th at will be considered in sect ion
17.7 regardin g separation.

lnjectinn port
Q = Q b + Q, Extraction through
overflow

fZ

Extraction
through spigot
2R" Q b

Injection
Q =Qb+ Q,

-.-- X

2R

Figure 17.5. Hydrocyclone.for separaling parlicles !hal are demer !han lhe.fluid
3 70 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineeri ng

The appa ratu s, which has ax isymmetri c geometry with respect to th e vertical 0::.
ax is para ll el to the direc tion of gravity, consists of two cavit ies on top of eac h othe r.
The fluid is fed tangenti all y into the upper cav ity through an aperture of radius R,.
The inj ec ti on flow rate is denoted by Q. The lower cavity, of circul ar conical shape,
has a radius that decreases gradually. Ex tracti on is perform ed via two apertures. If
the operat ing conditions have been careful ly se lected, the panicles that are denser
than th e fluid are di scharged in their entirety th ro ugh the lower aperture, ca ll ed the
apex or th e spigot (radius Rh), while the fluid fl ow is mainl y ex tracted through the
upper aperture (the overfl ow, of radius Rr). The circul ar geome try causes th e fluid to
acq uire a rotating movement as soon as it enters the upper cav ity.

17.2.3. 1. Ro tatingJlovv and ang ular momentum co nservation

In the inl et section of the apparatus. it is simp ler to express the ve loc ity
components in the Cartesian coo rdinate system (O,x,y,::.). Assu ming the flow to be
rectilin ear and uniform, these are, in th e inl et secti on:

u ,. = 0

u .. = - V == - Q ! TrR,l (17 .2 1]

U: =0

The ve loc ity components are denoted by ( u , , u,. , u = ) in the Ca rtes ian coordinate
syste m (O,x,y,z) and ( u, , uo, u = ) in the circul ar cy lindri ca l coordinate system
(O ,r,O,z). V designates the mea n streamw ise ve loc ity in the inl et sect ion where the
flow is inotati onal (cv == cu rl(ii) == 0).

At high Reynolds numbers, if transit th ro ugh the appa ratus is fast, vorticitv does
not have enough time to diffuse. Kelvin 's th eo rem results in the fl ow being
irrotati onal in the part of the apparatus through whi ch th e fl ow passes. It is therefore
also irrotational in the outlet section s (spigot and ove rfl ow). This res ult has two
consequences:
I. The rotating ll ow is of vortex type in th e hydrocyclone. This is modeled by a
Rankine vortex of radius a and circulation I , using eq uati on [ 17. 18]. The radius a
depends directly on th e geometri ca l contract ion rati os R1/ R and R,JR between the
radius of the upper cavity and those of the extract ion apertures.
2. In the outlet sections (spigot and overfl ow), the radi al and ax ial ve loc ity
components u, and U: equal zero in the rotati onall y zone (r < a). The fl ow Jasses
through an nular secti ons a < r < Rh for the sp igot and a < r < Rc for th e over fl ow.
In these sections, it is assumed that the flow is uniform , namely:
 Centrifuga l Separa ti on 37 1

Spi got:

u: (r , fJ, O) = O for r < a

I.i:(r , e, 0) = fo r a < r < Rh

[ I 7.22 ]
Overflow:

II : ( r ' e, H ) = 0 fo r r < a

Q, -
ll : (r , fJ, H ) = = W, fora < r < R,
2
Jr( R? - a )

Q" and Q, are the outgo in g fl ow rates through the two outl et apertures. Mass
conservati on di ctates th at Q = Qh + Q, . The fracti on of the fl ow th at passes through
eith er outl et secti on is determined by a head Joss calcul ati on deve loped hereinafter.

T he ra dius a is necessaril y less than the geometri ca l radii Rh and R, of th e spi got
and overtl ow , in order to let the fluid out. In Figure 17.5, the vo rtex core r < a is
hatched to indicate th at there is no fl ow in that zone.

A simpl e argument based on the conservat ion of angul ar momentu m all ows th e
circul ati on r of th e vortex to be ca lcul ated. In a steady-state regime, th e angul ar
momentum integrated over th e vo lume of the apparatus is constant. The
conse rva ti on of thi s quantity stipul ates that the angul ar momentum flu x integrated
over the inl et secti on of the apparatu s is eq ual to the sum of the angul ar momentum
flu xes through both outl et sect ions. In th e fo ll ow in g, the foc us is onl y on the ax ial
component of the angul ar momentum (a long k ). The flu x QD , of the axia l
compo nent (OM x ii), of angul ar momentum through a surfaceS is written as:

QD ,= p ff(OM x ii): (iii1) ds . [1 7.23]

s

By conventi on, th e normal n is ori ented in the di recti on of th e di scharge fl ow.

In the inj ecti on secti on S; we have (OM x ii) : = -xV. The integral [1 7.23 ]ts
readily ca lcu lated over the surface of th e inl et secti on. We obtain
QD , = p( R - R; )i7 2Jr R?, brin gin g to fore the di stance ( R - R; ) between the Oz ax is
and th e center of th e inl et secti on.
372 Flu id Mechanics for Chemical Engineeri ng

In the two outl et sect ions, (OM x il) , = m o(r) = I I 2Jr is consta nt in th e
irrotational zo ne ( r > a) ow ing to f 17. 18]. The int egral [ 17.23] is there fore eas ily
ca lcul ated, QD , = pi Q I 2Jr. There is no point in distin gui shin g th e spi got fro m th e
ove rfl ow. The equa lity o f angul ar momentum flu x betwee n th e inl et and th e o utl ets
enab les the vortex circu lat ion to be determin ed:

[ 17.24]

Th is re lati on, which shows the remarkab le propert y th at th e circu lati on of th e vo rtex
is proport ional to the fl ow rate through the apparatu s, is very sat isfactoril y ve rified
ex perimental! / at hi gh Rey nold s num be rs.

I 7.2.3.2. Vortex radius and e.rtractedflow rates through th e spigot and overflo 11

To th e best of our know ledge, there is no si mpl e (a nd unanimously acce pted)

model fo r determining th e diameter a o f the vo rtex . In practice, a mainl y depends on
th e radii R" and R,. of the outl et ape rt ures. It does not va ry much with the fl ow rate
when the Reynold s number is large.

In Figure 17.5. th e rad iu s o f the spi got R" is small er than the rad iu s R, of the
ove rfl ow. Th is hold s for a hyd rocyc lone separating parti cles that are denser th a n the
fluid . The vo lum e flow rate of th e dispersed ph ase is small compared to the vo lum e
fl ow rate of the continu ous phase. Th e apparatus des ign is made in such a way th at
all parti cles are ex tracted through the spigot wi th a fl ow rate of the continuous phase
whi ch is reduced as mu ch as poss ibl e, whil e th e maximum possibl e amount of
the continuous phase fl ows through th e overfl ow. The condition !?" < Rc contributes
to ac hi ev in g th is goa l by reducing th e ex tracti on area of the spi got re lati ve to that
of th e overfl ow.

We have not dist in gui shed the fl ow rates Q" and Q, in ord er to ca lcul ate the
circulati on of th e vo rtex (equati on [ 17.24]) . However, it is necessa ry to know Q"
and Q, in order to determi ne the u, (r ) and u, (r ,:) ve loc ity co mponent s of
th e secondary fl ow and infe r therefrom th e parti cle se parati on properti es of th e

4 Thi s th e01y and th e concepts of head losses in a rotatin g !l ow . presented herein atier, bu il d
on th e wo rk summari zed by W.S . Lewe ll en, (''A review of confined vo11e.x !l ows", NASA
Contrac tor Re p. N I 772 19 7 1).
Measurement s (Esc udier, Bornstei n, Zehnder. J. Fluid Mech .. Vol. 98. 49- 63 I9!50.) carried
out in cond it ions where the radiu s a is very small dispro ve th at th e ax ial veloc it y component
is zero inside the vortex core (r < a). However, the area of th e rotati onal zone is small . and the
!l ow ra te thro ugh it is very sma ll . Circul ati on is also estim ated sati sfactoril y usi ng [ 17.2 4) in
th at case.
 Ce ntri fuga l Se parati o n 3 73

ap para tu s, as will be done in secti on 17. 7. The fl ow rates Qn and Qc are set by the
hea d losses assoc iated with th e operati on of th e apparatu s. The assoc iated head
losses in a hydrocyc lone are quantitati ve ly signifi cant . They mainl y occ ur at the
hydrocyc lone outl et, durin g ex tracti on th ro ugh the spi got and overfl ow, because the
rotat ional kin eti c energy is then di ss ipated. Compared to these head losses, th e head
loss inside th e apparatu s itse lf is small. It is the head losses at the apparatus outl et
th at determine th e fl ow rate through the apparatu s and set th e fract ional fl ow rates
ex itin g th ro ugh the spi got and overfl ow.

Head losses along two streamlin es, one ex iting through the spi got and the other
throug h overflow , are dep icted in Figure 17.6 fro m the hydrocycl one inl et to the two
downs tream reservo irs, the first one co ll ectin g th e partic les with a fracti on of the
con tin uou s phase and the second th e remainder of th e continuous phase.

Head vari ati on

along a strea mline pass ing

H,-+-----..,-'~:":;h
l w>pigol~::~ :; ,'~::~hoe Overtl ow

,-- I
head loss !'!. He
, pass in g through the

~,~:":,
Spigot
head loss
!'!. Hi> Head loss 1'!.1( . in
membe rs loca ted
' ' ... dow nstrea m of the
... ... ove rflow

Inj ec tio n Spi got in let Spi got outlet Fin al deposits
Overflow inlet Overfl ow outl et

Fi gure 17.6. Head variariun across a hydro(yc/one fi;r a srrewnline passing rhrough rhe
spigor or overflow

It is ass umed that the spi got opens into the atmosphere. The onl y head loss al ong
th e streamlin e ex itin g through th e spi got is produ ced upon ex it of the fl ow through
the spi got. It results from th e sudden expansion at th e outl et of th e spi got and from
th e diss ipati on o f the rotati onal fl ow. It is therefore written as :

[17 .2 5]
3 74 Flui d Mechanics for Chemica l Engin eering

Thi s depends on th e rotational energy, the kineti c energy assoc iated with the mea n
strea m-w ise ve loc ity in the spi got, and also th e geometri ca l sca les of the spi got.

If the overtl ow is ex tended by a pipelin e lead ing to th e down strea m ba sin , th e

head loss induced by the outl et through the ove rflow (of the same nature as [ 17 .25] )
is compl emented by an additi onal head loss 11H,.' down strea m of the overfl ow ,
owin g to the length of th e pipe, to th e sudden expansion at th e ex it of th at pipe
into the dow nstrea m basin . and to a va lve with is usuall y used to adju st th e tl ow
rate pass in g through th e ove rfl ow. The head vari ati on between th e appara tu s inl et
and th e downstrea m basin , along th e streamline pass in g through th e ove rfl ow , is
wri tten as:

J-1 ,- Pa1m = M l , (p r:
a-
,pW,2 , a , R,.) + 11H,. '(pW,l , a , R, ) . [1 7. 26]

The ove rall fl ow rate Q passing through th e apparatu s is the sum o r the flow
rates ex iting through the spi got and overfl ow. It is related to th e mean stream-w ise
veloc iti es w"and w,
in th e spigot and over fl ow:

[I 7. 27]

In [ 17.25 ] and [ 17 .26], th e circul ati on r depends on th e fl ow rate Q (equ ati on

[ 17.24 ]). With out go ing any furthe r into mode lin g, wh ich woul d lead us to treat a
parti cul ar case, it ca n be see n simpl y that equati ons [ 17.25- 17.27] enable th e
determinati on, for a head variati on H , - ?,11 111 between th e inl et and outl et, of th e
overa ll tl ow rate go in g through the apparatu s (hence th e circul ati on of the vortex),
and th e mea n strea m-w ise ve loci ti es in th e spi got ( W") and th e overfl ow ( W,. ). Th e
so luti on depe nds on th e hydrau li c circuit in whi ch the hydrocy lone is impl emented.
Sin ce [ 17.25 ] and [ 17.26] determine W" and w,,
respecti ve ly, it is found th at
the fl ow rate Q" = ;TW"( Rl - a ~ ) wi II be small er co mpared to Q. = JrW, ( R? - a 2 ) ,
the larger the rati o Rc I R" is.

