Building Energy Fundamentals

Understanding heat transfer fundamentals and how

they translate into energy flows in a building is critical
when designing high performance buildings. Learn
about the different forms of heat transfer, material
properties like U-factor and R-value, heating and cooling
loads, energy use intensity, and the difference between
site and source energy.
Constructing and operating buildings requires energy,
but high-performance buildings use the right blend of
passive and active design strategies to minimize this
energy use while keeping people comfortable.
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Heat Energy Flows in Buildings

Understanding fundamental heat flows from conduction,
convection, and radiation is key to creating energy
efficient buildings. Moisture flows are also important
because moisture holds energy as latent heat.

Sensible vs. Latent Heat Flows

There are of two forms of heat flows: sensible heat and latent
heat. Sensible heat flow results in a change in temperature. Latent
heat flow results in a change in moisture content (often humidity of
the air). Total heat flow is the sum of sensible and latent flows.
Human comfort depends on providing acceptable levels of both
temperature (sensible heat) and humidity (latent heat).
"...but it's a dry
heat."
Hot dry air is
actually less
uncomfortable
than hot humid
air, because
moisture holds
energy as latent
 heat.

Sensible heat: The heat associated with change in temperature of a

substance/ material/space.
Latent heat: The release or storage of heat associated with change
in phase of a substance, without a change in the substances
temperature. In building design, this is often heat required to
add/remove moisture content (humidity) in the air.

Sensible vs. latent heat: it takes over five times as much heat to turn water into
steam at the same temperature than it does to heat liquid water from freezing to
boiling temperatures.

Whenever an object is at a temperature different from its

surroundings, heat flows from hot to cold. Likewise, moisture flows
from areas of greater concentration to areas of lower concentration.

For more information on moisture control, see: Infiltration & Moisture

Control
Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
Buildings lose sensible heat to the environment (or gain sensible heat
from it) in three principal ways:

1) Conduction: The transfer of heat between substances which are

in direct contact with each other. Conduction occurs when heat flows
through a solid.
2) Convection: The movement of gases and liquids caused by heat
transfer. As a gas or liquid is heated, it warms, expands and rises
because it is less dense resulting in natural convection.
3) Radiation: When electromagnetic waves travel through space, it
is called radiation. When these waves (from the sun, for example) hit
an object, they transfer their heat to that object.

The way that you experience the heat from

a fire is a good example of conduction,
convection, and radiation.
Heat conducts through materials placed in
the fire, like a metal poker. You can stop
the conduction to your hand by using an
insulating pad.
Heat (and smoke) travels away from the
fire through the air. The direction it travels
depends on the wind and pressure
differences (convection).
Heat radiates from the fire to where you
are. You can avoid the radiation by putting
a material between you and the fire, or
stepping away.

Conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer take place almost everywhere
we look. In a building envelope, conduction primarily takes place through opaque
envelope assemblies, convection is usually the result of wind or pressure-driven air
movement, and radiant heat transfer is primarily from the sun through
fenestrations. Building HVAC systems are typically designed to provide comfort
using convective or radiant modes of heat transfer.

Dynamic Thermal Effects

Although the general principles remain the same, analysis of heat
flow under dynamic (rapidly changing) conditions is more complex
than under static or "steady-state" (unchanging) conditions.

The effects of heat storage within materials become a greater

concern under dynamic conditions. Under static conditions, heat flow
is primarily a function of temperature difference (the driving force)
and thermal resistance (the resisting force). Under dynamic
conditions, these two factors are still important, but heat storage in
the envelope assembly moderates the temperature swings that would
otherwise occur if the assembly cold not absorb or give off heat.
Heat storage is a function of the density of a material and
its specific heat; the product of these two properties is known
as thermal capacity (or Thermal Mass).
Building materials gain or lose heat energy over time as ambient
conditions change and these heat storage properties determine how
much energy can be stored within a given material, and how quickly
that energy will be gained or released.

See more on Thermal Mass.

Latent Heat Properties

When air is too humid, it needs to dehumidified to maintain occupant
comfort. This dehumidification requires the removal of the latent heat
and is an important function of HVAC systems. While less common, it
is sometimes necessary to add humidity to buildings during very cold
weather to compensate for the inability of colder air to hold moisture.

Evaporation and condensation, although not usually listed as modes

of heat transfer, represent the primary means by which latent heat is
transfer and are an important determinant of human comfort.

See Infiltration and Moisture Control for guidance on envelope design

that takes this into account, see Humidity Control for how active
systems handle it.
Building Energy Loads
Energy loads are how much energy your building needs.
These demands can be provided by electricity, fuel, or
by passive means. Understanding building loads can be
a complex topic because there are so many interrelated
terms to navigate.
The infographic below can help you navigate these
terms and make better sense of building performance
analysis results.

Thermal loads are the quantity of heating and cooling energy that
must be added or removed from the building to keep
people comfortable. Thermal loads come from heat transfer from
within the building during its operation (internal, or core loads) and
between the building and the external environment (external,
envelope, or fabric loads).
These thermal loads can be translated to heating loads (when the
building is too cold) and cooling loads (when the building is too hot).
These heating and cooling loads arent just about temperature
(sensible heat), they also include moisture control (latent heat).
(See Infiltration & Moisture Control)
Heating and cooling loads are met by the buildings HVAC system,
which uses energy to add or remove heat and condition the space.
This energy use translates to the HVAC component of a
buildings equipment loads (met by fuel or electricity). Other
building loads include plug loads (electricity used for computers and
appliances) and lighting loads (electricity used for lights).

Thermal Loads
Thermal loads are the amount of energy needed to be
added or removed from a space by the HVAC system to
keep occupants comfortable. Right-sizing the HVAC
system the HVAC system requires understanding the
heating and cooling loads within the space.

High performance buildings seek to reduce these loads

as much as possible, and meet these loads as efficiently
as possible.

The building program determines whether internal or external loads dominate.

 By understanding the buildings thermal loads and its intended use,
you can more effectively use energy from the sun and wind
to passively heat, cool and ventilate your building, light your building,
and design efficient HVAC systems. You can even generate energy on-
site using resources that would otherwise be thermal loads that
would demand energy.

External thermal loads

External thermal loads come from heat transfer through the building
envelope from the sun, the earth, and the outside environment (and
weather). The building envelope includes walls, roofs, floors, windows,
and any other surfaces that separate inside and outside. They are
sometimes also called envelope loads, fabric loads, skin loads, or
external gains/losses.

These loads include the energy embedded in the moisture of the air
(see sensible vs. latent heat).

Some common ways that heat flows into or out of a building are:

Heat conduction entering or leaving the building envelope to outside

air or ground
Sunlight (radiant energy) entering through windows to heat interiors
or store energy in thermal mass (direct solar gains)
Sunlight warming up exterior building surfaces ("indirect solar gains")
Losing inside air to the outside, or vice-versa, through leaks
and infiltration
Air being intentionally introduced to the building to provide fresh
air/ventilation or being exhausted from point sources.

Material choices, envelope design, and envelope sealing dramatically

affect the amount of solar conducted and convected energy that
enters and leaves the building envelope. The degree to which each of
these impact the buildings loads and the occupants comfort also
depend on the temperature and humidity differences between indoors
and outdoors, which are all constantly changing by season and time
of day.
Understanding where heat energy is gained and lost in your design is
an important first step towards successful passive design strategies.
When its hot and sunny, it can be very important to reduce loads
from solar radiation by using properly designed shades and windows
with low solar heat gain. On the other hand, in a cold climate or in the
winter, its often desirable to
capture this free solar
energy in some way.

