CHAPTER TWO

Free Vibrations

Undamped Single Degree-of-Freedom System

A system is said to undergo free vibration when it oscillates only under an

initial disturbance with no external forces acting afterward. Some examples are
the oscillations of the pendulum of a grandfather clock, the vertical oscillatory
motion felt by a bicyclist after hitting a road bump, and the motion of a child on
a swing after an initial push.

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-1

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Undamped Single Degree-of-Freedom System
Single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system is a system whose motion is defined just
by a single independent co-ordinate (or function).
SDOF systems are often used as a very crude approximation for a generally much
more complex system.

Newton's second law is the first basis for examining the motion of the system. As
shown in Figure below the deformation of the spring in the static equilibrium
position is ∆ , and the spring force 𝑘∆ is equal to the gravitational force 𝑊 acting
on mass 𝑚:

Static Dynamic

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 (𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝑘∆= 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

By measuring the displacement 𝑥 from the static equilibrium position, the forces
acting on mare 𝑘(∆ + 𝑥) and 𝑊. With 𝑥 chosen to be positive in the downward
direction, all quantities-force, velocity, and acceleration-are also positive in the
downward direction.
We now apply Newton's second law of motion to the mass m:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎 (Dynamic state)

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 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥̈

𝑚𝑥̈ = ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘(∆ + 𝑥)

𝑚𝑥̈ = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘∆ − 𝑘 𝑥

𝑘∆= 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

𝑚𝑥̈ = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘 𝑥

𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘 𝑥 = 0 (Equation of motion)

𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑚(−𝜔2 𝑥) + 𝑘 𝑥 = 0 𝑥̇ = 𝜔𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑥̈ = −𝜔2 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡

2 𝑥̈ = −𝜔2 𝑥
𝑚𝜔 𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑥

𝑘
𝜔2 =
𝑚

𝑘
𝜔𝑛 = √
𝑚

𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘 𝑥 = 0 (÷ m)

𝑥̈ + 𝜔2𝑛 𝑥 = 0

Equation is a homogeneous second-order linear differential equation, has the

following general solution:

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-3

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Equation of motion : 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘 𝑥 = 0

𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘 𝑥 = 0 2nd order Differential equation

Homogenous
Constant coefficients
Linear

Forms of solution: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 + Φ)

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋 cos(𝜔𝑡 − Φ)

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡 We will use this form

𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘 𝑥 = 0
Assume : 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡
𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝑠𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡

𝑥̈ (𝑡) = 𝑠 2 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡

𝑚𝑠2 𝐶𝑒𝑠𝑡 + 𝑘 𝐶𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 0

(𝑚𝑠2 + 𝑘 )𝐶𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 0 for a non-trivial solution (𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡 ≠ 0)
𝑚𝑠2 + 𝑘 = 0

𝑘
𝑠1,2 = ±𝑗√
𝑚

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑡

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-4

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 𝑘 𝑘
𝑗√ −𝑗√
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑚𝑡

𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Recall Euler’s identity: 𝑒 ±𝑗𝜃 = cos(𝜃) ± 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)

𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 [cos (√ 𝑡) + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 (√ 𝑡)] + 𝐶2 [cos (√ 𝑡) − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 (√ 𝑡)]
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

𝑘 𝑘
𝑥(𝑡) = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ) [cos (√ 𝑡)] + 𝑗(𝐶1 − 𝐶2 ) [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (√ 𝑡)]
𝑚 𝑚

𝑘 𝑘
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 [cos (√ 𝑡)] + 𝐵 [𝑠𝑖𝑛 (√ 𝑡)]
𝑚 𝑚

A& B area always real , since 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 are complex conjugates

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-5

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 𝑘
𝜔𝑛 = √
𝑚

∴
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘 𝑥 = 0
Equation is a homogeneous second-order linear differential equation, has the
following general solution:

𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐵 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 (General solution)

where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are the two necessary constants. These constants are evaluated from
initial conditions 𝑥(0) and 𝑥̇ (0)

t=0 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(0)

𝑥(0) = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑛 (0) + 𝐵 cos 𝜔𝑛 (0)

𝑥(0) = 0 + 𝐵(1)