17.2.3.3. Kinemalics o( lh e secondarvflow

A few strea mlines of th e secondary flo w in a meridi an plane o r the hydrocyc lone
( B = constant) are sketched in Figure 17. 7. Th e seco ndary tl ow is determin ed by th e
rad ial and vertical co mponents of the ve locity. Under the hypoth es is that the
rotational component is dominant , the fl ow has a two-d imensiona l structure
(equ ati ons [ 17.4]) . Onl y th e ax ial co mponent of the ve loc ity vari es with :::.
The vari ati on with z is linear, res ulting from the conditi ons of in co mpress ibility.
 Centrifuga l Separation 375

The u, (r) and u: (r ,z) co mponents are related th ro ugh incompressibility, which is
written , denoting by h(r) th e hei ght inside the hydrocyclone, as:

_!_ _o(_r _
u,_) = __
o1_
' = = _ u:+ (r) - U:- (r) [17. 28]
,. or o: h(r)

U:+ (r) and U:- (r) are the values of the vertical velocity on the upper boundary
(::: = 1-1 ) and on the lower boundary ( z = 1-1 - h(r) ) . Integrating [ 17.28 ] for the
verti ca l component leads to:

h(r) - 1-1 + : 1-1 - z

u: (r, z ) = U:+(r) + u :- ( r ) - - [1 7.29]
h(r) h(r)

: 2R

2R, I
e_

: =0

2R,

Figure 17. 7. Secondwy .flow in an (O,r, z) plane of a hydrocy clone

The function u:+(r) is given by the boundary conditions on the upper

bound ary:
Qc
U:+ (r)=u : (r , /-1 )= (R 2 - ) for a < r < Rc
1f c a2 [ 17.3 0]
Q
11 -+( r ) = u - (r, H) =- ---==--- for Rc < r < R
- - lf( R 2 - Rn
 3 76 Fluid Mec hani cs fo r Chem ica l Enginee rin g

O n the lowe r bound ary, the reso luti on is diffe rent depending on whethe r r is
sma ll er or larger than the radiu s R;, of th e spi got:

For a < r < R;,

ll = ( /") = II =(/' , 0) = - ~h , . (17.3 I]

1r( R 1~ - a - )

As h(r) =H , th e Ld r , z ) co mponent is directl y deri ved from [ 17.29] usin g [ 17.30]

and [I 7.3 1], and the u, (r) co mpo nent is determin ed by integratin g [ 17 .28] w ith
[ 17 .30] and [ I 7.3 1]. The co nstant of integrati on is ded uced from the cond ition
u, (r = a) = 0. The res ul t is given hereafte r in [ 17.35].

For R;, < r < R, the ve loc ity at th e bottom is pa rall e l to the conica l wa ll. whic h
res ul ts in the fo llow ing re lation between u, (r) and u=- (r):

R - R;,
u, (r) = u =_(r) - - , [ 17.32]
H

using th e co mpo nents of th e norma l vector to the wa ll indi cated in Figure 17.7.
T hanks to ( 17.32], th e fun ction u=- (r) is eliminated fro m [1 7.28 ], whi ch becomes:

o(ru , ) R - R;,
( R - r) - - - r u, = - -- r u= [ 17.33]
or H

s1nce h(r) = H ( R - r ) / ( 1? - R, ). T he fun ction u:+(r ) is constant in th e two

interva ls R;, < r < R, and R, < ,. < R , as stated by th e bo undary conditi ons [ 17.3 0].
In each of the interva ls R, < r < R, and R, < r < R , the so luti on of the di ffere nti al
equati o n [ 17.33 J takes on th e form :

8
u, ( r ) = A + -+ - - -
c
[I 7.34]
r r( R - r)

Constants A and 8 are determined from equati on [ 17.33 ] for the bound ary condi tion
[ 17.3 0] . Constan t Ce nsures the continui ty of u, (r) at r = R;, , th en r = R, .
 Centrifuga l Separati on 377

T he so lvin g procedure described above, which appears tedi ous but presents no
rea l d iffi c ult y, leads to compl ete ca lcul ati on of the secondary fl ow:

for a < r < R;,

I (a 2 - r 2 ) { Q, Q;, }
ll ,. (r) = - - +--=--
27r /-/ r (R,2 - a 2 ) ( Rl- a 2 )
II - (r .: ) = Q, _:_ + Q;, (z - H )
- ' l[( R? -a 2 ) !-l l[( Rl- a 2 ) 1-1

for R;, < r < R,.

_ _ ( R - R;, )
II ,. ( I ) -
I { Q( R?- r ) -
1
2
Q} [ 17.35]
21[ /-1 r( R - r ) ( R,2- a 2)

U- I ,-(
. -) -
-
Q,
+
(.: - !-I)(R - R;, ) { Q (2rR - R,2- r 2)
c +
Q}
- l[( R?- a 2) 21[ !-/r(R - r )2 ( R,2 - a 2 )

for R, < r < R

u,. (r) =- Q( R - R;, ) { I +~}
21[ /-I ( R 2 - R?) r
ll: (r , .:) =- Q { 1+ ( /-1 - .: )( R - R;, )}
l[( R 2 - R?) 2/-1 r

Thi s ve loc ity fi eld will be used in secti on 17.7 in order to determine th e
co nditi ons of se parati on for so lid particl es.

17.3. Th e principle of centrifugal separation

The principl e of centri fugati on of a parti cle within a rotating fl ow has already
bee n treated in sec ti on 16.6 of Chapter 16 usin g th e BBOT equati ons. Here, we
fo rmul ate differentl y the behav ior o f a parti cle in a rotati onal fl ow , using a phys ica l
approac h th at sets out the main forces governing th e dynami cs.

We co nsid er an ax isymm etri c fluid fl ow rotatin g about an ax is Oz . Th e rotati on

domin ates. th at is, u,. << u 0 and u= << u 0 . Thi s hypothesi s is, to a very large extent,
ve rifi ed in ce ntrifuga l separators, as the rotati onal speeds are commonl y o f th e order
of l ,000- 6,000 rpm. It is th erefore postulated that the structure of th e tl ow is of the
fo rm given by equati on [ 17.4] . In a steady-state reg ime, th e terms assoc iated with
co mponents 11 ,. and u= are neg li gibl e in the Nav ier- Stokes equati on for th e radi al
co mponent of the ve loc ity. We therefore write:

~~ ~
- p ,-= - - .
ap [1 7.36]
,. ar
3 78 Fluid Mechani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

Th ere is in the fluid a radi al press ure gradient which balan ces the centri fuga l force
appli ed on a tluid parti cle.

Let us now consid er a sph eri ca l parti cle of di ameter d and densit y p , , pl aced in
the fluid fl ow. We den ote by 11 ,1' , u0" , and II :" the radi al, az imuthal, and ax ial
components of th e parti cle's ve loc ity in the cylindri ca l coordin ate system o f ax is 0::.
The main results from Chapter 16 are th e foll ow in g:
- The relati ve move ment of th e parti cle with respec t to th e fluid occurs along th e
radi al directi on e,. . Th e azimuthal and ax ial ve loc ity co mponents of th e parti cle and
fluid are identi ca l ( u 01, = 11 11 and II :" = II : ).

- Th e parti cles are small. Thi s mea ns, in parti cul ar, th at th e Reynold s num ber
based on the relati ve ve loc ity of the parti cle with res pect to th e fluid and on th e
di ameter of th e parti cle is small , i.e. Re p ll = lu,P - u,. Id I v << I .

- The dynamics of th e parti cle' s relati ve movement with respect to the nuid is
gove rn ed by the acti on of three forces ori ent ed along the radi al direc ti on e,. : (i) th e
ce ntri fuga l fo rce F, , appli ed to th e parti cle' s mass, (ii) the pressure force
F," exerted by th e fluid fl ow on the pa11icle, and (iii ) the fri cti on fo rce F,1 resisti ng
th e relati ve movement of the parti cle with respect to th e fluid .

Th e ce ntrifuga l force is written as :

( 17.37]

with ,." des ignating th e di stance from th e pa11icle to the 0:: ax is (F igure 17.8) .

Since the parti cle is small. the fri cti on resistance to th e re lative radi al
di spl ace ment of the parti cle with respec t to the fluid is ex pressed by Stokes law
(C hapter 15, secti on 15. 1):

1'~ 1 =- 3ffJid(u ,." - u,. ). l1 7.38]

Th e total pressure force exert ed on th e parti cle is the int egral of th e pressure
force exert ed at every point of th e sph ere' s sur face. Thi s integral is transform ed into
a vo lum e integral by virtue of the Ostrogradsky formul a:

- Jf p(l;, + i'') n ds = - Jffvp(i'" + i' ') d V [ 17.39]

s
 Centrifuga l Separati on 379

Balan ce of force s F,1, + F,, + F,1 = 0

Para 1ne1 ers:

e,.
p,

Pt Pre,su re force F,P Centrifugal force F,..

Pr ua( r,.J uJ( r,.)

v - m -- -
" p, ,., m,)T
d

m1, = p.Jrct'/6
u,, =dr,fcl!
Fric ti o n force F,1

-3 7rprf (11,., - II ,.)

Figure 17.8. Principle of cenlri/i1ga l separation - balance ojforces on a particle

The vec tor r' locates a point in side the sphere or at its surface with respect to
the ce nter of the particl e and /'" locates the positi on of the particle's center. Sand V
designate the surface area of the sphere and its vo lume, respectively. Th e pressure
force ex pressed by [ 17.39] is a vector. As the onl y non-zero co mponent of th e
press ure gradi ent is along the radial directi on (equati on [ 17.36]), the pressure forc e
is in the rad ial direction. Its value is :

[ 17.40]

The approximati on made in [ 17.40] consists in retainin g onl y the first non-zero
term of the integra l of the Taylor ex pan ion of the pressure gradient. Using [ 17 .36]
leads to:

[ 17.41]

With equati ons [17 .37], [17. 38], and [17.4 1] express ing th e fo rces exerted on the
particl e, th e fundamental law of dynami cs app li ed to th e partic le is stated as:

I du ,"
( m" +- m f ) - - = F,I + F," + F, , =
2 dt [ 17.42]
PI u[;,, (rp)
m" (l - -)- - - - 3/[pd(u," - u, )
p, r"
3RO Flui d Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engineeri ng

in th e rad ial direction . Eq uati on [ 17.42] is a simplifi ed form w hi ch in co rporates th e

predominant terms th at we have id entifi ed whil e stud yi ng th e BBOT eq uation s.
Re lati on [17.42] takes into acco unt the add ed mass, yet it omit s th e Basset term s,
among others. The new viewpo int introd uced here is the ca lcul ati o n o f the press ure
force, which is not very apparent in th e BBOT equatio ns.

Th e last result from C hapter 16 to be empl oyed is regardin g the acce lerati o n o f a
particl e within the tluid flow . For a small parti cle, th e eq uilibrium between the three
forces F, , , F,,, and F, 1 is reac hed in a time of the order of:

( l d~
I
"
=l 2B._
p
+l)36v
- [17.43]
1

The nume ri ca l estimat ions ca rri ed out in C hapter 16 (Tab le 16. 1) show th at thi s time
is sh011 (more so for a particle in wa ter than for a parti cle in a ir), so that th e
acce lerati on in [ 17.42] can be neglected and the equilibrium between th e above-
menti oned three force s can be cons idered verified at a ll times.

Th e equilibrium of th e three fo rces is depi cted in Figure 17.8. Having neg lec ted
the acce lerati o n, thi s ca n be tran s lated by transfo rmin g [ 17.43 J into th e form :

_ dr1,
ll rp - -
_
,+ (p , - P t )d " u ~ (rp ) -_ 111
(. )
- l/ ,. 1 1
(. ) W u "J ( r" )
1, + ,--- . r17 .44J
dt l 'clp ,." gr"

As shown by equati o n f 17.44], th e radial ve loc ity of centrifu gati on ca n be nat urall y
ex pressed by brin gin g in Stokes' grav itati onal sed imentati on ve loc ity W, (Table
15.1 in Chapter 15). T hi s form ul ation mak es it possib le to es tabli sh a lin k with
grav it ati o nal separati o n. The rati o u[J{ r 1, ) I gr1, is ca lled th e e ffec ti ve ness coeffic ient
of the centrifuga l separa ti on. The radial ve loc ity o f centrifu gati on is usuall y much
large r th an th e grav itati onal settlin g ve loc ity, becau se the effecti veness coe ffici ent is
large. Th e interest of centrifuga l separat ors is to acce lerate se paration in compa ri so n
to grav itatio nal separati on processes.

Th e simil ariti es between g ra vitati onal separation and centrifugal separati on

are strong. Equation [ 17.44] shows that the action of rotati o n is quantifi ed by the
difference between th e density o f the parti cle and th at of th e tluid . If p , > P t , the
parti cle is cen trifuged. In th e reverse case, the part icle ex periences a move ment
toward th e rotati on axi s (thi s is th e case for air bubbl es in a liquid , for exa mpl e). Th e
drivin g force is the diffe rence between th e centrifu ga l force exerted on the parti cle
 Centrifuga l Separation 381

a nd the press ure force exerted by th e fluid. For gravitationa l sepa rati on, the driving
force is t he difference be tw een th e weight of the pat1icl e and th e buoyancy fo rce,
whic h is the res ulta nt of hydrosta ti c pressure force s exerted on the part ic le.

17.4. Centrifuge decanters

Ce ntrifu ge decanters are apparatus of a relatively e le me nta ry design. T hey

are used for a coa rse sepa rati on of particles, for examp le, in order to in c rease
concentrati on in s ludge. They a re a lso enco untered in the med ica l field for
se para tin g blood co nstitue nts suc h as pl ate lets and leuk ocytes. In o rder to c larify a
fluid wi th a high degree of quality, other a pparat us need to be e mpl oyed, suc h as
ce ntri fugal se parators , which we sha ll di sc uss in sect ion 17.5.

In the fo ll ow in g , we success ive ly a ppl y th e principle of ce ntri fuga l sepa rat io n

to the confi g urat ion of discontinuou s decanter a nd th e n to tha t of a continu o us
decanter.