See more on climate

considerations

See more on heat transfer

and thermal properties

See more on infiltration and

latent heat

See more on shading design

Internal Thermal
Loads
Internal thermal loads come
from heat generated by
people, lighting, and
All lighting energy becomes heat
equipment. These are also
eventually
sometimes called core loads
or internal gains. Lighting
and most equipment loads are sensible heat, while the metabolic heat
generated by people bodies are a combination of sensible and latent
loads. Some buildings or spaces are dominated by less common
internal sources of sensible and latent internal loads such as large
kitchens, swimming pools and locker rooms and health clubs or
industrial processes.

The internal gains from lighting and equipment are generally equal to
their energy use: when a light fixture converts a watt-hour of
electricity into photons, those photons bounce around the room until
they get absorbed, turning their light energy into heat energy.

Likewise, all the electrical energy that the lighting fixture did not turn
into photons turns directly into heat energy, due to inefficiency.

The same is true of equipment: electrical energy used to move

mechanical parts is transformed into heat via friction, energy used to
power electronics turns into heat via electrical resistance, etc.

The thermal load of people depends on the number of people and

their activity level. It can be as little as 70-80 watts for an adult
sleeping to over 1,000 watts for an athlete engaging in intense
exercise.

Thermal loads from people doing different activities

Activity Watts

Sitting 100

Standing at ease / Conversation 130

Eating meal 130

Strolling 160

Housekeeping 175

Heavy work (e.g. carpentry) 270

Fast walking / Hiking 400

Long distance running 1,000

Sprinting 1,600

Table values from Starner, T. and

Paradiso, J.A., "Human Generated Power
for Mobile Electronics," in Piguet, C. (ed),
Low-Power Electronics, CRC Press,
Chapter 45, 2004.

Internal vs. External Loads

Densely populated buildings with high activity and/or energy-

intensive equipment (e.g. office buildings, movie theaters) are
generally dominated by internal loads, while sparsely populated
buildings with little activity or equipment (e.g. single family
residences, warehouses) are generally dominated by external loads.

The building program and massing also help determine how

important internal heat loads are compared to external loads from
sun, wind, and ambient temperatures.

Heating and Cooling Loads

 Internal and external thermal loads translate to heating and cooling
loads. This is how much heat energy you need to heat and cool the
building, and control moisture within the building.

Loads are usually calculated as the amount of energy that needs to

be moved into or out of the building to keep the temperature at a
specified point (setpoint).

If heat gains are greater than envelope and ventilation losses, the
building or space has a net cooling load (the building is too hot).
If heat losses are greater than the internal gains, the building or
space has a net heating load (the building is too cold).
The heating thermostat setpoint is often different than the cooling
thermostat setpoint both to save energy and because of human preference.
The distribution of heating and cooling loads is climate dependent.

Building performance analysis software can provide charts for heating

and cooling loads that provide a break-down for what drives the
heating and cooling energy demand.
Monthly heating and
cooling load charts tell
you where heat energy
is being gained and lost.

In Autodesk Revit, the

heating and cooling
loads are shown in
separate bar charts. It
lists heat conduction
through windows
separately from solar
radiation heat gain
through windows, as
well as separating heat
transfer through roofs,
walls, and floors or
underground areas.
An explanation for how to interpret heating and cooling load charts.

Example charts from Autodesk Revit 2013

 When interpreting
energy load charts, pay
attention to whether
the biggest heat losses
and gains come from
internal or external
loads.

Also note that it is the PEAK heating and cooling loads that are
used by engineers to size HVAC equipment. These energy analysis
graphs are meant to help understand energy flows, not size
equipment. However, using energy analysis tools can allow you to
better understand and calculate energy use so that you can avoid
oversizing equipment and look past the typical rules of thumb.

For guidance on how to make these calculations, look at the links

provided below and reference texts like Mechanical and Electrical
Equipment for Buildings By Walter T. Grondzik, Alison G. Kwok,
Benjamin Stein, John S. Reynolds.

Using Energy to Meet Heating and Cooling

Loads
The values in the heating and cooling load charts above represent the
amount of heating or cooling required, not the amount of energy a
HVAC system would actually consume to generate the required load.

Passive systems reduce the energy demand or meet it

naturally. Active systems move heat and moisture using gas or
electricity. How much and what type of fuel the HVAC system will
consume depends on the system type and efficiency.
 When using active systems, it usually takes more energy to meet
heating loads than it does to meet cooling loads. Heating systems
based on combustion of a fuel are approximately 75%-95% efficient
efficient at converting the chemical energy in the fuel to heat
delivered to the building. The efficiency of cooling systems (and heat
pumps in heating mode) is not measured in percent efficiency
because they do not convert potential energy to delivered heat,
rather they use energy, most commonly electricity, to move heat
either into or out of a building. The Whole Building Design Guide
provides ranges of efficiency values and sizes that are typical for
various types of cooling systems see WBDG. Heat pumps and air
conditioners use energy to move heat, they do not generate coolth
see Heat Pumps). The cooling effect that we feel is the removal of
heat rather than the addition of coolth.

Also, when you put cost into the equation it brings another level of
complexity because heating fuel is much cheaper per unit of energy
than electricity. Building owners often spend more on energy to cool
their building than to heat their building. There are many reasons for
this, but the easiest to understand is that electricity typically costs
three to five times more than heating fuel per unit of energy.

Balance Points
The concept of a buildings balance point can help designers
determine when heating or cooling is required in the building. The
balance point is the outdoor temperature at which the building makes
a transition from a heating need to a cooling need. It is calculated by
comparing internal heat gains (from people, equipment, etc) with
external heat losses (from building infiltration, etc). It is not the ideal
comfort temperature inside the building. It is the temperature at
which the building's heat gains equal its losses.

If the temperature is BELOW the balance point, heating is required.

If the temperature is ABOVE the balance point, cooling is required.
If the temperature is AT the balance point, no heating or cooling is
required, because the building is gaining as much heat as it is losing.
For example, if the balance point of a building is 65 degrees and the
outdoor temperature is 75 degrees, a passive cooling strategy like
shading would be helpful at that time.

Buildings that have high internal heat gains (like offices), and low
rates of heat loss (well-sealed and well-insulated), will have a lower
balance point.

Equipment and Lighting Loads

Lighting, HVAC equipment, water heaters, and
appliances all consume energy in the form of either
electricity or fuel. All of these things are important to
understand and optimize for high performance building
design, and are important inputs for whole building
energy analysis simulation.

The equipment, lighting, and plug loads described below are

determined by the buildings intended use, its occupancy, and its
scheduling. In short: its program.
Lighting
Loads
Lighting loads
are the energy
used to power
electric lights;
they make up
nearly a third of
US commercial
Incandescent and compact fluorescent bulbs emit
building energy
similar output of visible light, but the
use, but for incandescent emits far more heat (infrared light),
residential causing higher lighting loads and cooling
loads. (From Pacific Energy Center)
buildings they
are generally
only 10 - 15%. Lighting loads in a building are often referred to in
terms of a Lighting Power Density that is measured in watts per
square foot or square meter.

When deciding which lighting products to use, look at the efficiency

(or luminous efficacyof the products. More efficient light
sources and fixtures not only reduce lighting loads, but also reduce
cooling loads for the same visible brightness.

Plug loads
Plug loads are the electricity used for other equipment, like computers
and appliances; they make up 20 - 30% of energy loads in US
commercial buildings, and 15 - 20% of home energy, though these
numbers are growing as electronics become more pervasive.