𝐵 = 𝑥(0)

𝑥̇ = 𝐴 𝜔𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝐵 𝜔𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

𝑥̇ (0) = 𝐴 𝜔𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑛 (0) − 𝐵 𝜔𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑛 (0)

𝑥̇ (0) = 𝐴 𝜔𝑛 (1) − 𝐵 𝜔𝑛 (0)

𝑥̇ (0)
𝐴=
𝜔𝑛

𝑥(0) = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑛 (0) + 𝐵 cos 𝜔𝑛 (0)

Sub A and B in general equations

𝑥̇ (0)
𝑥= sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑥(0) cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝜔𝑛
Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-6
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The natural period of the oscillation is established from 𝜔𝑛 𝜏 = 2𝜋, or

𝑚
𝜏 = 2𝜋√
𝑘

and the natural frequency is

1 1 𝑘
𝑓𝑛 = = √
𝜏 2𝜋 𝑚

1 𝑔
𝑓𝑛 = √
2𝜋 ∆
∆ ∶Statical deflection

Harmonic motion :

Different forms of the same solution 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 + Φ)

2
𝑥̇ (0)
𝑋 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 = √𝑋(0)2 + ( )
𝜔𝑛
𝑥(0)𝜔𝑛
Φ = tan−1 Φ: phase
𝑥̇ (0)

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-7

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  Several mechanical and structural
systems can be idealized as single-
degree-of-freedom systems. In
many practical systems, the mass is
distributed, but for a simple
analysis, it can be approximated by
a single point mass. Similarly, the
elasticity of the system, which may
be distributed throughout the
system, can also be idealized by a
single spring.

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-8

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  Stiffness Element :
1- Spring:

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

2- Bar in Tension / Compression

3- Beam in bending

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-9

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Beam in bending

4- Torsion

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-10

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Example (1) :
A 1/4 𝑘𝑔 mass is suspended by a spring having a stiffness of 0.1533 𝑁/𝑚𝑚.
Determine its natural frequency in cyc1es per second. Determine its statical
deflection.

Example (2) :

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-11

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Torsional Spring

𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏
= =
𝐽 𝑙 𝑟

𝑇. 𝑙
𝜃= (𝑟𝑜𝑑)
𝐺𝐽

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)

𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 𝜃 (𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙)

𝑘𝑡 . 𝜃. 𝑙
𝜃= (𝑟𝑜𝑑)
𝐺𝐽𝑟𝑜𝑑

𝐺𝐽𝑟𝑜𝑑
𝑘𝑡 = (𝑟𝑜𝑑)
𝑙

𝐽𝑟𝑜𝑑 : polar moment of inertia of rod

∑ 𝑇 = 𝐽0 𝜃̈ (Disk)

𝐽0 is the rotation mass moment of inertia of disk

𝑘𝑡 is the rotational stiffness
𝜃 is the angle of rotation in radians.
𝜔𝑛 is the natural frequency of oscillation
Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-12
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 −𝑘𝑡 𝜃 = 𝐽0 𝜃̈

𝑘𝑡
𝜃̈ + 𝜃=0
𝐽0

𝑘𝑡
𝜔𝑛 = √ (𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝐽0

𝜔𝑛
𝑓𝑛 = (𝐻𝑧)
2𝜋

1 𝑘𝑡
𝑓𝑛 = √ (𝐻𝑧)
2𝜋 𝐽0

General Solution:

𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐴2 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

𝑑𝜃
𝜃 (𝑡 = 0) = 𝜃0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃̇ (𝑡 = 0) = (𝑡 = 0) = 𝜃̇0
𝑑𝑡

𝐴1 = 𝜃0

𝜃̇0
𝐴2 =
𝜔𝑛

𝜃̇0
𝜃(𝑡) = 𝜃0 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝜔𝑛

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-13

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EXAMPLE (3):
An automobile wheel and tire are
suspended by a steel rod 0.50 cm in
diameter and 2 m long, as shown in
Figure below. When the wheel is given
an angular displacement and released, it
makes 10 oscillations in 30.2 sec.
Determine the polar moment of inertia
of the wheel and tire.
𝐺𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 80 𝑋 109 𝑁/𝑚2

SOLUTION:
𝐽𝜃̈ = −𝑘𝑡 𝜃
10
𝜔𝑛 = 2𝜋 = 2.081 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
30.2
𝐺𝐽𝑟𝑜𝑑
The torsion al stiffness of the rod is given by the equation 𝑘𝑡 = ,
𝑙
𝜋𝑑 4
where 𝐽𝑟𝑜𝑑 = = polar moment of inertia of the circular cross-sectional area of
32
the rod
𝑙 = length of rod
𝐺𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 80 × 109 𝑁/𝑚2 = shear modulus of steel.