17.4. 1. Discontinuous centrifuge decanters

Figure 17.9(a) shows a discontinuous decanter. The rotating pa rt is a basket

inserted in a fixed c losed housing. The bas ke t is ro tated with an a ng ul ar speed cu,
which is maintained for a duration T, . The pa rti c les conta in ed in th e fluid a re
grad ua ll y ce ntrifuged to wa rd the inner s idewa ll of the basket , o n which a cake
sta rt s to thic ken. O nce the a pparatus is stopped, th e liquid is drained. The bas ke t ca n
be re moved o r th e ca ke detached fro m the basket by a scrape r, a nd th en evac ua te d
by a pipe.

Fig ure 17.9( b) describes th e o pe ra tin g princ ipl e of a di scontinu o us centrifuge

decanter. T he fluid has a movement of so lid-body ro tat io n. If R designates the inn er
radius of th e bas ke t, it is cons id e red th at a particl e is sepa rated as soo n as it
touches th e inn e r c irc ular surface of th e basket. For th e confi g urati o n de pi cted in
Fi g ure 17.9(b) , th e hous ing is initiall y not comp le te ly filled wi th liquid . In a n
esta bli shed flow reg ime , if the ro tat io n is very fast, air is confin ed into a quasi-
cy lindri ca l circ ul ar tube, centered on th e rotation ax is. W e denote by R; its di a mete r.
The centrifugatio n time T, of all of the particles is the o ne required to centrifuge a
parti c le initi a ll y located at the radial pos iti o n R; up to the radi a l pos it ion R. Eq uation
[ 17.44] ca n he w ritte n, for so lid-bod y rotation ( u 0 (r, ) = cur, ), as:

[ 17.45]
3R2 Flu id Mechanics fo r Chemi ca l Engineerin g

(a)

(Fi gure reprod uced from P. Ri vet. Guide de Ia separation liquide- solide)
(b)

Liquid out le t
Feed
Liquid + particulcs

Figure 17.9. Disco ntinuous centrijitge decanter with remuvable basket

Integrati on leads to:

( 17.46]
 Centrifuga l Separa ti on 383

It would take an infinite time to ce ntri fuge a particle located on the rotati on ax is
( R, = 0 ). as the cen trifu ga l forc e is zero on the rotation ax is. It is therefo re desirab le
to fill th e settlin g tank only partially if the particles are to be centri fuged in totality.

If th e durati on o f operation Topcration is less than time T, ., only the particl es

co ntained in the annul ar space:

2 2
R1 = R exp { - (pi'- Pi )d rv Topcratio n }
<r <
R [ 17.47]
18,u

are separated . Th e effec ti ve ness of settlin g is ca lculated as the rati o of the mass of
panic les agglomerated into a cake to the mass of particles introd uced into the
settlin g tank. If the co ncentrati on of particl es is homogeneous in the suspension
introd uced into the settling tank , and if the settling tank is comp letely fi ll ed
( R, = 0 ), th e e ffect ive ness of th e settling operation is si mpl y the ratio of the volume
of th e annul ar space, defined by R1 < r < R , to the total vo lume of the sett ling tank:

2 2
E = I - R 1: = I - ex p{ (p"- Pi )d rv Toperation} . [ 17.48]
R- 9,u

Thi s dimensioning hi ghli ght s several remarkab le propert ies:

- The effec ti veness of settling is independent from th e dimensions of the settling
tank .
The effec ti ve ness mai nl y varies with th e size of the parti cles and the rotati ona l
speed, a nd it is very se lective. For particles of density p , = 3,000 g/L and sized = I
!Jill in water, a centrifu ga ti on of duration Toperation = I min ha s an effectiveness
E = 0.036 for rv = 500 rpm and E = 0.995 for OJ = 6,000 rpm . With common
operatin g para meters, a settlin g tank will therefore easi ly separate pani cles whose
size is in th e order of micro ns.
- Th e ce ntrifugation time ca lcul ated usin g relat ion [ 17 .46] is short . In prac ti ce,
we need to add th e time required to impart th e rotation on the bas ket and estab li sh
so li d-body rotati on.

17 .4.2. Continuous centrifuge decanters

A sketch of a continuous centrifuge decanter is presented in Figure 17. I 0. The

apparatu s is fed continuously with a flow rate Q of fluid and parti cles, with th e same
fl ow rate (w ithou t particles) being tapped from another aperture. The extracti on of
parti cles is not continu ous; they build up on the inner wa ll of the basket, like in the
di scontinuous decanter.
384 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi cal Engineerin g

In the diagram shown in Figure 17.1 0, the fluid and pa11icles are introduced into
the bottom of the housi ng. They enter the annul ar sec ti on R, < R < R, inside the
basket through orifi ces provided at the base of the basket. The rotat ion is imparted to
the fluid as they pass through. The fluid then ascends vei1ica ll y in the central part of
the basket and leaves from the top of the basket through an o verflow, whil e the
partic les are cen trifuged towa rd th e inn er sidewa ll of the basket.
z
2R

~.' ...
2Ri

2R.
II H

~- f f-.._
I

Feed Q
Liqu id+ particl es
l I

Jl Liquid olll let Q

' 1-
w

Figure 17. 10. Diagram of a cominuous centriji1ge decw11er

In the cy lind rica l coord in ate system , the velocity components o r the fluid are :

u, (r) = O
u 11 (r) =(VI' for R, < R < R,. . [ 17.49]
2
u =( r) = QI 1r ( R,; - R, )

With [ 17.44], the ve loci ty components of a fluid partic le in th e same doma in are:

(p ,- PI )cv 2d 2
U rp = I l'p
18,u
uop (rp) = (J)r" [1 7.50]
U:p (rp ) = Q l Tr( RJ- R?)
 Centrifuga l Separation 385

Den ot in g by H th e height of the basket, the time taken by a particle to cross the
basket vert ica ll y is T, = 1f( R,~- R,") H I Q. Thi s is th e residence time in the
apparatu s and the time ava ilabl e to centrifuge a parti cle. All parti cles are centrifuged
if a particle enterin g at the ba se of the basket at the radi al pos iti on ,., = R; has a
rad ia l pos iti on ,., (T, ) > R, . The trajec tory startin g from point ( ,., = R, , : " = 0 ) is
obtai ned by integ ratin g:

[1 7. 5 1]
ll ,., u ;p

wit h the ve loc ity co mponent s as per [1 7.50]. The criterion rp(T, ) > R, leads to the
se parati on c ri teri on:

[1 7.5 2]

whi ch means that all particles are retained in the ap paratu s.

Relat ion [ I 7 .52] is interpreted as a criterion on the res idence time. The fl ow rate
should th erefore remain below a limitin g va lue, fo r a spec ified rotat ion, in order for
th e resistance time ins ide the apparatus to be suffi cientl y long for achi ev ing the
ce ntri fugati on o f all parti cles. It is verifi ed from [ 17 .52] that widening the an nul ar
spaci ng Re- R; does not improve th e effici ency of separation .

17.5. Centrifugal separators

Centri fuga l sepa rators are used to clarify a liquid. Th ese apparatus can
co mm onl y trap parti cles as minute as 0.1 J.lm .

Figure I 7.1 I (a) presents the diagram of disc-stack centrifuge . The apparatus
rotates with an angul ar speed cv abo ut it s ax is of sym metry. It contains stacked
trun cated cones (radii R, and R; , angle a, number of inter- vane chann els N and
spac in g e between two cones). The suppl y of fluid (density Pl and dynamic
viscos ity 1-.1 ) and particles (di ameter d and density p , ) is central, aro und the axis.
The fl ow rate , denoted by Q, is radi all y di stributed on the bottom wa ll of the rotating
housing, th en ascends along th e cy lindri ca l sidewa ll. By then, separation is already
performed to a la rge ex tent , with a substanti al fraction of the particles forming a
cake on th e cy lindri ca l sidewa ll. The fl ow leaves the apparatus by go ing through
inter-vane gaps betwee n the stacked truncated cones. The finer particles are
 386 Flui d Mec hanics for Chemica l Engineering

separated when pass in g betwee n th e va nes if th eir trajec tori es touch th e upper va ne,
under whi ch th ey th en sli de due to th e effec t of the ce ntri fuga l force, be fo re
returning toward the ca ke.

Feed

Liqu id ou tlet
<==
B'

R,
a

(a) Overa ll layout (b) Ve locity and pa th of a part icle

between two \'an es

Figure 17.11 . Disc-slack celllri/itge (fig ure adupledfiwn 1'. Ri1ef.

Guidi! dl! Ia s(pumlion liquid!! solidi!)

The separati on cri terion for a pa rti cle or diameter d and de nsity p , is determ ined
by ca lcul ating th e trajectory or a pa rti cle between th e va nes. Figu re 17. 11 (b)
represen ts the moti on or pa rt ic les in an in ter-va ne chann el. The veloc it y of" th e Jl uid
li 1 is parall el to the va nes. The relati ve ve loc ity of th e pa rti cle with res pec t to th e
tluid , denoted by (u ,, - u, )e,, res ults from centrifugat ion. It is ca lcu lated usin g
equati on [ 17.44] . It is ass um ed th at th e rotati on of th e fluid and parti cles is a
move ment of so lid-body rotati on. Th e ve loc ity co mponent s of th e parti cles are
th erefore:

dr, - - . (p,,- P t )J 2(u 2 .

- - U, p - - U 1 Stll a + lp
dt 18p
uo1, = rvr, [ 17.53]
d.: ,
- - = u~, = u1 cos a
dt
 Centrifuga l Separati on 387

T he ve loc ity u1 of the fluid va ri es with th e radi al coordin ate. Through mass
conservati on:

Q I
u , (,. ) = - - - . [ 17.54]
2ff Ne ,.

It must be pointed out that ass umin g so lid-body rotati on in th e channels between
th e vanes imp Iies that angul ar momentum is not conserved. Conservati on of angul ar
mome ntum would make the fluid and the parti cles increase th eir rotati onal speed as
th ey get closer to th e rotati on ax is. However, a second ary fl ow is produ ced by th e
boun da ry layers on th e co nes, whi ch counteracts th e increase in rotati onal speed in
th e space s between the vanes. Thi s mechani sm ex pl ain s how so lid-body rotati on can
5
be mai ntai ned within the channels. when the spac in g is small (e ( Re - Ri)) Th e
trajecto ri es of so lid parti cles are determin ed by integratin g th e differenti al equati on:

2 2
- - = -u,., = - lg a { 1- (p 1,
dr" - p r )d. w Neff r"2 } =-lga {I -r}
- ,} [ 17.55 ]
d.:: " 11 :1, 9,uQs m a R-

Th e quantity:

9p Qs in a
R= [ 17.56]

has th e dimension of a length. We consider th e case where R > Re . In the oppos ite
case. the tl ow rate is too low, a parti cle ca nnot enter the inter-vane space, and the
retenti on of all parti cles by th e apparatu s is necessa ril y performed.

In Figure 17. 11 (b) , traj ectories are sketched th at correspond to diffe rent part icle
sizes. If the parti cle is very fin e, ce ntrifugati on is very weak. The traj ectory of the
parti cle differs onl y sli ghtl y fiom th at of a fluid parti cle (trajectory AB'). Th e
parti cle leaves the inter-vane chann el without touchin g the top wa ll. A parti cle is
onl y retained in the apparatu s if it is suffi cientl y large . In that case, its traj ectory
touches th e upper va ne (traj ec tory AB"), and th en slides in the oppos ite direction
under th e upper vane because o f the effect of th e centrifugal force. Th e limitin g
trajectory, for whi ch th e parti cle enters at A and touch es th e upper vane at its end B,
corresponds to a parti cle size d min such that all parti cles whose size d is greater th an

5 We do not desc ribe the mec hani sm in further detail , as thi s would require substanti al
developments rega rdin g bound ary laye rs in a rotatin g fl ow.
388 Fluid Mechanics lor Chemica l Engi neerin g

c/ 111111 are separated by th e apparatu s. while particles whose s ize is less th an d m,n are
onl y partially trap ped.

Integrating th e differential equ ati on [ 17.55] poses no real difficulty. The trajec tory
of a particl e entering an inter- va ne gap at A ( r" = R,. . :: 1, = :: 1 ) is written as :

[I 7.57]

The particl e is separated if :: 1, (R, ) - :: . 1 > (e + ( R,.- R, )cos a) I sin a. that is. if:

Rcosa{Argth ( : )- A1g th ( ~ )} > e + (R,. - R, )cos a. [ 17.58]

When th e gap is sumcientl y narrow ( R, I R << I ). a Taylor ex pansion of [ 17.58 ]

leads to th e sepa rati on criteri on:

Q < (p 1, - p 1 )d 2 rv 2 rr (R )- R,3) N. [ 17.59]

9p 3tga

Equality is obta ined for th e parti cle s ize d 11 1111 The result does not depend on th e
spacin g e betwee n two co ni ca l va nes. Thi s IS the result of the Tay lor expansion
assoc iated with th e hypothes is R, I R << I .