Plug loads are sometimes included in Equipment Power Density

(EPD) and sometimes they are separated. When doing building
analysis, its important to know which value youre inputting.
Equipment Rated Power (watts)

Desktop computer 120

Notebook computer 45

17 LCD Display 75

Desktop laser printer 120

Office laser printer 250

Office copier 750

Refrigerator 750

Dishwasher 1,200

Television 100

Commercial refrigerator 1,000

Commercial fryer 10,000

Clothes washer 350

Clothes dryer 2,000

Plug loads for specific items

(Source: USGBC and EnergyStar)

Equipment Loads
Equipment, like HVAC systems and water heaters, is the other main
internal load. This is typically separated from plug loads and is given
in terms of an Equipment Power Density, which is measured in
watts per square foot or square meter .

When deciding which equipment to use, look at third-party

quantitative reviews, or read the maximum power use listed on
product specification sheets (average power use data is usually not
available because it can vary greatly by usage.)
Example Internal Loads for Different Space Types

Lighting Power Density

W/m2 W/ft2

Assembly 17 1.6

Classroom 13 1.2

Food Service 15 1.4

Office 11-30 1.0-2.8

Retail 16 1.5

Residential (single family) 5 0.5

Residential (multi family) 8 0.7

Warehouse 9 0.8

Note that this information can vary greatly based on the

design and use of the space. Use more precise and specific
estimates when available. (Sources: Autodesk Wikihelp, United
States Department of Energy (1 and 2), and Mechanical and Electrical
Equipment for Buildings by Grondzik et al.)

Measuring Building Energy Use

Knowing how to measure energy use in buildings will
help you set better energy efficiency goals. Energy Use
Intensity (EUI) normalizes energy use by floor area and
is useful for targets and benchmarks. But, when it
comes to environmental impacts, you need to look
upstream at source energy. Also, when it comes to
energy efficiency measures, you need to know what
end-uses take the most energy.
 Autodesks energy analysis tools report building
performance in terms of EUI based on both electricity and
fuel use. Note that the electricity and fuel EUI values are
in different units, but the total EUI is in kBtu. Use 1 kWh =
3.414 kBtu to convert all units to kBtu.

Energy Use Intensity

When comparing buildings, people not only talk about total energy
demands, but also talk about "energy use intensity" (EUI). Energy
intensiveness is simply energy demand per unit area of the building's
floorplan, usually in square meters or square feet. This allows you to
compare the energy demand of buildings that are different sizes, so
you can see which performs better.

EUI is a particularly useful metric for setting energy use benchmarks

and goals. The EUI usually varies quite a bit based on the building
program, the climate, and the building size. The charts below, based
on data from CBECS data from the United States, can give you an
idea of the range of EUIs to expect based on these parameters.
 Energy Use Intensities based on building activity (building program).
Food service and health care buildings are the most energy intensive
Warehouses, retail, and service buildings are less energy intensive.
Theres a large spread between building types (the most energy intensive
buildings use over 4 times as much energy as the least energy intensive non-
vacant buildings)
Table available for download here. Data from the 2003 CBECS Survey Data for USA.
 Energy Use Intensities based on building area.
Large buildings are more energy intensive than small buildings, but small
buildings can also be energy intensive
Table available for download here. Data from the 2003 CBECS Survey Data for USA.

The EPAs Target Finder website is also a great resource for setting
goals and benchmarks. Architecture 2030 has calculated similar
targets using national medians.

Site Energy vs. Source Energy

The electricity that you use on your site, may use much
more energy upstream.
1kWh of site electricity requires 3.3 kWh of source energy
in the United States.
Watch video on Energy Efficient Design.
The energy intensity values in
the tables above only consider
the amount of electricity and
fuel that are used on-site
("secondary" or "site" energy).
They do not consider the fuel
consumed to generate that
heat or electricity. Many
building codes and some
tabulations of EUI attempt to
capture the total impact of
1 kWh of site electricity from a
delivering energy to a building solar panel on the
by defining the term "primary" building's roof is equal to 1
or "source" energy which kWh of source energy, because
the solar panel itself is the
includes the fuel used to source.
generate power on-site or at a
power plant far away.

When measuring energy used to provide thermal or visual comfort,

site energy is the most useful measurement. But when measuring
total energy usage to determine environmental impacts, the source
energy is the more accurate measurement.

Sometimes low on-site energy use actually causes more energy use
upstream. For example, 2 kWh of natural gas burned on-site for heat
might seem worse than 1 kWh of electricity used on-site to provide
the same heating with a heat pump. However, 1 kWh of site
electricity from the average US electrical grid is equal to 3.3 kWh of
source energy, because of inefficiencies in power plants that burn fuel
for electricity, and because of small losses in transmission lines. So in
fact the 2 kWh of natural gas burned on site is better for heating. The
table below provides the conversion factors assumed by the US
Environmental Protection Agency for converting between site and
source energy.
 A table from the US EPA's EnergyStar Performance Ratings
Methodology for Incorporating Source Energy Use.

Energy End Uses

Commercial and residential buildings use energy differently.
Commercial buildings are usually dominated by internal loads
dominated (more people, lights, and equipment), and use more
lighting than residential buildings. Residential buildings are usually
dominated by envelope loads, and a larger percentage of their energy
use is used for heating and cooling to meet those loads.

Sankey diagrams of energy use are great visualizations to show where

the energy comes from and goes in a building. In a Sankey diagram,
the width of the bar represents the quantity being measured and the
chart flows upstream to downstream (usually following arrows).
In the Sankey diagrams shown below from the USDOE, energy sources
are shown on the left (coal, natural gas) and energy end-uses are
shown on the right (space heating, lighting, appliances). You can
clearly see the difference between site energy and source energy in
this diagram by the arrow that trails off at the top due to electric
power plant transmission and distribution losses. These losses are one
of the main reasons that electricity is much more expensive per unit
of energy than natural gas or fuel oil.

Understanding these Sankey diagrams will help you interpret the

energy charts you might see from analysis software.

In these charts from Autodesk Revit, you can see how the
breakdown of Fuel vs. Electricity (energy type). Then, taking a
closer look at each, you can see where that energy is being used
(end use).

Green Building Goals & Process

To design high performance buildings, you need to set
concrete goals and follow a sound design process.
Along the way youll need to optimize for both resource
use and human comfort. Usually energy use is the
largest environmental impact, and Net Zero Energy is
an increasingly popular design goal.

Environmental Issues & Building

Design
According to the scientific community, climate change
is happening and its effects will have severe
consequences for our society and environment.
Reducing energy use in buildings is one of the most
important ways to reduce humans overall
environmental impact.
Nearly
unanimous
scientific
consensus has
established
that climate
change is Ice core records from Antarctica show that changes
occurring as a in carbon dioxide concentrations (blue) track
closely with changes in temperature (red). Carbon
result of human dioxide levels are now higher than at any time
activity. during the past 650,000 years. (CREDIT: Marian
Mathematical Koshland Science Museum,source)
models of
global climate change have linked a human-driven increase in GHGs
to an increase in global temperatures (especially in the past 250
years, since the industrial revolution). The primary source of this
increase in GHGs has been attributed to the emissions generated by
the use of fossil fuel-based energy.

Climate change has been linked to observable disturbances such as

the loss of mountain glaciers and ice cover on the Earths polar
regions, changes in the timing of the spring bud-break, and an
increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events
such as cold waves, heat waves, large storms, hurricanes and
tornadoes, floods, and droughts.

Climate scientists have theorized that human civilization is in danger

of crossing a threshold or tipping point that could lead to more
radical changes in the global climate, and that could accelerate the
onset of either a new hotter and wetter age similar to the Earths
environment before the appearance of human beings, or a new ice
age. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Fourth
Assessment Report [AR4]).