𝜋(0.5 × 10−2 )4
𝐽𝑟𝑜𝑑 = = 0.006136 × 10−8 𝑚4
32

80 × 109 × 0.006136 × 10−8

𝑘𝑡 = = 2.455 𝑁. 𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑
2
By substituting into the natural frequency equation, the polar moment of inertia
of the wheel and tire (mass moment of inertia) (𝐽0 ) (𝐽𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑘 ) is

𝑘𝑡 2.455
𝐽𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = = = 0.567 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2
𝜔𝑛2 (2.081)2

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-14

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Equivalent Spring ( Combination of springs )

Spring in Parallel

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-15

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EXAMPLE:
Model the system shown in figure below by a block attached to a single spring of
an equivalent striffness

Solution:
Left of block

1 𝑘
=
1 1 1 1 2
+ + +
𝑘 + 2𝑘 3𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 + 2𝑘

1 𝑘
=
1 1 1 1 2
+ + +
3𝑘 3𝑘 𝑘 3𝑘

The springs attached to the right of block are in series and are replaced by a spring
of stiffness:

1 2𝑘
=
1 1 3
+
𝑘 2𝑘

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-16

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Thus these springs behave as if they are in parallel and can be replaced by a spring
of stiffness

𝑘 2𝑘 7𝑘
+ =
2 3 6

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-17

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Energy Concepts : Stiffness Elements

Mass / Inertia Elements

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-18

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Energy Methods for analysis:
In a conservative system, the total energy is constant. Kinetic energy is stored in
the mass in terms of velocity and potential energy is stored as strain energy in the
spring
𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑇 + 𝑈 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑑
(𝑇 + 𝑈) = 0
𝑑𝑡

From conservation of energy, an equilibrium on state 1 and state 2 exists

– and at the extremes the maximums result in

𝑇1 + 𝑈1 = 𝑇2 + 𝑈2

where 1 and 2 represent two instances of time. Let 1 be the time when
the mass is passing through its static equilibrium position and choose
𝑈1 = 0 as reference for the potential energy. Let 2 be the time
corresponding to the maximum displacement of the mass. At this
position, the velocity of the mass is zero, and hence 𝑇2 = 0. We then
have
𝑇1 + 0 = 0 + 𝑈2
If the system is undergoing harmonic motion, then 𝑇1 and 𝑈2 are
maximum values, and hence

𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥

Applying this method to the case, already considered, of a body of mass

𝑚 fastened to a spring of stiffness 𝑘, when the body is displaced a
distance 𝑥 from its equilibrium position,
1
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑆𝐸) 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-19
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 1
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐾𝐸 )𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥̇ 2
2

𝑑 1 1
( 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑚 𝑥̇ 2 ) = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 2

That is
𝑚𝑥̈ 𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥̇ 𝑥 = 0

Or
𝑘
𝑥̈ + 𝑥=0
𝑚

This is a very useful method for certain types of problem in which it is difficult to
apply Newton’s laws of motion.
Alternatively, assuming SHM, if 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡

1
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑆𝐸, 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥02
2
1
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑆𝐸, 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚(𝑥0 𝜔)2
2

Thus since 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥

1 1
𝑘𝑥02 = 𝑚(𝑥0 𝜔)2
2 2

𝑘
𝜔𝑛 = √ (rad/sec)
𝑚

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-20

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EXAMPLE (4) :

Determine the natural frequency of the

system shown in Figure

Assume that the system is vibrating harmonically with amplitude 𝜃 from its static
equilibrium position. The maximum kinetic energy is