The se parat ion criteri on [ 17.59] is analogo us to that obta in ed fo r th e continu ous
centrifuga l decanter (eq uati on [ 17.52]). Th e differences are onl y geometrical . For
both cases. in creas in g the fluid tl ow rate Q leads to a reduction in th e effecti ve ness
of separation . Th e time of res idence in sid e th e ap paratu s co nditi ons th e separati on
effectiv eness. It is also found that separation is improved by increas in g th e number
of co nes. Thi s amount s to an increase in th e separati on areas (th e parti cle thus
has more chances of touchin g a wall ). Thi s is a general property o f centrifugal or
gravita ti ona l settlin g sys tem s.

17.6. Centrifugal filtration

The cakes co ll ected on th e wall s of a centrifu ga l decanter or centrifuga l separator

retain a substanti al amount of wat er. A compl ement ary process is often required
to more th oroughl y de hydrate th e ca ke. Dryin g and cen trifu ga l l~ltra ti o n are such
processes.
 Centri fuga l Separatio n 389

We desc ribe in the fo ll ow in g th e prin cipl e of ce ntrifu ga l filtrati on. by

co ns iderin g in Fi gure 17. 12 a geo metry simil ar to th e geo metry o f a di scontinuous
deca nter prev iously co nside red in Figure 17.9 . Th e basket, whi ch rotates with
angul ar speed (V, is prov id ed with s lits and lin ed with a filter we b. Water is removed
by a process o f filtrati on through th e ca ke and th e filt er web, th e dri vin g force of
whi ch is th e centrifuga l force. The ge nerali zati on of Darcy's law, in order to
in co rporate the ce ntrifuga l fo rce, is written in the circul ar cy lindri ca l coordinate
syste m in the radi al d irection:

1-' 8p ua(r)
- u, (r) = --+ P t --. [ 17.60]
k cr r

u, (r) is th e radia l component of th e throughfl ow ve loc ity in th e filt er medium and

uu( r ) the az imuth al compone nt of th e ve loc ity; k des ignates the permeab ility of th e
filter med ium. The ex tension of Darcy ' s law is s imil ar to what we have done in
Chapter 14 (sec ti on 14.2) in order to take grav ity into acco unt.

As in a centrifu ge deca nte r, th e rotati onal tl ow is a so lid-body rotati on

( uo( r ) = (Vr ). Th e filtrati on process is ax isymm etric . At any time, the fl ow rate
through any cy lind er o f radiu s r is identi ca l. Th e radi a l filtrat ion ve loc ity is related
to the permea te fl ow rate by Q = 27r !-lr u ,( r ), and [ 17.60] becomes:

op " pQ
- = P t (V - r - - - - . [1 7.6 1]
or k 27r f-Ir

Hi s th e height of the ce ntrifu gal tilter, as indicated in Fi gure 17. 12.

T he filtrati on tl ow rate is dete rmin ed by integratin g [ 17.6 1] over th e thi ckness of

the differe nt fi lter medi a and us ing the co nti nuity of pressu re at th e di fferent
inte rfaces . The procedure is identi ca l to the one fo ll owed in Chapter 14 (secti on
14 .3.2) to introdu ce th e noti on o f membrane res istan ce to filtrati on. In the present
case (F igure 17. 12), three laye rs ca n be di stingui shed:
I. The laye r o f liquid out side th e cake ( R;(l) < r < R~
). The thi ckn ess o f thi s
laye r dimini shes in time as th e filtrati on progresses. Th e balance of th e ce ntrifuga l
force with the press ure gradi ent appli es to thi s layer (equ ati on [ 17.6 1] w ith infinite
permea bi Iity).
2. Cake ( Rg < r < R ), whose pe rmea bility is denoted by k~ .

3. Fi lter we b ( R < r < R + H 1 ). We denote by k r it s permeability and /-1 1 its

thi ckn ess.
390 Flui d Mec han ics for C he mi ca l Eng in ee ring

z
2R

H
2R ~

w
1
Liquid discha rge

Figu rc 17 . 12. Centrifitgalfiltration with circular Cl'lindrical g eol/lel!T

Integratin g [ 17.6 1] ove r eac h o f th e three laye rs lead s to:

, ( R~ - R,2 )
R - Pa,m = P rur , [ 17.62 ]
2

2
P2- R = p 1w ,- ( R - RJ)
- R,
J..1 Q In ( - ) [ 17.63 ]
2 kG2Tr f-f R~

[ 17.64]

P 1 a nd P 2 a re res pec ti ve ly the press ure va lu es at th e inte rfaces betwee n th e liquid

a nd th e ca ke a nd betwee n the ca ke a nd th e filt e r. The press ure th at preva il s a t th e
ex it o f th e filt er a nd a t th e liquid/a ir int e rface inte rn a l to th e a pparatus is th e
a tmos phe ri c pressure . By s ummin g equ ati o ns [ 17.62- 17.64 ], th e filtrat io n rate Q is
de tern1in ed as a fun cti o n of ro ta ti o n a nd the geome tri ca l c ha rac teri sti cs:

2
p rw-, (( R + H r ) - R;
2
) J..lQ
= -- { I I ( R ) I I (R+Hr)}
- n - +- n [ 17.65]
2 2TrH ki! Ri! kr R
 Centri fuga l Separati on 39 1

As H 1 << R , thi s ex press ion simplifi es so as to brin g in the filter we b' s res istance,
1? 1 == 1-1 1 / k l :

p 1 rv -o ( R 2 - f?,2 (I)) - - { -R In ( - R J+ !?_1 }

= -,uQ(I) [ 17.66]
2 21r HR k~ R~

The permeate flow rate Q(l) decreases in tim e with the increase o f th e radius !?, (I)
of the air cy linder. A sp in -dry ing process, which corres pond s to th e drainin g of filter
medi a, is entered when th e air/liquid interface is in side th e cake ( R~ < I?; (1) < R ).
Eq uation [ 17.66] th en transforms into:

- -) { - R In ( -R- ) + R_1 } ,
P t rv-, ( R"- R," (t) ) = -,uQ(t [17.67]
2 21r HR k c R;(t )

since th e fra ct ion of the cake that intervenes in th e filtration process is I?;(I) < r < R .
For both cases considered in equ at ions [ 17 .66] and [ 17.6 7] , th e permeate fl ow rate is
determined after tran sfo rmin g either equati on into a differential eq uation for R;(t)
by mea ns o f th e kinemati c re lation inferred from th e mass bal ance:

dR,
Q(t) = 2Jr H!?, - (I) (1 7.68 ]
dt

Com merc iall y ava ilabl e centrifuga l f~lt e rs and spin -dryers are of very di verse
geo metri es. We do not desc ribe them here, but we wished to po int out how th e
dimensioning of th ese apparatus is akin to th at of a filtrati on dev ice, and how th e
centri fuga l force intervenes as the dri vin g force of filtrati on.

17.7. Hydrorycloncs

The fluid fl ow in a hydrocyc lone has been desc ribed in sect ion 17.2.3.
Hydrocyc lones are used for se parating particl es that are denser th an the fluid or for
se parating li ghter e lements (o il droplets, for exa mpl e). In the first case, the parti cles
are throw n onto the co nical sidewall of th e apparatus and th en ex tracted through th e
spi got. In th e seco nd , the dro plets mi grate towa rd the Oz ax is of th e apparatu s and
are ex tracted via th e overfl ow.
392 Flui d Mec hani cs for C hemical Enginee rin g

The sha pe of th e a pparatus is s imil a r in both cases. They ma inl y differ by a

cha nge in th e ratio of th e diam eter 2R, of th e spi go t to that o f th e overflow 2R, . As
the fl ow ra te of the di spe rsed phase is lower than th at of th e continuo us phase, it is
necessary to reduce as mu c h as poss ibl e th e flow rate ex tracted thro ug h th e sp igot
with respec t to th e one th at comes o ut v ia th e overfl ow , in order to sepa rate particl es
th at are denser than the fluid . The spi go t diameter 2Rh is s ma ll e r than the di amete r
2R,, as in the exa mpl e of Fi g ure 17.5. Con verse ly, th e s pi go t diameter will be
g reate r tha n th at of th e over fl ow if we wish to se parate a dispersed phase co ns istin g
of droplets less de nse th an th ose in the continu o us phase , in suc h a way as to extrac t
most of th e continuo us phase thro ug h the sp igot w hil e the di spe rsed phase co mes
o ut thro ug h the overflow . A head loss ca lcu la ti o n, the principle of w hi c h has been
desc ribed in secti o n 17.2.3, d etermines th e fl ow rates Qh a nd Q, ex iting the spi go t
and th e ove rtl ow as a fun cti o n of the geo metry of the appara tu s and th e hydra uli c
c ircui t in w hi c h it is pl aced .

17. 7.1. Separation by a hy droc:vclone ofpartic/e.<i that are denser than the fluid

Figure 17. 13 represe nts the separation by a hydrocyc lo ne o f di spe rsed phase
consistin g of particl es that a re dense r than th e tluid . Thi s very c lass ica l
confi g urati o n is s implified w ith re spect to th ose re prese nted in Fi g ures 17.5 and
17.7, s ince th e spigot ope ns into a c losed cav ity (underflow box) . The fluid flow rate
ex trac ted v ia the spi go t is ze ro in thi s case, and Q = Q,. Under th e effect of
centrifu ga ti o n, th e pa rti c les are first carri ed by th e fl ow until they reac h th e coni ca l
wa ll o f the cyc lo ne. They th e n s lide dow nwa rd because of g rav ity a lo ng th e wa ll
until th ey ex it throu g h th e sp igot. The a ng le fJ of th e co ne has to be s ufficie ntl y
sma ll fo r th e proj ection pa ra ll e l to th e wa ll of th e ce ntri fuga l Io ree (w hi c h is o rie nted
upwa rd ) not to be g reate r th a n th e proj ecti o n of the g rav ity fo rce. If th at we re to be
th e case, th e particles would asce nd .

Fig ure 17. 13 he lps us understa nd s impl y the c ri te ri o n g ua rant ee in g that any
parti c le o f di a mete r d a nd de ns it y p , is sepa ra ted. as it ex it s via th e spi got. We
cons ider a pa1iicle e nterin g the lower cav it y a t po int A. Th e dashed arrow j oin ing
po int A to point B represe nts th e traj ecto ry of th e pa rti c le. A t A ( r = R,, ~ = H ), the
radi a l velocity o f th e particle is the s um of the fluid 's ve loc ity (equation [ 17.35]) and
the re lati ve velocity o f the parti c le with respect to th e fluid du e to ce ntrifugation
(equati o n [ 17 .44]):

2
-- Q( R - R, ) (p, - p 1 )d uJ ( R,.)
u ,., ( R(" ' H ) - + _:_.:....__.:_-'-'-- [ 17 .69]
2ff f-I ( R - R, ) R, ! 8,11 R,
 Centrifu ga l Separa ti on 393

Injec ti on Q z :

Unde rn ow hox
~= 0

figure 17.13. Separation. hy a hydroc\'Cione. H'ith an underflow box, u.fparticles that are
denser than the .fluid. Th e dispersed phase is shaded

As the rotati o na l fl ow is of vo rtex type (equation [ 17 .1 8]), with the ci rc ulation

g ive n by (17.24]. we infer :

[ 17. 70]

The pa rti c le e nte rin g at A is in the m ost unfavo rable pos ition to be se parated. If
thi s particle reaches th e underflow box , the n a ll th e particl es ente rin g the a pparatus
will do th e sa me. The trajectory A 8 drawn in Fig ure 17.13 is such that
u,, (Rc,J-1) > 0. Otherwi se, the particle e nters th e extracti o n secti o n o f the overflow.
It is then imme di a te ly carri ed into the overfl ow. The criterion for no particle to come
o ut thro ug h th e overfl ow is th e refore u,, ( R, . H ) > 0 . It foll ows that :

[ 17.7 1]

The separation conditi o n re m a 1ns u,1, (R,, H ) > 0 when there is o ne di sc harge
fl ow pe r nozz le, but the fl ow rates Qh a nd Qc need to be know n in order to ex press
the criterio n in a form s imil ar to ( 17.7 1].
394 Fluid Mechani cs fo r C hemica l Eng inee ring

Re la ti o n [1 7.7 1] gives th e sepa ra ti o n conditi o n for a ny part ic le of s ize d

introduced into the hydrocyc lo nc. The eq ua lity de te rmines the max imum s ized""'-' of
th e pa rticl es so th at a ll of th e m fl ow o ut thro ug h th e spi go t. By compa ri so n w ith the
res ults o btained for ce ntri fuge deca nters (eq ua ti on [ 17 .52]) a nd separato rs (equati on
[ 17.59]), it is found th a t th e la rge r the fl o w ra te is, th e mo re e ffective th e sepa rati o n
performed by a hydroc yc lo ne w i II be. In th e prev io us two cases , th e fl o w rate
s ho uld no t exceed a ce rt a in va lue. Thi s remarkab le res ult , w hi ch see ms surpri s in g
at first g la nce. s in ce the res id e nce time dimini shes whe n th e fl ow rate in c reases.
is exp la in ed by th e fact tha t the inte ns ity of the vo rtex increases wit h the squa red
fl ow rate .