Scientific estimates place the window of opportunity for reversing this

trend in the very near termaccording to some, as briefly as over the
next ten years. After that, the global climate may change irreversibly,
and humans will just have to adapt.
In many arenas of implementing real practical change, architects,
engineers, and builders are amongst the few with the skills and
resources that provide real, practical, cost-effective, and inspiring
solutions for buildings.

Environmental Impacts of Buildings

Quick stats Buildings account for 40% of
worldwide energy use
which is much more than
Buildings account for 40% of energy
transportation. Furthermore,
useworldwide (WBCSD).
over the next 25 years,
Energy used during its CO2 emissions from buildings
lifetime causes as much as 90% of
are projected to grow faster
environmental
impactsfrom buildings (Journal of than any other sector (in the
Green Building). USA), with emissions from
Building operations consume more
commercial buildings
than 2/3 of all projected to grow the fastest
electricity (BuildingScience.com) 1.8% a year through 2030
Residential and commercial buildings
(USGBC).
consume 40% of the primary energy
and71% of the total electricity in Often, energy use in the form
the United States. (ASHRAE) of electricity drives the
largest environmental
impacts. Where that
electricity comes from determines what those impacts are. In the
United States for example, where buildings account for more than
70% of electricity use, most of the electricity is generated by coal-
fired electrical power plants (USGBC). Generating one megawatt hour
(MWh) of electricity in the US produces approximately 250 900 kg of
CO2 depending on the mix of coal, nuclear, hydro and other sources of
fuel (US EPA). As a reference, the average US household consumes
approximately 11 MWh of electricity per year (US EIA).

These exact impacts can quantified by lifecycle assessment (LCA), the

most thorough way to determine the environmental impacts of a
design. There is no perfect way to measure environmental impact.
LCAs can measure greenhouse gas (units = CO2e = CO2 equivalent) to
measure global warming potential, or might measure other things like
human health, water, and land-use impacts. You may hear the word
embodied energy or embodied carbon this refers to the energy
or greenhouse gas emissions caused throughout an objects lifecycle.
Alternatively, sometimes an overall normalized score is used to
combine many kinds of impacts into a single number (i.e. Eco-
Indicator 99). A good primer on LCA is here.

A 2012 LCA study found that Specifically within commercial

buildings, the use and operation phase of the material and building
life cycle is so dominant that the impacts of construction,
demolition/disposal, and transportation are nearly irrelevant for most
traditionally constructed buildings. (Journal of Green Building)

Lifetime energy use

Total life cycle impacts by life cycle phase for a energy dominates
prefabricated commercial building with average California traditional and even
energy-efficient
energy use, the building as built (30% of power supplied by
building life cycles, by
photovoltaics), and net zero energy (100% of power far. In such cases,
supplied by photovoltaics), in units of EcoIndicator99 points. other environmental
concerns are nearly
always trumped by
energy performance.
Once a building meets
all energy needs by
clean power
generation (whether it
be on-site PV panels,
PV grid power, or othe
equally clean
renewables not
analyzed in this
study), then building
materials and
manufacturing
becomes the
dominant life cycle
impact phase.
(Journal of Green
Building)
Since 1920, the overall trend in building energy use for comercial
buildings is higher energy intensity per square foot
(BuildingScience.com). It is important to reverse this trend.

In the coming decades rapid development will continue in the

developing countries, while many buildings in the developed world
will need to be renovated and retrofit. We need to make sure that the
engineers and architects working on these buildings are equipped to
make design choices that use energy effectively.

Resource Use & Buildings

Buildings use energy, materials, water, and land to
create the right environment for its occupants. All of
these things cost money and all of them have an
environmental impact.

Material Use
Using more sustainable
materials, using less material,
and using materials in the right
constructions can improve the
environmental impacts of
building construction, lifetime,
and end-of-life.

Why its important

Materials have their own environmental impacts from extraction and
production, and they also hugely affect the thermal, visual, and
acoustic performance of the building. The choice of materials and
building products also drives costs on projects.

Materials are also important because they create the physical space
that your building occupants experience. Toxics or volatile organic
compounds can negatively affect health. On the other hand, the right
choice of materials can have positive emotional and human health
implications.

Metrics
Embodied energy or embodied carbon can be used as a measure of
the environmental impact of a materials extraction, processing,
manufacture, and distribution.

However, over the life of a building and depending on the application,

other factors like thermal and structural properties can be much more
important. For example, better thermal properties of the materials
used in a building's envelope can improve the energy use (as
measured by Energy Use Intensity, for example).

The lifecycle of the material is another important factor. Is it

recyclable or biodegradeable? Is it made from recycled material or
rapidly renewable materials?

Design Strategies
Material selection is full of trade-off decisions, and effective strategies
vary widely based on your goals and situation. Its often a good
strategy to re-use existing materials, source materials locally, and use
recycled/recyclable materials.

Learn more about green building materials,

the environmental impacts of materials, and life-cycle
assessment.
Energy Systems
Energy systems produce, use,
convert, and store energy for the
building. In high performance
buildings these systems need to
be both efficient and effective.

Why its important

Systems for thermal and visual comfort all use energy in some form.

Energy production and use is the primary driver of greenhouse gas

emissions and global warming. Energy use in buildings is also one of
the biggest costs throughout the lifetime of a building.

Metrics
Being energy effective means choosing the right technologies and
design strategies for your building systems. This can be measured by
looking at the kilowatt hours per year, per unit area (Energy Use
Intensity or EUI).

Being energy efficient means getting the most out of the systems and
technologies that youve chosen to use. This can be measured by the
coefficient of performance of the equipment.

Design Strategies
Energy system design should be looked at as a whole system.
Depending on your location, needs, and the available sources of
energy, you may choose to get your energy from on-site photovoltaic
and wind, grid electricity, or natural gas. If you cant get good clean
energy on your site, you may be able to purchase offsets.

Generally, the architects work defines the energy demand (their

design places requirements and constraints on how the building
works) and engineers define how to supply this energy.

Learn more about HVAC design and clean energy generation.

Water Use
Water is used inside a building
for drinking, cleaning, and
sanitation. It is used outside of
a building for landscaping, and
wastewater and runoff needs
to be managed for a
sustainable building site.

Why its important

Water is fundamental to human health and survival, and also plays a
vital role in keeping ecosystems in balance. Shortages in fresh-water
in some areas make water conservation even more important.

Metrics
Water is measured in terms of both quantity and quality. The flowrate
of fixtures like faucets and the storage capacity of tanks and cisterns
are different ways to measure quantity.

Water quality can be measured in a variety of ways, and you need

different qualities for different uses. Whether the water is potable or
not dictates how it can be used. Indicators like pH, dissolved organics,
suspended solids, and turbidity help measure quality.

Design Strategies
Being effective with water is all about using the right kind of water for
the right uses, re-using water as much as you can, and economizing
use with high-efficiency fixtures as much as possible.

Capturing rainwater can be a great source of water. Also, plumbing

systems that separate potable water, greywater, and blackwater can
help get the most out of every drop. You can also purify the water on-
site with living machines or advanced septic systems.

Green Building Costs

Sustainability requires a systems-based approach to

design iteration. It is important to accurately account
for the financial impacts of a design proposal. Also,
understanding how systems thinking can be applied to
cost can develop a better idea of how investment costs
can be offset with Lifecycle Cost Analysis.

It is highly important not to omit the details of costs from the

sustainable design conversation. Costs, translated at times as
monetary economies, are the vehicle for supporting the execution of
building projects. Everything has a financial value, and projects can
only be realized when there is investment buy-in from stakeholders.
Conducting building performance analysis is a valuable tool for
filtering what design decisions can yield a more valuable economic
return. Furthermore some building owners have very strict
construction budgets, public elementary schools for example, that
can cause the building design to remain within a firm financial budget
that has been established in the pre-design phase of the project.

