Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
MI T
Spore OS
IS
S IS (n) Developing haploid
IO
organism (n)
Spores are
made by
meiosis
Sperm (n)
Mature
haploid
organism (n)
M
IT Zygote
OS Sperm
IS (2n) swim to egg
Mature diploid Egg (n)
organism (2n)
FERT ILI ZAT ION
Chapter 13
MEIOSIS
1
Learning Objectives
o Define homologous, autosomes, and sex
chromosomes, allele, ploidy (haploid, diploid,
polyploid and aneuploid), and sexual and asexual
reproduction.
Learning Objectives
o Describe what happens in meiosis I & II.
2
Introduction
v During sexual reproduction, a sperm and an egg
unite to form a new individual.
v This process is called fertilization.
2 3
2 3
4 4
X Y
Autosomes Sex
(24) X Y
chromosomes
3
Chromosomes Come in
Distinct Types
v Each organism has a characteristic number of
chromosomes.
4
Homologous Chromosomes
Have the Same Genes
v A gene is a section of DNA that influences one or more
hereditary traits in an individual.
v Different versions of a specific gene are called alleles.
v Homologs (homologous chromosomes) carry the
same genes in
Homologous
the same chromosomes
locations, but (replicated)
each one may
contain Gene for eye color Gene for eye color
(allele for red eyes) (allele for purple eyes)
different alleles.
Drosophila autosome 2
5
6
An Overview of Meiosis
v Meiosis reduces chromosome number by
half. In diploid organisms, the products of
meiosis are haploid.
Maternal Paternal
chromosome chromosome
Nuclear envelope
Replication
Replicated Centromere
chromosome
Sister chromatids
Homologous pair of
replicated chromosomes
7
An Overview of Meiosis
v Meiosis consists of two cell divisions
1. Meiosis I
2. Meiosis II
An Overview of Meiosis I
v During meiosis I, the diploid (2n) parent cell
produces two haploid (n) daughter cells.
8
An Overview of Meiosis II
v During meiosis II, the sister chromatids of
each chromosome separate and go to
different daughter cells.
Parent cell is
diploid (2n)
and contains
MEIOSIS I
a homologous
pair of
replicated
chromosomes
Homologs
separate Daughter
cells are
haploid
(n) and
MEIOSIS II
Sister contain
chromatids just one
separate homolog
9
Meiosis is a Reduction
Division
v The outcome of meiosis is a reduction in
chromosome number. For this reason,
meiosis is known as a reduction division.
Fertilization Results in a
Diploid Zygote
v When two haploid gametes fuse during
fertilization, a full complement of chromosomes is
restored. The cell that results from fertilization is
diploid and is called a zygote.
10
Female Male
gamete gamete
(egg) (sperm)
(n) (n)
Fertilization
Diploid offspring
contains homologous
pair of chromosomes
Zygote (2n)
11
Diploid (2n) MEIOSIS
Haploid (n)
Amount of hereditary
material reduced by half
Haploid
Diploid gametes (n)
Sperm Egg
adult
(2n)
ON
Normal amount
TI
of hereditary
ZA
material restored
LI
R TI
FE
(dur M
ing ITOSIS Zygote
dev
elop (2n)
men
t)
12
The Phases of Meiosis I
v Early Prophase I: The homolog pairs come together
in a pairing process called synapsis. The structure
that results from synapsis is called a tetrad,
consisting of two homologs. The chromatids of the
homologs are called non-sister chromatids.
13
Nuclear Bivalent (4 chromatids from
envelope 2 homologous chromosomes)
Replicated Non-sister Spindle
chromosomes chromatids apparatus Chiasma
2n Maternal chromosomes
In this example,
n = 3 so 2n = 6 Paternal chromosomes
v Crossing over.