Eng ineers comm on ly use wha t they ca ll th e part itio n c urve to cha rac terize
separa ti o n by a hydrocyc lo ne . A n exa mpl e is re presented in Fig ure 17. 14 . T he rati o
of the mass of pa rticl es ex iting thro ug h th e s pi got to th e mass e nterin g at th e inl et is
pl otted ve rs us particl e s ize . Hydrocyc lo nes are so me times a lso used to perform g ra in
size so rting o pe ra ti o ns. If a fluid s imultaneo usly conta in s la rge parti c les a nd tine
particl es , it is poss ibl e to se lect th e o pe ratin g conditi o ns in s uc h a ma nne r tha t a ll the
la rge partic les wi ll be ex tracted via the sp igot a nd a max imum of fin e o nes come out
thro ug h the ove rtl ow 6

0on
'}. 0.9
r /
... ..c"
N O.R I
"Vi ;;
0 ~) 0. 7 I I
v.
~
0
-5 0.6 Q=Q, I I
c C.fJ ~. I I
"a. ::-=
'-
0
& :;
;:;
"
0.5
0.4
I '/
"--- Q = Q/5 f-
r,
~
c
~
0.3
v v
~:
~
0.2
0. 1 / v
~ 0 ~- v
0. 1 10 100
cl ( f.HTI )

Figure 17. 14. Part ition clln 'e uf'a hyJrocy lune for two FailleS q/the .fluw rare

T he ma in be nefit o f hydrocy lo nes is th e ir s impli c ity . In mecha ni ca l te rm s, they

do not cons ist of any mov ing pa rts . However, these a ppa ratu s ca use a su bstantia l
head loss , s ince th e e ne rgy of ro ta ti o n is lost. Mo reover, th e se paratio n
c ha rac te ri sti cs o f a hydrocyc lo ne a re c lose ly depe nde nt o n th e head losses at the

6 Th is case is s ugges ted as a n exe rc ise a t th e e nd o f thi s c ha pter.

 Ce ntrifu ga l Se para tio n 395

ap paratu s outl ets , w hi c h set the fl ow ra tes ex trac te d thro ug h the sp igot a nd overfl ow.
A dju stin g th e o peratin g pa ra meters of a hydrocyc lo ne to pe rfo rm a m echa ni ca l
separati o n ope rati o n can prove de licate.

17. 7.2. S eparation by a hy drocy c/one ofparticles less dense than the flu id

W he n the pa rti c les a re less d e nse tha n the ca rri er tluid , centrifu ga ti o n ga th ers the
parti c les o nto th e a pparatu s ax is . Th e di spe rsed phase is often constitu ted of drop lets
(of o il , fo r exam p le) o r a ir b ubbl es . T hese coa lesce to fo rm a co ntinuo us tube o n th e
axis . T he lig hte r p hase is extrac te d v ia th e overfl ow, w hile the heav ie r phase is
ta pped thro ug h the spi go t. T hi s s ituati o n is d e pi c ted in F ig ure 17. 15. Th e geo metry
of th e config uratio n in F ig ure 17. 15(a) is si mil ar to th at co ns ide red in F ig ure 17. 13
fo r th e sepa rat io n of parti c les tha t are de nser tha n th e fluid . For a dro p let of size d,
th e most di ffi c ult pa rti c le to extract v ia the ove rflow is the o ne e nte rin g th e uppe r
pa rt of th e apparatu s a t A. If it leaves th ro ug h th e overfl ow , a ll pa rti c les o f the sa me
s ize w ill do th e sa me. Th e traj ec to ry A B o f thi s pa11icle is dra wn in Fi g ure 17. 15(a).
T he parti c le leaves thro ug h the ove rtl ow if the ve rti ca l ve loc ity at B is pos iti ve ,
w hereas it w ill be extrac ted v ia th e spi go t if th at ve loc ity compo ne nt is negati ve at
th a t po int. Based o n the ve loc ity fie ld [ 17.35], it can be esta bli shed that th e c rite ri o n
fo r a ll dro pl e ts of s ized to be ex trac ted v ia th e overfl ow is that th e ax ia l pos iti o n o f
po int B be a bove the po int w here the ve rti ca l ve loc ity beco mes ze ro . Thi s is
ex pressed , us ing [ I 7 .35] , by:

[ 17.72]

W" and W, a re the m ea n strea m-w ise ve loc iti es in th e sp igot a nd overfl ow. Relati o n
[1 7.72 ] tra ns lates into a c rite ri o n th at is ana logo us to [1 7.7 1] , but thi s req uires
ca lc ul a ting th e traj ec to ry A B fo r kn ow n fl ow ra tes Qh a nd Q'" Equa ti o n [ 17. 72]
shows th at it is p re fe rabl e to have a mod e rate stre am- w ise veloc ity thro ugh th e
spigot, so as to a llow th e di spe rsed ph ase to descend s uffi c ie ntl y low w itho ut ri sk o f
it be in g e ntra ine d thro ug h the spi got. T hi s geo metri ca l drawbac k ca n be overco me
by bl ockin g the spi got at its cente r (F ig ure 17. 15(b)).

The diffe re nt cases o f ce ntrifuga l sepa rati o n treated in secti o ns 17.4- 17.7 o f thi s
c ha pte r im ple m e nt three ste ps : ( i) d ete rmin at io n o f the ve loc ity fi e ld of the fluid ,
( ii) de termin a ti o n of th e ve loc ity o f a pa rtic le by in co rp o ratin g the ce ntrifuga ti o n
term (equ ati on [ 17.44]), a nd (iii ) fo rmul ati o n o f a ph ys ic a l c rite ri o n e nsurin g th at a ll
parti c les e nterin g the a ppara tus a re se pa rated . It is so ug ht to ide nti fy th e pa11ic le
e nte rin g th e a ppa ratus th a t will be the most di ffi cult to sepa rate. Th e math e mati ca l
396 Fluid Mec hani cs fo r Chemi ca l Eng in ee ri ng

ca lcul ati on that fo ll ows is then eith er a traJectory ca lcul ati on or a direct criterion on
th e ve loc it y of the part ic le at one point. The exe rcise at th e end o f thi s chapter
all ows thi s approac h to be impl emented autono mously.

Inj ec tio n Q
Ex traction.
Overtlow Q,

A
A

Ext rac ti on.

~ =0
Spigot Qh

(a) Confi gurat io n w ith an open spigot (b) Co nfigura tion wi th a b locked spigot

Figure 17. 15. Separa tion bt a h t-dmc t'Cione u,/droplets less dense than the .fluid The
dispersed phase. H'hich is shaded is extracted tiu the overf/otl'

17.8. Energetics of centrifugal separation

It is not easy to acc urately ca lcul ate the energy co nsumpti on of cent rifuga l
separati on. The ge nera l id ea is th at th e energy of th e rotati onal fl ow. whi ch is th e
sum of th e kineti c energy and th e pressure energy, is lost in the appa ratus. These are
substanti al energy consumpti ons.

Fo r a di scontinu ous centri fuge decanter. such as th at illustrated in Figure 17.9(b).

th e kin eti c and pressure energy of a parti cle located at a radi al di stance r fiom the
rotati on ax is are deduced from equati ons [ 17 . I 0] to [ 17. I 1]:

[ 17.73 ]
w2 " ')
p (r) =Palm+ p - (r -- Rr )
2
 Centri fuga l Separati on 397

The total e nergy integrated ove r th e liquid volume, whi ch is lost at each
o peration , is:

R R2
fto, = 2rrH Jr(E, (r)+p(r) - P.11 m)dr=prv 2 ----:;-rr i-! ( R 2 - R?) [ 17.74]
~ -

It is pro portional to the maxi mum ve loc ity of rotatio n and the vo lume of liquid.

In a hyd rocyc lon e, the flow is of the vortex type. The rotat ional ve loc ity
(eq uati on [ 17.18]) and press ure (eq uati on [ 17.20]) in the irrotati onal zo ne enabl e th e
calc ulati on of the rotational energy of a part icl e situated at radial distance r from the
rotation ax is:

v 2 (r) f2
E(r) = p - - + p(r) = fl o+ p --7 - [ 17.75]
2 4rr-a-1

T hi s qu antity is independent of th e radiu s r. It is necessary to know the pressu re p 0

at the ce nter of th e vortex in the hyd rocyc lone in order to ca lcul ate the power of the
dissipated rotati onal energy :

Power = { po + p -(2
- - - P.11m } Q,
2
(1 7.76]
4rr a 2

but thi s formul a makes it poss ibl e to apprec iate th e large in crease in di ss ipated
power when th e fl ow rate increases, in li ght of th e relati on [ 17.24] linkin g the
c irc ul ation r to th e fl ow rate Q.

17.9. Application exercise

Exercise 17.1: Grain size sorting in a hydrocyclone

We stud y, in a si mpl e geo metrical confi gurati on, the way a hydrocyc lone can be
used to sort fine and coa rse parti cles contain ed in a fluid. We determine how the
tlow rates shou ld be se lected, based on given geo metri ca l dimen sions and partic le
c harac teri stic s, in order to perform thi s sorting in the most sati sfactory mann er
poss ible.

It is ass umed that the fluid contain s " large'' spheri ca l parti cles of di ameter d 1
a nd " fine" spheri ca l particles of di ameter d 2 . The densit y of th e so lid parti cles is
ass um ed to be the same and th ese parti cles are assumed to be denser than the fluid
(p,> p r ).
398 Fluid Mechani cs for Chem ica l Engin ee rin g

A sketch of the appa ratus is shown in the Figure 17.1.1 . Throug h the central
orifi ce (rad ius R4 ), a fl ow rate Q2 is ex tracted , and it is arra nged for fin e pa11i cles
onl y to come out via thi s orifice. T hro ugh the an nul ar oritlce between rad ii R1 and
R2, a fl ow rate Q 1 is extracted. Th e ope rating co nditi ons will be se lected so that all
th e large pa11icl es exit via thi s or ifi ce. A fl ow rate Q1 + Q2 enters th e apparatu s.

LI Vo n ex

/;:> core

lnjeclion
rate Q1 + Q 2 ... ...........
Exlrac tion of fin e
pa ni c le,.
rate Q,
:~-
R, ;

LI d

Ex trac ti on of
large
pani cles.
rate Q1 := 0

Figure 17. 1.1

I . Justify that the rotational fl ow is of th e fo rm:

. r
uo( r) = - - fora < r < R2
2m

Why is it necessary that a < R/'

Prove that the circulation of th e VOI1ex is r = 2Tr Q, + Q2 ( R, - ~ ) .

u 2
 Centri fuga l Separati on 399

2. It is ass umed th at th e fl ow is uniform in the inl et secti on of the lower cav ity
( :: = f-1 , R3 < r < R2 ) and in the outl et sec ti ons (z = 0, R3 < r < R2 ; z = f-1 ,
a < r < R4 ) o f th e apparatu s. Prove th at, in the cy lindri ca l coordin ate system
(O ,rJJ.::) whose 0 :: ax is co inci des w ith th e apparatu s ax is, th e fi eld of the ax ial and
radi al co mponents of th e ve loc ity ca n be modeled as foll ows ( z = 0 is on the
bo ttom):

Qo I
u, (r) = - - - - - - for R4 < r < R3
2lf f-l ,.

u: (r . ::) = O for R4 < r < R3

Qo Z
u - (r , ::) = - for o < r < R4
- lf (RJ- a 2 ) !-!

Whi ch of th e two components u, and u: is dete rmin ed first? How is th e second

component de ri ved from th e first?
3. We denote by r" (l ) and zp ( l ) the coordin ates o f a parti cle. Write the
equ ati ons of moti on for a so lid particl e in th e doma in a < r < R2 under the effect of
centri fugati on and advec ti on by fluid fl ow .

drp = ')
d! .

4. Write th e criterion whi c h makes it poss ibl e to ensure th at th e large parti cles
co me out through the annul ar orifi ce at th e bottom of th e apparatu s.
5. Ex pl ain why a fracti on o f th e fin e parti cles necessaril y ex its through the
annul ar orifi ce at th e bottom. along with th e large particl es.
6. Write the crite ri on necessary for a fracti on of the fin e parti cles to ex it via the
ce ntral orifi ce. Thi s will require verifyin g th at the parti c les entering at r = R3 into
the domain R4 < r < R3 reach th e pos ition r = R4. What happens if this is not the
case') Show th at, for a known radiu s rati o R4 I R3 , thi s imposes a conditi on on th e
parti cle size rati o d 2 I d1 .
400 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineerin g

7. How should the !low rate Q 2 be se lected to all ow optim al sorting of the fin e
parti cles from the large ones, that is, to obtain the lowest poss ible fraction of fine
parti cles leav ing from the bottom with the large ones 7 Startin g from the equations
estab li shed in Quest ion 3, desc ribe th e method which wou ld enable the ca lculation
of th e fraction of fin e particl es ex itin g through the central orifice. Do not per form
any differential eq uati on reso luti on or integra l ca lcul ati on , but desc ribe the limitin g
trajec tory th at all ows it s determin ati on, by drawing it in the figure.
 Chapter 18

Notions on Granular Materials

The mec hani cs of granul ar materi als, which were once of interest onl y to
spec iali sts in geomec hani cs, have considerab ly deve loped, and its app licati ons have
widened to in clude other fi elds in phys ics. As far as processes are conce rned, it has
wide applications in the agri -food industry for understanding mec hani cs inside sil os
or in logisti cs fo r th e transport of granul ar materi als. A fluid dynamicist can no
longer stay detached fro m the mechanics of granular materi als. The noti on of ang le
of repose. as we ll as of powder flowability , is freq uentl y employed by engineers.