Costs Defined
Most often costs are associated with monetary expenses. However,
there are a plethora of other qualities we can associate cost with,
such as environmental impact costs, resource use costs, human
health costs, and time costs. When analyzing environmental impact
costs the process is referred to as a Lifecycle Analysis, or Assessment
(LCA).
Isolating the analysis of monetary expenses is called a Lifecycle Cost
Analysis (LCCA). In basic terms, LCCA classifies monetary costs into
three categories. These are investment or initial costs, operation or
ongoing costs, and return or residual costs. Initial costs include how
much something costs to put into operation For example, the expense
of purchasing a hot water solar panel and installing it on a building
roof. The operation cost could be commissioning the water tank the
solar panel is supplying heat to, and the return is the energy
production that provides a positive monetary return because it
reduces the amount of energy that must be supplied and paid for.

While producing energy on site is great and reduces costs, the math
to determine the Return on Investment (ROI) for such sustainable
design features is not as straightforward as the costs required to
purchase and install a product. Energy efficient technologies, and
designs that reduce energy demands, are considered intelligent
 choices when considering investment and operation costs alone. But
to truly get the full picture of a design project that decreases energy
demands, a full LCCA should be considered.

Full Lifecycle Cost Analysis

When buildings are not performing as efficiently as they could be, the
ROI might be immediate, but not sustainable long term. It could go
something like this

A building costs A to be built and can be sold or rented for B

The difference between B and A is the ROI

As a result, much of the ROI is based on real estate projections,
which can change dramatically
In this scenario A, the investment cost, also dictates fifty percent of
the equation, emphasizing the importance of the initial cost. For this
reason the cost to erect a building has traditionally been the primary
deciding factor in whether or not to build a particular design. For this
reason, sustainable buildings may be more expensive to build, but its
the ROI that is key.

Historically, only the initial and sale prices of a building were

considered in LCCA. However, in order to consider the benefits of
sustainable design, the capacity a design has to return energy must
be considered in the calculation. Additionally, since the capacity of
technologies to create energy is based on environmental conditions
and equipment, the ROI is also much more predictable. The solar rays
from the sun will not be altered by the real estate market, for
example. All of this requires a new way of considering the financial
cost of a building. Because there are capabilities to receive financial
returns at a time period away from the initial construction of a
building, A, LCCA must consider C, a variable that accounts for
recurring return.

Design decisions must weigh initial cost against time period of pay
back when proposing concepts to a building owner. Below is a LCCA
that was conducted for a proposed photovoltaic glass panel roof in an
ASHRAE student design competition.
 The LCCA begins with investment cost, then charts money
saved every year from energy production.

Here is another LCCA chart that uses traditional glazing that does not
produce any energy.
 If maintenance was accounted for in this analysis, the cost
would actually be a net gain each year.

As can be observed, the PV glass pays for its self around year
eighteen. In the year following the glass starts being completely
profitable. Whether or not eighteen years is too long of an
investment pay back is for the building owner to decide. But at least
the designer related the proposed design to financial incentives and
had an awareness of how economics fit into the sustainable goals of
reducing energy consumption.

If the building owner was only presented with the initial cost around
$350,000 they might not be interested in this PV glass concept. This
could cause the owner to potentially opt for the traditional glazing
that could have as much as a thirty five percent reduced investment
cost, but have no real capability to pay for itself. Sustainable design
is not only good for the planet, but it also has sound economic
rational.

Leveraging Cost in BPA

Building performance analysis makes LCCA more accessible to the
design process. Through the combination of BPA methods, and BIM
technologies, data is readily available for analysis. This data at any
point in time can be run through LCCA of comparing investment,
operation, and return.

Time is also a cost that can be monetized with BPA techniques. Many
BPA methods are targeted towards occupant satisfaction. When
people are comfortable in their working environment, they tend to be
more productive. The more someone accomplishes in an established
period of time the more financially valuable they become. Additionally
when buildings are designed to be green, less people experience a
condition called sick building syndrome, which results in completely
unproductive days of not working at all. It is important to consider all
methods of financial payback when presenting designs that were
arrived at with the use of BPA methods.
Water Resources in Buildings
Water use generally refers to municipal potable water use on the site.
It includes the use from fixtures (faucets, toilets, sinks, etc.), the use
from equipment (dishwashers, etc.), and the exterior use for
landscaping.

Good system design and good specification of products can easily

reduce water use by 50% or more. At least one green building
certification system requires buildings to be net zero water use.1
There are several ways to get the most out of every drop: water-
efficient fixtures and equipment, water-efficient irrigation and
landscaping, recycling water so it can be used more than once, and
capturing rainwater. You can also purify the water on-site with living
machines or advanced septic systems.

- See more at:

http://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/buildings/water-
resources-buildings#sthash.clFToukq.dpuf

Water-Efficient Fixtures and

Equipment

photo: Jeremy Faludi

Fixtures that save water include low-flow shower heads, sinks with
auto-shutoff mechanisms, and water-saving toilets and urinals.
Equipment that saves water includes dishwashers, clothes washers,
other commercial kitchen equipment such as sprayers and steam
cookers, as well as industrial process equipment.

Reducing water use from fixtures and equipment is perhaps the

easiest method to reduce total potable water use. It does not require
extensive design solutions, just specifying certain products. Avoiding
large fountains, pools, and other water features will also save water
use.

Predicting Water Savings

How much do these products save? You need to calculate it by
calculating the total building water use based on status-quo
"baseline" products, and the total water use with the water-saving
products. In each case, this is simply the sum of water use for all
products in the building. The water use for each product is the
number of liters per use multiplied by the number of uses per year.

Total Water Use = (liters per use number of uses / year)

Standard estimates for the amount of water per use may vary by
region, but some government organizations and non-government
certification systems have standards for baseline water use.1

The number of uses is determined by the number of occupants, their

gender, the amount of time they spend in the building, and the
activities they engage in there.2 These details will be defined by the
building's program.3 The ratio of women to men should be assumed
to be 50/50 unless it is known to be otherwise for the building's
program.

For example, a retail store's bathroom may have a toilet, a urinal, and
a sink. Visitors will use the restroom much less per person than a full-
time employee ("FTE") would, but there will be many more visitors
than employees. Men will use the urinal, but as a result will use the
toilet less often than women. Both genders are assumed to use the
sink equally.

For each fixture, its use can be calculated as follows:

( FTE * male ratio * male uses / day )

( FTE * female ratio * female uses /

day )

Number of Uses / +
Day =
( Visitor * male ratio * male uses /
day )

( Visitor * female ratio * female uses /

day )

Once the number of uses per day is calculated, it can be multiplied by

the number of days per year that the building is occupied (250 or 260
days/year for many offices). That will be the total uses per year. That
can then be plugged into the first equation above, calculating total
water use by multiplying liters per use by number of uses per year.

1
For example, the LEED rating system uses the US EPA's EPAct national
efficiency standards and specifications for residential and commercial water-
using fixtures and appliances.
2
For example, see the LEED rating system's Water Use Reduction Additional
Guidance.

3 For instance, few shoppers use restrooms in retail stores, but most full-
time employees ("FTE"s) do. Likewise, more people use showers and
clothes washers at home than at work.
- See more at: http://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/buildings/water-
efficient-fixtures-and-equipment#sthash.SOAERePZ.dpuf

Wastewater Recycling
Most buildings use municipal drinking water for all uses, but many
applications (such as irrigation, toilet flushing, decorative fountains)
do not require it. Wastewater recycling is the reuse of water after it is
no longer potable.

Wastewater recycling can significantly reduce total potable water use

without requiring austerity, as the same water can be used more than
once.