14
The Phases of Meiosis II
v Like meiosis I, meiosis II is a continuous
process, but with four distinct phases:
1. Prophase II
2. Metaphase II
3. Anaphase II
4. Telophase II
n n
15
The Phases of Meiosis II
v Prophase II: The spindle apparatus forms and one
spindle fiber attaches to the centromere of each sister
chromatid.
16
Order these cells!
Comparison of
Meiosis & Mitosis
v The key difference between the two processes is
that homologs pair in meiosis, but do not in mitosis.
17
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
2n Prophase 2n Prophase I
2n Metaphase 2n Metaphase I
Anaphase and
Telophase
2n n Anaphase I and
Telophase I
18
A Closer Look at Crossing
Over
v At each point where crossing over occurs, the non-
sister chromatids from each homolog get physically
broken at the same point and attached to each
other. As a result, segments of maternal and
paternal chromosomes are swapped.
Break in
chromatid
Cohesin DNA Chiasma
proteins
Kinetochore
microtubule
Kinetochores
Homologs
Synaptonemal
complex
Sister chromatids
1. Condensation 2. Pairing 3. Synapsis (bivalent 4. Partial separation
formation) of homologs
19
The Consequences of
Meiosis
v Independent shuffling of maternal and
paternal chromosomes and crossing over
during meiosis I result in four gametes with a
chromosome composition different from that
of the parent cells.
20
Independent Assortment
Produces Genetic Variation
v Separation and distribution of homologous
chromosomes during meiosis I can result in a
variety of combinations of maternal and paternal
chromosomes.
21
During meiosis I, bivalents can line up two different
ways before the homologs separate.
OR
22
How Does Fertilization Affect
Genetic Variation?
v Crossing over and the random mixing of
maternal and paternal chromosomes ensure
that each gamete is genetically unique.
OR
2n = 4
2. Crossing over
1. Parent cell
3. Independent
assortment
4. Gametes 5. Fertilization
23
Outcrossing Further Increases
Genetic Variation
v In many sexually reproducing species, gametes from
different individuals combine to form offspring, a
process called outcrossing.
Evolutionary
Consequences of Sex
v Sexual reproduction increases genetic diversity
through three key mechanisms
1. Crossing over
2. Independent
assortment
3. Outcrossing
24
Why Does Meiosis Exist?
v Sexual reproduction is common among
multicellular organisms, but organisms in
most lineages of the tree of life undergo
asexual reproduction
Generation 1
Generation 3
25
The Purifying Selection
Hypothesis
v In asexual reproduction, a damaged gene will
be inherited by all of that individuals offspring.
The Changing
Environment Hypothesis
v Offspring produced by sexual reproduction
are genetically different from their parents
v More likely to survive and produce offspring if
the environment changes
26
Testing the Changing
Environment Hypothesis
v If a new strain of disease-causing agent evolves,
then all of the asexually produced offspring are
likely to be susceptible to that new strain.
27
28
Does exposure to evolving pathogens favor outcrossing?
In environments where evolving pathogens are present, sexual reproduction
by outcrossing will be favored.
The presence of evolving pathogens will not favor outcrossing.
With
pathogen
Outcrossing rate
Without pathogen
Generation
Exposure to evolving pathogens favors outcrossing.
29
Mistakes in Meiosis
v If a mistake occurs during meiosis and
30
n+1
n+1
n-1
2n = 4
n=2 n-1
Types of Nondisjunction
v If nondisjunction occurs in meiosis I, two gametes
will have an extra copy of a chromosome (causing a
condition called trisomy), and two gametes will lack
that chromosome (monosomy).
v An example of trisomy is Down syndrome, which is
caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
31
Frequency of
Nondisjunction
v Nondisjunction may occur in as many 10 percent of
meiotic divisions.
v Maternal age
Incidence of Down syndrome
is an
per number of births
important
factor in the
frequency of
trisomy 21.
32
Most Common Human
Aneuploidy Disorders
v Aneuploidy of chromosome 21 leads to
Down Syndrome.
33