Thi s chapter has quite modest amb itions. We limit ourse lves to the introduction
of a few fundamental not ions about granul ar materi als, in order to fac ilitate access to
thi s fi eld of mec hani cs, and to setting out what di stingui shes a granul ar material
from a fluid medium. These differences will be ill ustrated by two important
appli cations:
I. The pressure distribution in a granular mate ri al at static equilibrium within the
grav ity fi eld , which differs from the one th at estab li shes itse lf in a fluid . The case of
tanks/sil os will be discussed.
2. The fl ow of a granul ar material, for exampl e in an hourglass, whi ch differs
from that of a fluid . Th e reasons for thi s will be exp lained.

Flows of cohesive granul ar materi als will not be discussed , sett ing as ide the
noti on of powder fl owability whose introducti on requires to be compl emented by
drawing on exampl es from con tinuum mec hanics. For non-co hesive granul ar
materi als, we shall propound a macroscopic approac h, which desc ribes ph enomena
wi thin the fra mework of continuum mechani cs. This approach, with the hi ghl y
class ica l Janssen model ( 1895), enabl es the sil o effect in pressure di stributi on to be
402 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engi neerin g

modeled, but does not entirely explain its nature. To rea ll y understand th e mec hanic s
of granu lar materials, we have to rely on a mi croscop ic approach, which eluc id ates
the discrete structure of inter-grain con tacts. We will deal with thi s issue very
briefly, being content with a desc ripti on of the dil atancy mechani sm and o f a rch
phenomena in a granu lar material. More on th is can be found in specia lized
publications. 1

18.1. Static fr iction: Coulom b's law of friction

The mech ani cs of granular material s is ba sed on the very simpl e concept of stati c
fri cti on, modeled by Co ulomb 's law. Co nsidering a so lid lyin g on a planar wa ll ,
which is horizontal with respect to the directi on of grav ity (F igure 18. 1). it is a
ro utine observation that the heavier th e soli d is, the greater will be the magnit ude of
th e force f required to drag it or push it from rest.

t
t
T
f
Mg Mg
cp
cp

Figure 18. 1. Tractionj(Jrce required to initiate the mo veme/11 of a solid lying on u horizontal
plane. Th e cuboid has been rotated between the two cases and the_area o/the cuhoid in
co/1/act with the plane is different. hut the traction fo rce T is identical

These observations are made more specifi c by stating th e fo ll ow ing properti es:

- The magnitude of the tracti on force f needed to move th e so lid is proport ional
to the weight Mg.

- The intensity of the tracti on force f does not depend on th e area S of the
contact surface between the so lid and the supportin g pl ane. The sa me force needs
to be appl ied to move the object hori zontall y in both the situati ons depi cted 111
Figure 18. 1, betwee n which the same solid has been ro tated by a 90 angle.

I These include 1he foll ow in g two books, on whi ch thi s chapter draws: Duran, J .. Sables.
Po udres and Grains (Eyrolles Sc iences, 1997). Mecanique des milieux granulair('s (co llective
wo rk edited by J. Lanier, Herm es Sc ience, 200 I).
 Notions on Granu lar Ma terials 403

These two properties result in the relation.

T r .
=tgrp [ 18. 1]
.1
-=-=
Mg p

The force and stress ratios are eq ual. P designates the pressure (normal stress)
between the solid and the support (w hi ch is ass umed to be homoge neous throughout
the con tac t surface) and r the friction stress at the same point assoc iated with the
tract ion force (tangenti al stress). The ratio .f is the coefficient of static friction ,
whereas the angle between the two components of the forces app lied to the so lid
is termed th e stati c angle of fri ction. While it is independe nt of the area S of the
surface. th e fr iction angle does depend on the "quality" of the contact between the
two surfaces, such as asperities on the two faces in contact.

Relat ion [ 18.1] is usua ll y referred to as Coulomb 's law of friction. The value of
the rati o [ 18.1] between the tange nti al stress and the normal stress is the one
required to initiate the movement. The assoc iated fricti on angle is described as
static. If the applied traction force is small er, the so lid remain s stationary and res ists
its move ment with a resistance force whi ch is equa l and oppos ite to th e tracti on
force appli ed to it. As soo n as the so lid starts moving, the ratio of th e fr icti on stress
to th e normal stress is modified and becomes less than its va lue in the stati c case.
When the so lid moves, the rat io .f is termed the coeffic ient of kinetic friction. Whil e
Co ul omb ' s law is conceptuall y simple, its mathematica l impl ementati on in a
practical problem is delicate , as the tangential force oppos ing the di sp lacement
depends on the amount of force applied and its direction is oppos ite to the side
toward which the so lid is bein g pu shed.

18.2. Non-cohesive granular materials : Angle of repose, angle of internal

friction

The static friction angle introduced in the prev ious secti on corresponds to the
angle of inclin at ion that needs to be appli ed to the supportin g plane in order to make
th e so lid slid e under the effect of gravity. This is iilustrated in Figure 18.2. When th e
plane is slopin g at an angl e a , the projecti on of the so lid 's weight onto the directi on
perpendi cul ar to the supporting pl ane is th e normal force app li ed on the supporting
pl ane, wh il e the tangent ial traction force is the projection of the weight onto the
direction parallel to the plane. When the angle of inclinat ion a reaches th e stat ic
fr ict ion ang le , the ratio between th e tangenti al stress and the nonnal stress
becomes tg and the so lid sta rts mov in g.
404 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

Mg
- T= - Mg cos a k
a
a
Figun 18.2. Frielion ang le and s liding of a solid on an inclined plane

These ideas can be generali zed to the case of a granul ar bed of non-co hes ive
parti cles depos ited on a pl ane, wherein the poros ity E: is homoge neous, as illust rated
in Figure 18.3.

- p ,( 1 - f)hf! cos a {
a

Figure 18.3. Ang le o/'illlemalfi'iclion and IW/ural ang le oj'repose oj'a g mnular IIIli/erin /

Consider a layer of parti cles with homogeneou s charac teristi cs (of size and
shape) deposited on a pl ane whi ch is inclined at an angle a on the horizontal. If th e
bed is at static eq uilibrium , the two components of the force exerted per unit s urf ~1c e
by a surface laye r of thickness h on th e underl ying layer are:

- p ,gh(l -E: )sina i

[ 18.2]
- p,gh(l - E: )cosa k
 Noti ons on Granular Materials 405

p , is th e density of th e particl es. These rel ati ons mea n th at the reacti on fo rce
exerted at th e lower bounda ry ba lances the weight o f the layer. Th e rati o of th e two
co mponents is tg a; it is independent from th e thickness h of the layer. It is noted th at
th e gra nul ar laye r fl ows if the angle a exceeds a limiting va lue ca ll ed the angle of
internal friction of the granular materi al. As both components of th e force appli ed on
the lower laye r va ry linea rl y with h, th e departure from equilibrium occurs
s imulta neo usly for th e entire granul ar bed depos ited on the inclined plane. It then
flow s in its entirety .

The gra nul ar bed flows only if the inclinati on angle exceeds the angle of internal
fr icti on. The mac roscopi c fr iction stress, introduced for a granular material with the
noti on of ang le of internal fri ction , results both from the mi croscopi c-sca le fri cti on
between grain s and from th e entanglement of the gra ins, because th e particles li e in
depressions formed between the parti cles on top of whi ch they li e. The internal
fr icti on angle corresponds to the max imum slope o f a pil e of sa nd that is left to settle
on a hori zontal plan e. Thi s situati on is also represented in Figure 18.3. For thi s
reason, the internal frictio n angle is also call ed the natural angle of repose. In a
dry medium , the natural angle of repose hardl y vari es and is around the va lue of 30
for particl es such as sands. In particul ar, it does not depend much on the size of the
particl es or on the pack ing o f the bed.

It ca n also be understood, by ex amining Figure 18.3, that the nature of the

cont act between the granular bed and th e wa ll influences the stab ili ty condition s. If
the wall is very smooth , the bed will fl ow for an inclin ati on angle small er than the
ang le of inte rn al fri ct ion of the gra nul ar materi al, likewi se a sprin g snow ava lanche
whi ch leaves bare grass behind it. Consequentl y, the fricti on angle ' between the
grain s and the wall is also introd uced, defined as the ratio of the tangenti al stress
to the normal stress characte ri stic of the onset of movement at the wa ll . In order to
meas ure the ang le of intern al fricti on of the granul ar material by graduall y tiltin g
the wa ll . it is preferab le to glue a layer of grains onto the wa ll so as to determine the
intern al fr ict ion ang le rather than the friction angle ' between th e grain s and
th e wa ll .

18.3. Microscopic a pproach to a granular material

Describing, at a mi croscop ic sca le, the static equilibrium within th e gravity fi eld
of a granul ar mate ri al enta il s modeling the balance of forces exerted on each grain ,
namely the weight and th e contact forces with neighboring grain s. It is eas ier to
understand this microscopi c approach by studyin g the simplifi ed two-dimensiona l
co nfi gurati on of th e stacking of circul ar roll ers between two vertical wa ll s, as
depicted in Figure 18.4. Eac h cylinder is fi rst subj ected to its own we ight app li ed at
406 Flui d Mec hani cs fo r Chem ica l Engineerin g

it s center of grav ity. It also undergoes forc es at eve ry point of contac t with the side
wall or wit h another cy linder.

To begin with , it is ass umed th at the co ntact forces do not in vo lve any friction
force. They are therefore normal to the co ntact surface. The contact force exe rted on
a cy linder is necessaril y directed towa rd its ce nter, si nce it can be pushed but not
pulled. In Figure 18.4, the forces appli ed on every cy linder are drawn with a
di fferent gray le ve l, di stin gui shin g th ese fo rces with th ose appli ed on neighboring
cy linders. The contact forces are indicated as co ntinuous arrows , whereas the we ight
is show n as a dotted arrow appli ed at the ce nt er of grav ity. In thi s case of stati c
eq uilibrium , the contact force is simpl y ca lculated, sta11 in g with th e upper cy linder.
For eac h element , th e set of forces balance one anoth er. Th e sketch hi ghli ghts two
properties:
I . The side wa ll exerts a co ntact force on the cy linders that touch it, or
conve rse ly due to th e action- reacti on prin cipl e, th e cy linders exe rt a pressure force
on the vert ica l wa ll s.
2. In th e absence of friction, th e contact forces exe rted on the side wall s and on
th e bottom in crease with th e height of stac king above th e roller considered.

Figure 18.4. Sruric eq uilihritlllt of circular Cl'linders herween rwo verrical piares. in rhe
ahsence ojji"icrionforce. The same grar le 1el i/1(./ica res rh ej(Jrces applied un each cTiinder.
Th e 11eig hr is dr(l\\'11 as a dorr ed W'I'O\\ ' and rhe conracrjc)l'ces as conrinuous arroll's

Let us now co nsider that th e contacts between the ro ll ers, and betwee n the rollers
and the side wa ll , involve fricti on forces. If we focu s on one roll er in contact with
the s ide wa ll , it ca n be found that the weight of the roll ers located above pu shes the
respecti ve roll er aga in st the wa ll , on which it appli es a pressure force . The contact of
the roll er aga in st the wa ll is li abl e to generate at th e wa ll a verti ca l friction force
onto th e roll er, ori ented upwards, which co ntributes to preventin g its dow nward
di splacement. Its magnitude is unknown ; Coul omb 's law prov ides th e maximum
 Not ions on Gran ul ar Material s 407

magnitude of the friction fo rce exerted by th e wa ll on the roll er. The larger the
normal force appli ed by the roller on the wall is, th e larger the fricti on force is.
When fri ct ion is taken into account , the balance of forces on eac h roller, at
eq uilibrium , can no longer be calc ul ated without kn ow in g the "degree of friction
involvement" occ urrin g on each grain , in the words of Duran,2 who also mentions
the "diso rder in friction forces. " What is clearl y understood is that the friction at the
wa ll will be able to co mpensate for part of the weight of th e grain s contained in a
layer between two leve ls on the verti ca l ax is.

The Reynolds dilatancy of a granul ar material is a phenomenon that has to be

studied in order to understand how friction forces are "acti vated" between gra ins
when pressure forces are appli ed on a granul ar material. The principl e of dilatancy
postul ates that if a granul ar materia l is compressed, it mu st first ex pand to allow
displacements between grain s. The principle may act in a counter-intuiti ve way, but
very simple observations help in understanding thi s effect. When we walk on a wet
beach, fo r exampl e, we find that the sand dries up around our footsteps , which
proves that the surface water is sucked into the ground because the granular materi al
expands 3 As a result , certain volumes within the granul ar material subj ected to
compress ion will ex pand, all ow ing grain di spl acements, while other grains exert
forces res istin g the squeezin g of the granul ar materi al by constituting a skeleton
within the granul ar materi al, along which the forces balancing the weight of
the granul ar materi al are tran smitted . The mechani sms described indicate that the
granul ar materi al takes on a di screte structure, as can be see n in Figure 18.5. On thi s
im age of a stac k of cylinders, lines where strong stress is produced (li ghtly colored)
are visibl e along chains that transmit forces up to th e wall s of the container. Figure
18 .5 shows that force transmi ss ion in a granul ar material is heterogeneous. Arches
a re formed , which transmit most of the stresses. These arches carry the weight of the
cy linders situated above, while the grains below are essenti ally subj ected only to
their we igh t. In an hourg lass, the flow can sometimes be observed to stop when th e
formation of an arch blocks the parti cles.