Water recycling reuses "greywater". This is water that has been used
for washing, and is still relatively clean, unlike sewage water which is
called "blackwater".

Some greywater systems deliver the water as it is. Others filter and
purify the water before delivery, removing solids, chemicals, and
pathogens. These purification systems may be physical and
chemical, or can even be artificial wetlands. Almost none purify it to
the point of being drinkable again, though it is possible.
 A toilet whose water is supplied by the output of the
sink above

Greywater for Irrigation

Greywater is often used for irrigation, because toilets do not use all of
the greywater supply from most buildings. However, there are some
considerations that must be addressed when using it.
Water used for irrigation should not harm plants, so wastewater
coming from sinks, showers, and process equipment should not
contain harsh chemicals. This can be accomplished by instructing
occupants to only use non-toxic biodegradable soaps, and/or by
purifying the greywater before it is used.

Water used for irrigation should clearly not harm people, either. This
can happen if water is not purified adequately for consumption, but is
inadvertently used for consumption, by people eating food grown with
the water, or breathing in mist from sprinklers.

To avoid people breathing the water from sprinklers, drip irrigation

can be used. To avoid people eating food grown with unclean
greywater, landscaping can be entirely inedible plants, or garden
areas can be irrigated separately with potable water.

Municipal Non-Potable Water

Some cities recycle greywater on a municipal scale. They have
separate plumbing lines for non-potable water, which homes and
businesses can use for irrigation, decorative water features, or
process water.

This water is filtered to be free of solids and suspended particles, and

will be purified to an extent. However, since very few cities provide
this infrastructure, there are not widely-accepted standards for the
quality of the water.

- See more at:

http://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/buildings/wastewater-
recycling#sthash.wzECc5nD.dpuf

Water-Efficient Irrigation and

Landscaping
Water-Efficient irrigation and landscaping are ways to save water by
choosing different irrigation equipment, different plants, and siting
plants differently. They can also be combined with water reuse.

Landscaping often uses more water than fixtures and equipment

within the building, so water-efficient landscaping can be the biggest
source of water savings in a project.

Water-Efficient Irrigation
Water-efficient irrigation reduces water use by avoiding evaporation,
and avoiding over-watering.
Avoiding evaporation can be done by delivering water more directly to
the soil, or by delivering larger water droplets so they will not
evaporate so easily, or by timing irrigation to avoid hot sunny times of
day that cause more evaporation.

Delivering water to the soil can be done by "microirrigation" or drip

irrigation. Microirrigation is where irrigation nozzles are very near to
the ground, but more numerous to make up for the lack of range of
each nozzle. Drip irrigation does not spray water, but drips it from
holes in a pipe that lies on the ground or underground, to avoid
evaporation entirely.

Drip irrigation hose

Drip irrigation is 90% efficient in delivering water where it is needed,

while sprinkler irrigation is generally only 63% efficient.1

Avoiding over-watering can be done by not irrigating when it rains,

having sensors in the ground shut off irrigation when the soil has
enough moisture, or having evapotranspiration sensors shut off
irrigation when plants are losing less moisture to the air.
Microirrigation and drip irrigation can also avoid over-watering by
being more precise about delivering the right amount of water to
different locations.

Water-Efficient Landscaping
Your choice of plants greatly affects your water needs; so does the
density of planting and the climate conditions of each different part of
the site (direct sun vs. shade, high winds, etc.)

photo: Jeremy Faludi

Succulents need much less water than some other plants

For examples of how much these three variables can change, turf
grass can use up to three times as much water as trees, shrubs, or
groundcover in the same area. Many plants all planted close together
can double the water use compared to sparser planting. Finally, a
location in full sun and wind might use nearly three times as much
water as a shaded and secluded location.2

Choosing plants that require no more water than natural rain is an

ideal way to eliminate the need for irrigation. In dry climates, this is
called xeriscaping.

- See more at: http://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/buildings/water-

efficient-irrigation-and-landscaping#sthash.2CF8CDG1.dpuf
Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting means capturing and storing rain that falls on-
site (usually on roofs). It is generally used for irrigation and toilet
flushing or other greywater uses, though it can also be used for
drinking water if it is adequately treated.

Capturing rainwater can be a valuable way to reduce or even

eliminate a building's use of municipal potable water, without
requiring reductions in water use by occupants. However, it is of
course more effective in rainy climates than dry ones.

Rainwater harvesting systems are measured by their area for

collecting water (in m2 or ft2) and the volume of water they store (in
liters or gallons).

Simple rainwater collection systems have three main elements: the

roof or other catchment area, the storage tank(s), and the gutter and
other piping that directs the water from the catchment area to the
tank.
 photo: Jeremy Faludi

The Aldo Leopold Center turns a rainwater-harvesting

gutter into an aesthetic water feature

Advanced systems may also use a pump to pull water from the tank
to where it is used, and may purify the water with additional devices
such as filters and ultraviolet disinfection.

If the rainwater is meant for drinking or watering gardens, be sure to

choose a tank material that does not leach toxins or foster pathogens.
For example, galvanized steel tanks are lined with polyethylene or
other food-grade liner.

If the rainwater is collected from a roof is meant for drinking or

watering gardens, be sure to choose roofing materials that do not
leach toxins. For instance, asphalt shingles leach toxins into water,
while metal roofs or slate shingles do not.

Predicting Rainwater Harvest Rate

To size a system for a site, you must choose the water collecting area
to supply enough volume of water for the site occupants, given the
site's rainfall patterns. The simplest equation for system sizing is this:

(Volume) = (Area) (Precipitation) (% Efficiency)

Volume is the amount of rain harvested in that time period, measured

in liters. Area is the rainwater capture area, measured in m2.
Precipitation is the amount of rainfall in that time period (in mm).
Efficiency is the percent of water actually captured, as opposed to
splashing out of the system somewhere; it is usually 75% - 90%.1

In English units, a coefficient must be added:

(Volume) = (Area) (Precipitation) (0.62 gal/ft 2/inch) (% Efficiency)

Here volume is in gallons, area is in ft2, precipitation is in inches.

Occupant Needs

The volume of water needed by the occupants will vary based on the
number of occupants, the amount of time they spend on site, the
activities they engage in, and the equipment or processes used on
site. See Water-Efficient Fixtures and Equipment and Water-Efficient
Irrigation and Landscaping for calculations to determine water usage
needs.

These needs are often constant throughout the year, but if they vary
by season, be sure to incorporate that in your calculations.

Rainfall

Weather data from TMY files can be used to determine rainfall

patterns. These will be in mm or inches of rain.

Be sure to calculate average monthly rainfall for the different months

of the year, not simply an annual total. Most sites have much more
rainfall in some seasons than others, and excess water can always be
drained, but a lack of water requires municipal water use to
compensate.

Efficiency

Different gutter systems, different roof pitches, and different

materials can affect system efficiency. For example, lower-pitch roofs
cause less loss than steeply-pitched roofs.

Sizing Rainwater Tanks

There is no one standard recommended size for rainwater storage
tanks. The size depends on the site's water needs, the weather, and
whether the site is connected to a municipal water supply or not.
While bigger tanks allow for more water independence, the tank is
usually the most expensive part of the system.

Systems that do not have municipal water backup (called "off-grid")

must hold much more water, in case of shortage. The amount of
oversizing depends on how crucial the water needs are--discretionary
water use like lawns or water features can be done without for days or
weeks at a time, while drinking water cannot.
 photo: Jeremy Faludi

Off-grid residential rainwater catchment tanks

The main consideration for sizing a storage tank is the worst-case

length of time between rains. This can be seen by graphing the TMY
precipitation data by day, rather than simply finding monthly
precipitation averages. After you have calculated the occupants'
water needs and the average frequency and magnitude of rain in the
dry season, you should multiply the resulting tank size by a "safety
factor" to provide room for error or extreme weather.