𝐾𝐸 = 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐾𝐸𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 + 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 )

𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐾𝐸𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 + 𝐾𝐸𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 )

1 1
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [( 𝐽𝜃̇ 2 + 𝑚𝑥̇ 2 )]
2 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥

1 1
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [( 𝐽𝜃̇ 2 + 𝑚(𝑟1 𝜃̇ )2 ]
2 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥

The maximum potential energy is the energy stored in the spring, which is:

1 2
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-21

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 1
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘(𝑟2 𝜃)2𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

1 1 1
[( 𝐽𝜃̇ 2 + 𝑚(𝑟1 𝜃̇ )2 ] = 𝑘(𝑟2 𝜃)2𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2

Equating the two, the natural frequency is

𝑘𝑟22
𝜔𝑛 = √
𝐽 + 𝑚𝑟12

The student should verify that the loss of potential energy of m due to position 𝑟1 𝜃
is canceled by the work done by the equilibrium force of the spring in the position
𝜃 = 0.

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-22

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EXAMPLE (5):
𝐴 link 𝐴𝐵 in a mechanism is a rigid bar of uniform section 0.3 𝑚 long. It has a
mass of 10 𝑘𝑔, and a concentrated mass of 7 𝑘𝑔 is attached at 𝐵. The link is
hinged at 𝐴 and is supported in a horizontal position by a spring attached at the
midpoint of the bar. The stiffness of the spring is 2 𝑘𝑁/𝑚. Find the frequency of
small free oscillations of the system. The system is as shown below.

SOLUTION:

For rotation about A the equation of motion is

𝐽𝜃̈ = −(𝑘)(𝑎𝜃)(𝑎)

𝐽𝜃̈ = −𝑘𝑎2 𝜃
That is,

𝑘𝑎2
𝜃̈ + ( )𝜃 = 0
𝐽

This is SHM with frequency

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-23

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 1 𝑘𝑎2
√
2𝜋 𝐽

In this case
𝑎 = 0.15𝑚 , 𝑙 = 0.3𝑚 , 𝑘 = 2000𝑁/𝑚
and
1
𝐽 = 𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑙2 + 𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙2
3

1
𝐽 = (7)(0.3)2 + (10)(0.3)2 = 0.93 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2
3
Hence

1 2000 × (0.15)2
𝑓= √ = 1.1 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 0.93

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-24

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EXAMPLE (6):
Determine the natural frequency of the beam-spring system shown in Figure below
consisting of a weight of 𝑊 = 50.0 𝐼𝑏 attached to a horizontal cantilever beam
through the coil spring 𝑘2 . The cantilever beam has a thickness ℎ = 1⁄4 𝑖𝑛, a
width 𝑏 = 1 𝑖𝑛. modulus of elasticity 𝐸 = 30 × 106 psi, and length
𝐿 = 12.5 𝑖𝑛. The coil spring has a stiffness 𝑘2 = 100 𝑖𝑏/𝑖𝑛

SOLUTION:
The deflection ∆ at the free end of a uniform cantilever beam acted upon by a static
force 𝑃 at the free end is given by

𝑃𝑙 3
∆=
3𝐸𝐼
The corresponding spring constant 𝑘1 is then

𝑃 3𝐸𝐼
𝑘1 = = 3
∆ 𝑙
𝑏ℎ3
Where the cross-section moment of inertia 𝐼 = ( for a rectangular section)
12
Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-25
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 1 1 1
= +
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘1 𝑘2
Substituting corresponding numerical values ,we obtain

(1)(1⁄4)3 1
𝐼= = 𝑖𝑛4
12 768
3 × 30 × 106
𝑘1 = = 60 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛
(12.5)3 × 768
And

1 1 1
= +
𝑘𝑒𝑞 60 100

𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 37.5 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛

The natural frequency for this system is then equation

𝑊
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑚=
𝜔𝑛 = √ 𝑔
𝑚
𝑔 = 386

37.5 × 386
𝜔𝑛 = √ = 17.01 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
50

𝑓 = 2.71 𝑐𝑝𝑠

Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-26

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Lecture notes on Mechanical Vibrations 2-27

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