18.4. Macroscopic modeling of the equilibrium of a granular material in a silo

We now turn to a macroscopic description , using continuum mec hanics, to

desc ribe the stati c eq uilibrium of a granul ar materialmedium . The forces appli ed in
the gran ular materi al are thus modeled at a sca le larger than th at of a grain . This
approac h is di sproved by detai led studi es , as shown by the results of the microscopic
approach , but spec iali sts 4 acknow ledge that Janssen 's theory ( 1895) sati sfactoril y

2 See beginning of thi s chapter.

3 Here, we almost repeat the words of Duran. The reader may also refer to the fi gure on p. 80
of Durans book, which describes an elegant experiment for demonstrating thi s phenomenon.
4 Bideau and Amm i (200 I ).
408 Fluid Mechanics for Chemica l Engineerin g

portrays pressure vari ati ons in a sil o. Another important reason for presentin g it is its
se minal character for th e mechanics of granu lar materi a ls.

Figure 18.5. Pho/0 elastic image ofstacked cylinders (Tra vers eta(. 1986). Grains on which
high stresses are applied appear as lighter"'

We now consider, in the geometry defin ed in Figure 18.6, the stati c equilibrium
of a homogeneous granul ar materi al between two vert ica l pl ates located at x =- L
and x = L . We will stud y th e equilibrium of the granular materi al usin g a continuum
approach , by modelin g forces in side th e granul ar bed usin g the stress tensor
discussed in Chapter I. This tenso r, which is necessarily sy mm etri ca l:

O" u (x,.:) r(x, .:) )

I(x, z ) = ( [ 18.3]
r(x,z ) O",, (x , z)

models the mec hani ca l forces within th e granul ar materi a l. by varyin g continuously
in space. The force exerted at a point (x ,z ) through a hori zonta l surface by the
granular materi al on top over the granul ar material below it is:

(
O" u (x, .:) r(x,z ) )(0) ( r(x, .:) ) [ 18.4]
r(x,z) O",, (x ,z ) I = O":: (x,z )

5 Figure 18.5 is lio m th e artic le by Bideau and Ammi (Ecou lements gravitaires: sabliers et
sil os, Mecaniq ue des milieux gran ulaires, collec ti ve work edited by J. Lanier. Herm es
Sci ences, 200 I).
 Noti ons on Granul ar Materi als 409

whil e the fo rce exe rted at th e same point through a verti ca l surface by th e granul ar
materia l to the right on th e med ium to th e Je r-i is:

a n (x ,z ) r(x,z ) )( ' )=(a xx (x, z))

( r(x,z )
[ 18. 5]
a :: (x,::) 0 r(x,z)

These two calc ulati ons all ow us to note that components a xx and a == are
assoc ia ted wi th normal forces through a verti ca l or hori zontal surface, respecti ve ly.
T hese are press ure forces. In contrast, th e r co mponent corresponds in both cases to
a fo rce parall el to th e sur face, which is a fri cti on force.

x= - L x= L

Figure 18.6. Swtic equilihrium of a granular material between two vertical plates

It has been ex pl ained prev iously (Fi gure 18.4) th at the stac kin g of a granul ar
materi al within th e grav ity fi eld generates a press ure force in the Ox direction . The
two stresses a ,., and a :: are related but not necessaril y equal. Janssen's model
postul ates a proporti onality re lati onship between them, that is:

Urr (x ,z ) = K U:: (x,z ) [ 18.6]

In the fo ll ow in g, we ass ume for simpli ci ty th at K = I, and we denote by u the

te rms U rr and U :: . Whil e thi s is generall y not th e case in a granular materi al,
unlike a fluid , th e K = I hypothes is saves compli cation s in formul ati on with out
alt ering th e phys ica l phenomena to be described. Assuming th at the stresses r(x,z)
are non-zero, th e model in co rporates fri cti on by a Coul omb-like approac h. In an
equilibrium s ituati on, thi s means that :

.
tn .
s tde tI1e me d.tum lr(x,z)l
--- :<:::: "'c,or IIx < L
tg'f/ [ 18.7]
u(x , z)
4 10 Fluid M ec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineering

and on tI1e wa ll r( L .=)i ::; tg'f''

cr(L , ::)
"' [ 18.8 ]

Angle is the internal fricti on angle of the granul ar materi al and angle ' th e
fri cti on angle between th e grain s and the wall. In the fo ll ow ing we ass ume th ese two
angles to be equal.

Th e so luti on to th e probl em as set out by Janssen reiies on the hypoth es is th at th e

limiting conditi on of stabili ty is reach ed at the side wall s. The force exerted on the
granul ar bed by the wa ll at x = Li s:

cr(x,z )
( r(x,z)
r(x ,z ) J( IJ (cr(L,z)J [ 18.9 ]
cr(x , ::) 0 , = f. - r(L , ::)

We necessaril y have cr( L ,z ) < 0, as the wall presses on the bed, and r(L , ::) > 0
sin ce fri cti on prevents th e grain from fa lling dow nward s. Th e limitin g co nditi on of
stability is written as:

r(L.::) = - ;..m (L,::) with J.l = tg. [ 18. 10]

Th e co nditi on on the x = - L surface is, likew ise,

r( - L, :: ) = ;..m( - L , ::). [ 18. 11 ]

At the surface of the granul ar material (:: = 0) the stresses eq ual zero, that is:

r(x, :: = 0) = 0
cr(x,:: =0) =0 [ 18. 12]

Equati ons [ 18. 10]- [ I R. 12] are th e boundary conditi ons for stati c equilibrium
within th e granul ar materi al under grav ity, whi ch is ex pressed by co ns iderin g th e
di ve rge nce of th e stress tenso r at every point to be equa l to the we ight of th e
granul ar materi al per unit vo lum e:

[1 8. 13]

[I R. l 4]

P~> = p , (l -& ) is the density of th e granul ar material.

 Notions on Granular Materials 41 1

The stress CT(x,:::) is an even functi on for variabl e x, th e so luti on o f th e

hyperboli c parti al differential equ ati on:

[ 18.15]

w hi ch i solved in the domain ( 0 :<:;; x :<:;; L, z :<:;; 0) with the boundary conditi ons
derived from co nditi ons [1 8. 10] and [ 18. 12]:

OCT
CT( x, O) = 0. -(x, O) = Phg
oz [ 18. 16]
CCT OCT OCT
- (0, :::) = 0, - ( L ,z ) = p-(L, z)
r' r ox oz
It is easy to numeri ca ll y integrate the parti al deri vati ve equati on [ 18.1 5], starting
from the free surfa ce, with the boundary conditi ons [ 18.1 6]. The pressure fi eld
p(x ,:::) = - CT(x, :::) is plotted in Fi gure 18.7 along the symmetry ax is ( x = 0) and
along th e wa ll ( x = L ). The two curves are close to one an other. The most important
result is th at the press ure leve ls out at a va lue equal to p hg L I J..l when depth is
greater than a few times the width 2L of the co ntainer. Th e ca lcul ati on was
perfo rm ed fo r an internal fri cti on angle r/J = 30 (i.e. J..l = 0. 58).

Janssen's class ic analyti ca l so luti on is superimposed in Fi gure 18.7. It onl y

co nsiders static equilibrium in th e 0 ::: directi on (equati on [ 18. 14]), with the
ad di tional simp! ifi cati on that th e stress CT(x , :::) (in oth er word s, the pressure fi eld ) is
uni fo rm in any horizontal plane (independent of th e coordinate x). Eq uati on [ 18. 14]
th en dictates that the stress r(x, z) vari es linea rl y with x. As thi s is an odd functi on
du e to th e symmetry of th e prob lem, we write:

X
r (x,: ) = r(L ,z)- [ 18.1 7]
L

Assumin g now that the limitin g conditi on of equili brium (equati on [ 18. 1OJ) is
reached on the wa ll , [ 18. 14] thu s beco mes:

CT( z) oCT [ 18. 18]

- p --+-= p~o g
L oz
As CT( z = 0) = 0 , th e pressure fi eld obtained by Janssen is:

7
P.1( :::) = -CT(z) =-p hg-L { 1- ex p(J..I _:_) } [1 8.1 9]
J..l L
412 Fluid Mechanics Cor Chem ica l Engineering

~~ P(x,z)/ pbgl
I ,-~~--~---=~~~--------------~

-z/L

Figure 18. 7. Srmic equilihriu111 of a g ranular hed 11irhin rhe g r(/\ irrjieldfur rhe
lll 'o-di111ensional planar configura /ion of'Figure I 8. 6. Jl = IJ. 58. Press ure varia/ion in
rhe \'el'/ical direcrion. : Janssen's 111odel, -- --: 10 111odel. mriarion o n rhe
axis (.r = 0). -.-.-.: 10 m odel. I'U ria rion on rhe Ha/1 (x = L)

The leve llin g-out pressure is

[18 .20J

Figure 18.7 shows that Jansse n' s approx imate ana lytical solution is quasi-identica l
to the previou sly described exact so luti on lor 20 eq uili brium . The sa me limitin g
va lue o r press ure is obtai ned.

Plotting. at different depth s. th e variations in the Or hori zontal di recti o n of' the
pressure (Figure I R.S(a)) and or th e l'riction stress (Figure 18.8( b)) all ow the stati c
equilibrium in the granu lar bed to be analyzed. It is verifi ed th at the so luti on at the
large r depth (: I L = - 13 ) is identical tor the 20 mode l and !'or Jansse n' s model.
Th e pressure rati o is almost equal to I (F igure 18 .8(a)) and th e profil e o f th e fiicti on
stress overli es the linear law [ 18. 17]. At a small er depth (: I L =- I ), for th e 20
model the fri ct ion stress is ze ro in the centra l part or th e vesse l. and pressure
increases linea rl y with depth , which renders the pressure ca lcul ated hy th e 20 mode l
hi gher than that predict ed by Jan ssen's model. The fr icti on stress fo ll ows a Iin ear
law in th e zone nea r the wa ll , which widens as one moves deeper into the s il o. The
friction stress gradi ent gradua ll y establishes itse lf in the silo. The leve ll ing-out
pressure is reached when the fric ti on stress ap pli ed to positi ons x = L and .r = -L is
suffi cient ly large to carry the weight of the granular e lements conta in ed between
these two points.
 Notions on Granular Materials 413

P(x ,z) /PJ(z)

1.2 r---~---~---~---r------;

1 .1 '
'

'
0.9
''
'
'
0.8
''
'

0.7

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

x/L

(a) Pressure profile along Ox

t (x,z)/J.LP} z)

09

08

07 /
/
06 /
/
/
05 /
/
04 /
/
03 /
/
/
02 /
/
0I
_____________ _.., / /

- OIL--~-~-L--L--L--L--L----~L--
0 0 I 02 03 04 OS 06 07 08 09
x/L
(b) Fri el ion slress profil e alo ng O x

Figure 18.8. Sialic equilibrnun ola granular bed wilhin !he gra vilvjieldfor !he
two -dimens ional plane configura/ion a/Figure 18.6. J..l = 0.58. ------. 2/) model.
z ! L =- 1. 2Dmodel. z / L =- 13 . PJ(z )islhe press uregiven hr
Janss en's model (equal ion [ 18. 19})

18.5. Flow of a granular material: example of an hourglass

The results on the pressure field , described in section 18.4, help us in

understanding the fl ow of a granu lar material within th e gravity field , when it
4 14 Flui d M ec hani cs for Chemi ca l Engineerin g

occ urs. T he exa mpl e of the hourglass. depi cted in Figure 18.9 , illu strates thi s
clea rl y. For a liq ui d. th e now ve loc it y depends on th e height h of th e liq uid. as stated
by Torri ce lli' s formul a6 W = J2gh .