- See more at:

http://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/buildings/rainwater-
harvesting#sthash.sHbOzqjw.dpuf
Project Phases & Level of
Development
The building process has been refined over
thousands of years. While every projects process
is slightly different, projects generally progress
along these major phases. Its important to know
the right type and level of information thats
needed within each phase to add the most value.

Project Phases
In the construction industry, the design process is described by the
phases of pre-design, conceptual design, design development, and
final design. The building life cycle process is described by the phases
of construction and building operation.
 Typical Design Process of Buildings

Level of Detail (LOD)

In order to efficiently manage the process of working in a BIM
workflow, the industry has adopted a formal language of describing
the completeness of a digital model at a given point in time. This
language is Level of Development (LOD). LOD, in the BIM world,
ranges from 100 (basic/conceptual) to 500 (highly detailed/precise). It
is not unusual for levels of expected development to be part of the
contract documents as described by the American Institute of
Architects Building Information Modeling Protocol.

LOD phases can be summarized as follows.

LOD 100: Modeled elements are at a conceptual point of

development. Information can be conveyed with massing forms, written
narratives, and 2D symbols.
LOD 200: Modeled elements have approximate relationships to
quantities, size, location, and orientation. Some information may still be
conveyed with written narratives.
LOD 300: Modeled elements are explained in terms of specific
systems, quantities, size, shape, location, and orientation.
LOD 400: Continuation of LOD 300 with enough information added to
facilitate fabrication, assembly, and installation.
LOD 500: Modeled elements are representative of as installed
conditions and can be utilized for ongoing facilities management.
It is worth mentioning that a relationship between LOD and design phases
can be loosely established. However, it should be emphasized this
relationship is not empirical. For instance a project as a whole may be in
design development, but in the digital model, the building envelope
system may be fully detailed with exact materials and thicknesses. More so,
plumbing systems might be represented with single lines, not modeled
geometries.

LOD and Building Performance Analysis

Building Performance Analysis (BPA) is related to LOD on two fronts. First,

what prevents modeled elements from progressing to the next step of LOD
is the absence of information. The answers to discrete questions have not
been found. BPA can be a mechanism for finding answers to these questions
and informing the design process.
Secondly, digital methods of BPA are dependent upon the amount of
information that is digitally modeled. Therefore it becomes beneficial
to comprehend what LOD a model is at, and what that means in terms
of available data, so analysis methods can be associated with the
digital information that is readily available . For example, a model at
LOD 100 will not allow one to conduct energy modeling that is
required for LEED certification, but energy modeling with a LOD 100
can identify how the buildings energy consumption can be influenced
by solar radiation. For these reasons, the LOD of a model and BPA
practices share a feedback loop that at times are not as linear as the
steps to developing levels of detail in the BIM model. This may be
best explained with the following graphic.

Level of Development and Building Performance Analysis

Interaction Diagram

Drawing the BPA connection

If we understand BPA as a tool for answering design questions, while
simultaneously relying on modeled information, we can then establish
relationships to how certain BPA practices may be related to LOD and
the time scale of how a design project evolves. The following are
some examples of how these relationships work during the design
process.

Pre-Design
 Phase Objectives:

Identify the requirements of the project, existing conditions, and

unearth any essential information that will inform the design process.
Common activities include preparing a building program, conducting a
site analysis, and inventorying local code requirements.

Sustainable Design Inquires:

What information will support BPA practices?
What specific climate considerations should be brought to light?
What passive sustainable design strategies should be considered in
the building design?
What environmental resources can the building design utilize?
What are the energy/performance goals for the project?
LOD Assumptions:

If a new project, there is no digital model available. If an existing

building, a digital project model might be available at least a LOD
300.

BPA Actions:
Decide what climate data is most appropriate for the geographic
location.
Conduct a site analysis that minimally includes investigation of solar
radiation , wind patterns , presence and condition of existing structures,
inventorying existing vegetation, and documenting any acoustic challenges
that exist.
 Analyze climate charts and determine if building is likely to be heating
or cooling dominated.
Research what sustainable design strategies would be applicable to
both the geographic location, and climate zone of the project. Tools such as
the 2030 Palette and Climate Consultant can help with this.
Establish measurement matrices that are to be used throughout the
duration of the project to confirm sustainable design goals are being
accounted for. This can be formularized rating systems such as LEED and
Breeam.

Conceptual Design

Phase Objectives:

Decide on the direction of the design by experimenting, iterating, and

obtaining integrated design input from all parties. The principle
objective during this phase is to make high-level decisions that will
provide direction to the entire design process.

Sustainable Design Inquires:

What is the most efficient building form?
How is the building positioned on the building site?
How is the floor plan organized?
How do passive sustainable design strategies integrate with the
building?
 LOD Assumptions:

Most of the architectural model is at LOD 100. The building form is

digitally modeled in massing geometries, and the spatial relationships
of the building program are sketched out with bubble diagrams.

BPA Actions:
Run conceptual energy analysis using and modifying massing
forms and determine how the Energy Use Intensity (EUI) can be reduced by
changes in building form, and orientation. Doing so can help determine the
most energy efficient building form.
Conduct basic shade/shadow analysis of the massing model to
determine what areas of the building could potentially support daylighting,
and consequently inform interior space planning. This also informs the
positioning of the building on the site.
Do solar radiation studies of the mass model to maximize
opportunities for solar collection.
Study how the orientation of the massing model interacts with wind
on the site. Orientation of the building can optimize opportunities for
passive cooling and ventilation.

Design Development
 Phase Objectives:

Verify and edit performative attributes of proposed design, while

refining material, mechanical, and structural systems with specificity.
This phase involves a lot of detailed experimentation and rigorous
decision making.

Sustainable Design Inquires:

How should the floor plan be modified to improve the quality of day
lighting?
How can HVAC equipment be designed most efficiently?
How can structural system be designed most efficiently?
Do passive sustainable design strategies provide the expected
performance?
What materials are being used to construct the building?
LOD Assumptions:

Architecture model is at LOD 200/LOD 300 with generic cladding

materials identified, and floor plan is modeled with appropriate wall
thicknesses and materials. Structural model is at least at LOD 200
with generic framing systems.

MEP model is at LOD 200 with plumbing, heating ventilation, and cooling
systems laid out, and ready to be sized.

BPA Actions:
Run whole building energy analysis of building model, and identify
how changes in wall construction can reduce energy demands. This also
presents a good opportunity to test the performance of HVAC systems that
were initially selected in Concept Design.
Complete simulations that determine the general geometry of
performative features to determine if shades, light shelves, and solar
chimneys are working as predicted. If not revise model geometry to do so.
Run interior daylighting analysis of spaces, and confirm proper light
levels are being achieved.
After maximizing the efficiency of the building envelope, run
cooling/heating load simulation so that HVAC equipment can be sized for
efficiency.
 Perform structural analysis of model so that structural systems can be
optimized. When structural members are not optimized for efficiency, the
building consumes more construction materials then is needed.

Final Design and Documentation

Phase Objectives:

Provide detailed direction, and specification, to construct the most

comprehensive iteration of the building. Assure that the constructed
manifestation of the design will be as sustainable as feasibly possible.

Sustainable Design Inquires:

Are sustainable design goals achieved?
Are building owners expectations of costs and performance
achieved?
What is the expected performance of the building?
LOD Assumptions:

All models completed to LOD 300, with sizes and material selections
finalized for all primary building elements.

BPA Actions:
Perform detailed whole building energy analysis of the final design to
document expected performance, and measure against baselines. And
 compare final design against the measurement matrices that were defined
in Pre-Design.
Perform greenhouse gas emissions analysis to document expected
environmental impact.
Audit final building materials for costs and green qualities (recycled
content, close proximity to construction site, low VOCs).

Construction

Phase Objectives:

Bring the building design into physical reality, by practicing

sustainable construction methods and utilizing quality control
methods.

Sustainable Design Inquires:

How can waste be reduced in the construction process?
How can fabrication methods reduce waste?
How can construction be done in a sustainable manner?
LOD Assumptions:

Architecture, MEP, and Structural models are at LOD300 and are being
evolved to LOD400 with enhanced information that supports
fabrication and construction coordination.
 BPA Actions:
Analyze building quantities to assure that exact material quantities
are delivered to the project site. Doing so will avoid excess material that
gets turned into waste.
Analyze best fabrication methods with digital automation. This step
reduces waste material in the production of building assemblies.
Run construction scheduling simulations that identify how to reduce
equipment operations on the project site. Less use of construction
equipment reduces both energy consumption and air pollution.

Operations and Maintenance

Phase Objectives:

The building becomes occupied and has all equipment operating.

Sustainable Design Inquires:

Are environmental control systems operating correctly?
Is building able to maintain sustainable design goals when occupied?
Is maintenance being done that assures environmental control
systems can continue to perform at their optimum?
LOD Assumptions:

All models are at LOD500, represent physical conditions, and are

being updated in parallel with facility management operations.
 BPA Actions:
Perform initial and ongoing commissioning of environmental systems
to assure they are working as anticipated. Poorly performing environmental
systems can result in compromised occupant comfort, and unnecessary
energy consumption.
Add ongoing utility cost/demand data to energy model, and
compare/identify differences between designed and actual performance.
Administer occupancy survey to verify occupant satisfaction, and
make recommendations to facilities management for improving occupant
satisfaction.
- See more at: http://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/buildings/project-
phases-level-development#sthash.zVIy2c0r.dpuf

New vs Existing Buildings

Improving the performance of our existing building stock is incredibly
important. New construction only replaces or adds a few percent per
year at most to the world's existing stock of buildings. Existing
buildings can often be improved at far lower cost than would be
required to raze and replace them.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),

over the whole building stock, the largest portion of carbon savings
by 2030 is in retrofitting existing buildings and replacing energy using
equipment and energy savings for 50-75% can be achieved in
commercial buildings who make smart use of energy efficiency
measures.
The generalized process of ecodesign described on this site applies to
both new construction and remodeling or retrofitting existing
buildings. One of the big differences between the two is that during
the Predesign phase of remodels and retrofits, the existing building
structure needs to be studied in detail and will introduce a whole set
of design constraints. The same design strategies will apply to both,
but designers will not have as much latitude to reshape existing
buildings.

When working with an existing building, youll want to understand the

energy use of the building and its thermal performance, existing
equipment and controls schedules, occupancy patterns, lighting and
other systems. It is often difficult to get detailed information on
constructions and other things that cannot be readily observed. Tools
like sensors, sub-meters, and infrared cameras can help.

Getting a good as-built model of the building is also important, and

often difficult. Reality capture tools like smart cameras (GPS, level and
accelerometer) and laser scanners can help capture the geometry of
the building.

- See more at:

http://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/buildings/new-vs-existing-
buildings#sthash.vzDefcVj.dpuf

Occupant Comfort
Buildings are designed for people, and those people
are trying to accomplish a task whether its raising a
family, running an office, or manufacturing a product.
The building needs to keep people comfortable,
efficient, healthy, and safe as they set about their task.

Green design seeks to create buildings that keep people

comfortable while minimizing negative environmental
impacts.
Thermal Comfort
Maintaining a persons thermal
comfort means ensuring that
they dont feel too hot or too
cold. This means keeping the
temperature, humidity, airflow
and radiant sources within
acceptable range.

Why its important

Creating comfortable conditions is one of the biggest uses of energy
in buildings and it is also critical to the happiness and productivity of
its users. Often factors such as airflow and radiant temperature are
overlooked in a design, leading to higher energy use and occupancy
dissatisfaction.

Metrics
To keep people comfortable you need to provide the right mixture of
temperature, humidity, radiant temperature and air speed. The right
level of these variables depends on what activity is occurring, how
active the people are, and what they are wearing. Everyone has
slightly different criteria for comfort, so comfort is often measured by
the percentage of occupants who report theyre satisfied with the
conditions.

Design Strategies
Some ways to keep people comfortable are to use the suns heat to
warm them, use the wind or ceiling fans to move air when its too
warm, and keeping surrounding surfaces the correct temperature with
good insulation. HVAC equipment like boilers, fans, and heat
exchangers can temper the air temperature and humidity, but surface
temperatures and moving air have to be considered too.

Learn more about human thermal comfort and passive design

strategies to help.

Visual Comfort
Maintaining visual comfort means
ensuring that people have
enough light for their activities,
the light has the right quality and
balance, and people have good
views.

Why its important

Good lighting helps create a happy and productive environment.
Natural light does this much better than electric lighting. Having
good views and sight-lines gives people a sense of control of their
environment and provides a sense of well-being.

Metrics
Good lighting is well-distributed, is not too dim or too strong, and uses
minimal energy. Lighting is often measured either by the amount of
light falling on a surface (illuminance) or the amount of light reflecting
off of a surface (luminance). These are objective measures, but how
people experience this light is often subjective (i.e. are they
comfortable?, do they experience glare?). Good visual comfort also
generally means that as much of this light is natural light as possible.
Humans are hard-wired to like the suns light and it saves energy.

Design Strategies
Daylighting design strategies like high or clerestory windows, light
shelves, and well-placed skylights can help distribute sunlight inside a
space. When you do need to use artificial lights, you can reduce
energy use by using efficient fluorescents or LEDs, with daylighting
dimming controls, effective fixtures, and good lighting design. Good
controls can automatically balance natural and artificial lighting. Most
lights should have occupancy sensors.

Learn more about natural and artificial lighting and how to

measure it.

Air Quality
In addition to air thats the right
temperature and humidity for
thermal comfort, its important
that air is clean, fresh, and
circulated effectively in the
space.

Why its important

If air is too stale or is polluted, it can make people uncomfortable,
unproductive, unhappy, and sick. Fresh air helps people be alert,
productive, healthy, and happy.

Metrics
Fresh air requires a certain percentage of outside air circulating into
spaces. Clean air requires pollutant and pathogen levels to be below
certain thresholds.

Design Strategies
Air can be kept fresh with high ventilation rates, either using natural
ventilation such as operable windows and skylights, or active systems
such as HVAC fans and ducts. Clean air can be achieved by filtering
air, by flushing spaces with fresh outside air, and by not
contaminating the air with impurities from the building, such as
volatile organic compounds from paints or materials.

Learn more about Indoor Air Quality.

Acoustic Comfort
Acoustic comfort means having
the right level and quality of
noise to use the space as
intended.

Why its important

People are more productive and happy when theyre not distracted by
noises from outside or from surrounding spaces and occupants.
Acoustic comfort is especially important for schools and office
buildings.

Metrics
How humans perceive sounds and loudness is a subjective measure.
However, you can create a comfortable environment by controlling
objective measures like decibel level (sound pressure), reverberation
time, and the sound reflection and damping properties of materials.

Design Strategies
Creating barriers and sound breaks between sources of noise is
important. You can optimize room shape and size to reduce echoes
and reverberation. And you can use acoustic tiles on ceilings and
walls to dampen the sound.