(1

W = ) 2gh .
Gra nular ma1erial
Liquid - Torricell i in an hourgla!->s

Figure 18.9. Comparison of'!heflou in an "huurg lass-llpe .. geo/1/e/JT jiJr a liquid fa)
und a grun ulur nwlerial (h)

Fo r a granul ar materi aL it is important to note th at the fl ow ve loc ity does not

depend on the he ight h. The granul ar materi al !lows with a co n tant ve loc ity, whi ch
depends onl y on th e characteri sti cs of the granul ar materi al (its intern al fri cti on
angle p = tgq; ). on th e dia mete r D of the orifi ce and on its openin g angle a, as we ll
as the grav itati onal acce lerati on. Dimensional analys is then yield s:

W = C( p .a)fij5 [ l lQ I]

Thi s result is readi ly understood if one revert s to th e noti on o f press ure fi eld
saturati on set out in secti on 18.4. Th e pressure exe rted on the granul ar mate ri al in
the vicinit y o f th e orifi ce is give n by th e width of the orifi ce as estab li shed by
[I R.2 0] if th e height of the granul ar materi al is suffi cient. Th e press ure is a loca l
data, and it is thi s press ure va lue that sets th e ve loc ity. Relati on [ 18.2 1] is class ica ll y
conve11ed into the we ll-know n fo rm of " Beverloo ' s law'' whi ch ex presses th e fl ow
rate as a fun cti on of th e sa me qu antiti es:

[ 18.22]

6 See Exercise 2. 1 in Chapter 2.

 No ti ons on Granu lar Materi als 415

d represe nt s th e grain size and k is a constant whi ch equals 1. 5 for sp herica l grain s.
Unlike liquids, the fl ow of a granular materi al is subj ect to so me unpredi ctability.
Accidental blockage of th e fl ow sometimes occ urs due to th e formation of a stabl e
arc h. Thi s phenomenon is rarer, th e small er the grain size is compared to that of th e
7
orifice . It is usuall y considered th at D should be greater th an 6d

7 A more detai led desc ripti on of these fl ows can be found in th e arti cle by Bidea u and Ammi
(200 1).
 Physical Properties of Common Fluids

Unl ess spec ifi ca ll y stated, the va lues in the tab le below are give n for condit ions
of temperature T = 20C and pressure P = I atm = 1.0 13 x I0 5 Pa.
-
Wa ter A ir
Densit y p
(kg m 1
)
998.2 1.205 -1
Kin emati c viscos ity v
~" sl)
Dy namic viscos ity 11
10 1
'

-I
15 X I0
5
l
1 1
0.998 X 10 J 1.808 X I0
( Pa s = kg m s )
----
Heat diffusion coe ffi cient
1.42 X I0 7
2. 08 x 1o-s
k II ( lll 2 S I)
Prandt I number
7.04 0.72
I Pr = v I k H
rm al compress--:cibc-:-i:-:-
oe flic icnt (Pa 1)
lit-y -
4.5 X~~ I-ll - - ~. 0 5 X 10
6

. '
Veloc Jty of so und a
1
-f---
1486 _, ~ 343
(!11S )
Spec i fi e heat
c, = 4182
I ('p = 10 12
(J kg I K I ) I c,.= 7 18( T = I5C)
Oil 2. 0 x- 10---=-2-l~W'-:-a-te_r_ 7=-.-=--
28::-'---
x ---cl--:-
0-""--i
Surface or interfac ial
tension (N m 1)
I
--- _M_e_rc_ury _
Rhodamin 6G
3.75 X ~0~~ -~~~u_ry 4 82 __:< _1_?_
1
_

Molec ul a r diffu sion 2.8 X 10- 10 I

(crye) ---- W ate r
coe fli cient k M 5
NaCI vapor 2.3 9 x l0
inside th e flui d C = 0.0 I mol L 1
1.55 x l0 9
(T = 8C)
(m2 s- l)
T = 25 C
Rhod amin 6G
357 1
(dye) Wa ter
Schmi dt number

J~-~
vapor 0.59
Sc = vlk,11
1 (T = 8C)
C 0 I mol
0.NaC
= I L 577
T =
--'-----
25 C I_ - - - - ' - - - - - __j
4 18 Fluid Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Eng ineering

Usual ph ys ical constants

Bol tzmann constant 1

k = I .38 x I 0 c.1 JK

Uni ve rsal gas constant R = 8.3 l.lmoi- 1K 1

Avogadro number N ., = 6.02 X Io"' atoms mol I

9
Permitti vity in a vac uum !/4 Jr6() = 9 X 10
19
Charge o f one electron e = 1.60 x I 0 C
 Index

A
Accessib le porosity, 279
c
Added mass, 33 1, 335, 337, 356, 380 Capillary length , 189, 270, 27 1
Arch imedes ' number, 307- 309, 3 12 Cav itati on, 74, 76 , 87- 90, I 0 1- 104,
Averaged diffusion eq uatio n, 15 1, 175 11 7, 120
Centrifugal separa ti on equat ion,
359-400
B
Ce ntrifugation, 377, 379. 38 1,
Basset terms, 336, 353- 355, 380 389
BBOT eq uations, 33 1, 33 4, 336, Characte ri sti c curve of a pu mp, 5 1,
337,339,34 1,3 50.35 1,3 53, 70,95 , 97
355- 357,359,377, 380 C haracteristic diffusion time, 159,
Bernou lli 's th eorem , 2 1, 29 , 3 1- 33 , 199,203
38,42 , 47 , 63 , 76, 77,85,87, C harac teri st ic time of turbul ence , r,,
97,343 149 , 222
Beve rl oo 's la w,4 14 C irculation of a fl ow over a c losed
Bingham fluid , 37, 128, 136, 137 curve, 360
Bond number, 27 1 Coagul ation, 264
Borda's model , 4 1, 42, 47 , 75, 76, Coa lescence , 229 , 234, 256 , 272 ,
83,84 273,323
Bou nda ry layer, 3, 19- 22, 6 1, 69, Coa lesce nce-d ispersion model , 229
70 , 82 , 83, 85, 86, 143, 16 1' Co lebrook
162, 167,220,349,3 57,36 1, diagram , 79- 8 1, 182 ,
363 , 366, 387 law, 79, 8 1
se para ti on, 20 , 2 1, 86 Concentrati on
Brownian movement, 267- 269, 300 by mass , 263 ,
Buoya ncy (Archimedes' force) , 25 , by vo lume, 263 , 264
26 , 66 , 278, 335 , 38 1 Co ne and pl ate rh eo meter, 132, 13 7
410 Fluid Mechanics for Chemi ca l Engi neeri ng
Co nt act ang le. 183. I RR- 190
Co ntinuit y eq uat ion, 8. 15
Controll ed strain rheomcters. 13 1
Con troll ed stress rheometer, 13 I
Co rrelation fun cti on. 14 7- 149
Co uette circular rh eo meter.
132. 13 3
Coul omb 's law , 402. 403, 406
Creepin g nows. 68 . 33, 343
D 152 . 157. 159. 18 1.25 1
Damk ohler number, 222
Darc y's law. 277.280- 283, 2R6.
287 , 289- 29 1,293,295.299.3 0 1.
327 . 389
Debye length , 266- 269
Design operating curve o f a pump.
100
Diffu sion equati ons (so luti ons to).
157, 159, 20 1
Di latancy pri ncipl e, 402 . 40 7
E 156, 157, 160. 167 169. 174. 177.
Electri ca l doubl e layer, 265- 267
Elec trostati c int er-parti cle force ,
265,267- 269,309. 3 10
Ense mbl e average. 143- 145 . 195
Eotvos number. 27 1
Ergu n's law. 277. 293 , 327- 330
F
Fi ltration by press in g, 277
Fluid particl e
deformation, 270- 273
sedimentation . 27 0- 273
Fluidi sa tion , 32 1, 324, 328
Friction coeftlc ient , 79
c Kelvin 's th eo rem, 359.36 I. 363 .
Grain size di stributi on. 259, 26 1,279.
239.330
H
Hamak er constant , 266 , 267. 268
Head, 13, 17. 24. 29, 32, 33. 3R. 42 ,
43, 46-49.5 1- 54,7 0.71.73- 85 ,
88- 93, 95- 106 , I 08. 136. 141 .
174, 178 , 18 1' 182 . 280. 282- 285 ,
288,323.324.326.3 27 , 37 1- 374.
392 ,394
Homoge neo us turbu lence. 142, 148.
Hydrauli c
conducti vit y, 286
diameter. 7R. 8 1
power, 77 , 93.99 , 100
Hydrostatic pressure. 22, 24 , 25 . 34,
43 ,270.326.335,38 1
IEM model , 229, 231 , 233. 245- 247.
249- 25 1
Integral sca le, 146. 147, 149- 151.
204,209, 2 10,2 15,2 16, 22 1.223 ,
226 , 25 I , 320
Internal fri cti on angle, 405 . 4 10, 41 1.
4 14
Intrin sic permeability. 28 1. 2R2, 286.
29 1.292,295
Isothermal compress ibility modu lus.
11 2, 4 17
Isotropic turbu lence. 147. 148
J
Janssen's model. 40 I, 409 , 412 , 41 3
.Jurin 's law , 187, 190, 19 1
K
370

Kin etic energy di ss ipation, rate of,
4 3, 82 , 141 , 149, 150
Kolm ogorov,
sca le. 209, 2 18, 223, 230, 232
turbul ence spectrum , 2 15, 2 18
Koze ny-Carman formula , 277, 29 1,
292
k- & model, 142 , 157 , 159- 16 1, 163 .
167- 169 , 22 0, 229
L 154, 156, 173 , 195- 198, 232 , 235
Laplaces law, 164, 190, 270,298
Linear press ure drop coefficient, 59,
78.79 , 8 1
Mac roscop ic mi xin g time , 25 1
Magnu s effect , 342- 345
Micromixing time, 202, 204, 25 1,
252
Mixin g length model, 142, 153 , 154,
156, 157 , 16 1, 3 19
Momentum theorem , 78, 79 , 97
N
Nav ier- Stokes equations
in Ca rtesian coordinates, 6- 10
equat ions in cy lindri ca l
coordinates. 15, 362
Newto n's law , 28 , 309, 324
Newtonian fluid , 7- 9, 15, 26. 44 , 46,
67 , 69 , 135, 137 , 138
N PSH of a pump, 102- 104
0 o f a pipe, 79
Osmoti c pressure, 299 , 300, 302
p
Parti c le tl occulation , 264, 269
Pee let number, I 76
Index 42 1
Perfectly stirred reactor, 69 , 172 , 177,
178, 194, 2 14, 215 , 230, 23 I, 233 ,
245 , 25 1
Permeameters, 279 , 282
Porosity, 263, 264, 279, 280 , 28 1,
291 - 293 , 295- 298 , 310,32 2, 323,
326- 330, 404
Power number of a stirrer, 17 1, 18 1,
182,2 15
Probability density function , 144,
Pycnometer, 261, 262 , 279
R
Rankine vortex , 367 , 368, 370
Rate of kinetic energy dissipation,
43 , 82, 141 , 149, 150
Rate of turbu lent kinetic energy
dissipation , 150, 160, 161 , 2 16, 2 17
Reduced weight, 306, 325, 327, 335 ,
349
Residence time distribution , 142,
17 1- 173, 175 , 177 , 179 , 18 1, 183 ,
185, 187, 189, 191 ,248
Resistance to filtrati on, 277, 286,
288,302 , 389
Reverse osmosis, 277 , 278 , 298 , 300,
30 1, 303
Reynolds
equati ons, 153, 16 1
stresses, 153 , 161
RMS turbulent ve loc ity, 142, 145,
150, 15 i ' 156, 159, 160, 167
Roughness
coefficient, 8 1
Rouse number, 320
s
Schmidt number, 182, 222, 230, 417
Segregation index, 195- 197, 238,
239, 247
422 Flui d Mec hani cs for Chemi ca l Enginee ring
Sing ul a r pressure dro p coe ffi c ie nt ,
84.92
Slo pin g a ng le. 403
So lid-body rotati o n tl ow , 350. 364.
367 , 368
So luti o n of a diffu s io n equati o n,
163- 165
So rting by g rai n s ize . 275. 329. 397
So und ve loci ty. 4 I 7
Spec ifi c a rea , 257- 259 , 279,29 1. 292
Spec i fie rpm of a pump. I 00. I 0 I.
I 05 . 106
Steady turbul e nce , I 42 , I 59, 2 I 6
Stokes' law . 300, 309. 3 I 2, 3 I 6, 3 I 8,
336, 378
Strain ra te te nso r, 7. 8. I 4 . I 27 , I 30.
134- 138
Strain te nsor, 7, I 27- I 30
Stress tensor, 4- 7, 12, 13, 15. 17 , 19,
44 , 46, 124- 129 , 13 1- 133, 137 ,
153, 16 1,303,3 12, 4 07-4 10
Surface te ns io n, I 83- 189, I 9 I, 270.
271. 273
T
Ta ngenti a l filtrati o n, 288
Te rmina l e ntra inme nt ve loc ity, 32 I .
324, 328.
Thi xo tro pi c tlui d , I 2R
Thres ho ld tluid . 8 I , I 02
Time of res ide nce, 69. 239 . 388
To rri ce l Ii s fo rmul a, 4 I 4
T ubul a r reacto r w ith ax ia l di spe rs io n.
17 1- 173, 176- 178
Turbul e nt
diffus io n coeffi c ie nt. 142. I 5 I,
156, 157, 160 . 167 , 174,2 02 ,
20 5,209,227.32 0
energy spec trum , 2 I 3, 2 I 5. 2 I 6,
2 19
llux, 15 1- 156
o f a sca la r qua ntit y. I 5 1
Turbul e nt kin eti c ene rgy. 142 . 149.
!50, 160- 163 . 167 . 184 ,2 14- 2 17.
2 19. 220
d issi pa ti on, I 50, I 60, I 6 I. 2 16, 2 I 7
Turbul ent Reyno ld s number, I 50,
168 .1 69 , 2 15.2 18,320
Turbul e nt viscos ity, I 60. I 6 1
v
va n All e n 's law, 309
Va n de r Waa ls force s, 264- 266,309,
3 10
Vasc hy- Buc kin gha mth eo re m. 56,
57. 59, 65 , 69 , 180
Ve loc ity curl , 346, 359- 362
w
Wa ter ha mmer, 76 , I I I, I I 3. I I 5,
I I 7- 12 1
Wet de ns ity, 263. 264
y
Yo un g ' s modulu s. I 19, 120. 297
Yo ung-Duprc's Jaw. I 88 , I 89