F.R.
VINES
EXPERIENCE WITH USE OF CORAL
DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE
IN WESTERN SAMOA
ABSTRACT
The feasibility of using coral detritus as concrete ag-
gregate was investigated during a technical aid
program conducted by the Australian Government in
Western Samoa. Quality of rock materials, reliability
of the supply system and production economics have
imposed severe restraints to meeting the fast grow-
ing demand for aggregates. The presence of abun-
dant supplies of easily won lagoon detritus prompted
efforts to define the limitations of coral as a replace-
ment for rock aggregates. It was found that concrete
suitable for most purposes could be made
economically with coral sand combined with coarse
rock aggregate. Unusual properties were revealed by
the testing of samples from trial mixes: very high total
water contents were required for acceptable
workability; higher setting temperatures than normal
were measured; concrete densities were found to be
unusually low; concrete porosity was unusually high.
For certain applications reduced durability properties
are inferred, and some limitations are suggested to
the use of coral in concrete.
Reference: Aust. Rd Res. 1 2(1), pp. 17-28.
INTRODUCTION
In early 1975 a five-year bilateral technical develop-
ment program was initiated by the Governments of
Australia and Western Samoa to assist in upgrading
and extending the road system of the latter country.
The project aimed at modernising and rationalising
the Public Works Department's (PWD) equipment
fleet, establishing workshop facilities, spare parts
store and materials laboratory, and training PWD per-
sonnel in effective work techniques. The Snowy
Mountains Engineering Corporation was commis-
sioned by the Australian Development Assistance
Agency (now known as Australian Development
Assistance Bureau) to plan and direct the work.
Descriptions of the project and experience with
the use of coral and volcanic materials for road con-
struction are given elsewhere (Vines and Falconer
1980). This paper describes laboratory and field ex-
perience with the use of coral aggregates in con-
crete during the course of the project.
AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol. 12, No. 1, March 1982
BACKGROUND
Between 1972 and 1975 cement was imported into
Western Samoa at the rate of 10 to 12 kt per year. At
current rates this would cost more than WS$500 000
(about A$600 000), a severe charge on foreign ex-
change earnings. This amount of cement would re-
quire 50 to 60 kt of aggregate for full and efficient
use, an unlikely prospect from observations of both
aggregate production and concreting practice at the
commencement of the project in 1975. The generally
low level of concrete technology and the rapidly ris-
ing price of cement indicated that large economies of
foreign exchange were possible.
Aggregates were obtained either by crushing
quarried lava rock or from river and beach volcanic
rock detritus. The latter are variably-graded sand and
gravel deposits in the short tidal sections of a few
torrential streams and on beaches close to their
mouths. They are available only in limited quantities
and mostly at some distance from Apia, the principal
market. The mode of occurrence of lava and other
ejecta, which form the country, makes quarrying a
difficult task: lava flows are generally thin, interlain
with ash and scoria, and contain open-jointed and
vesicular rock of poor soundness. Indeed, quarrying
posed so many problems that it was common to
resort to the crushing of manually-collected boulders
from the countryside.
Because of the basic importance of rock aggreg-
ate for road works and concrete, high priority was
given to establishing a large permanent centralised
quarry of high quality rock at an early stage of the
project. This work was particularly successful,
resulting in the production of coarse aggregate of
fresh, dense and sound dolerite from a large hy-
pabyssal deposit at Alafua near Apia (Vines and
Falconer 1980).
The Alafua quarry rock was not suitable for
economical processing for sand because of its
micro-crystalline nature, freshness and hardness.
The only alternatives available were:
(a) beach and river deposits of volcanic alluvium,
(b) crushed lava rock, and
(c) coral detritus.
17
 VINES CORAL DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE

Early in 1976, a cutter suction dredge which had with the added mixing water. Concrete curing was by
been rebuilt began stockpiling coral detritus at Apia immersion in a water tank, with the temperature vary-
for use in road pavements and fills. The operation was ing between 23 and 26C. The cylinders were tested
rapid and economical so that reliable supplies of an at ages of 1, 3, 7, 28 and 90 days in a manually-oper-
abundant and cheap material were assured. As it ap- ated 100 t compression testing machine. The cement
peared that another quarry would be required in soft used was nearly all of Japanese origin, but of various
lava rocks for crushed sand production, it was brands and ages. However, the same cement was
decided that a program of testing should be under- used throughout any one series of tests.
taken to determine the limitations of coral in con-
crete. It should be emphasised that this program was
Run-of-stockpile materials were used and
not aimed at basic research though the test results
usually proportioned approximately to give enough
prompted much interest in the properties of coral
sand for a reasonably plastic mix without requiring
concrete. The then-existing quality and cost of sand
excessive mixing water. Considering the low state of
for concrete and the intermittency of supply deter-
technology it was thought that close control of ag-
mined that significant benefits could be derived even gregate gradation would be unlikely for some years,
if only minor usage of coral could be made. and that a practical attitude must be maintained dur-
ing the laboratory investigations. It should be noted
LABORATORY CONCRETE TRIALS that the cost of cement is highly dependent on energy
costs, shipping freights and inflation in overseas
GENERAL countries, all of which are unstable and rising rapidly.
Thus the objects were to make savings in foreign ex-
The first step in the investigation program was to change rather than local costs which are relatively
compare the properties and cost of concretes made stable. However, the low cost and reliability of supply
with coral sand and crushed lava sand. Following of coral also had the effect of lowering local costs.
this, mix design charts were developed and further in-
vestigation of interesting and unusual features of the
Fig. 1 shows the average gradation of coral
earlier results carried out.
detritus from 41 samples taken from dredge
Trial mixes of concrete were made in the stockpiles.
laboratory, from which 150 mm diameter by 300 mm SERIES I
cylinders were made. Proportioning of coarse ag-
gregate, sand and cement was by accurate weight This series compared concrete made of coral sand
measurements of dry materials. Residual water within with that made with crushed lava sand. Alafua coarse
the coarse aggregate and sand was accounted for aggregate passing 22 mm was used in both types.

AS Sieve Size Aperture (pm) Aperture (mm)

75 150 300 425 600 1.18 2.36 4.75 9.5 19.0 37.5 75.0 152.4 304.8 609.6
100 I I I I I I
I
I I
I I
I -1 I
I
i t /
90
I Sand gradation limits iI
recommended by ASTM
I I I 0
I
I

80 1 111
I MINIMWI I
11M=WIIIIM
MIIIIIAPIIIIMEME1111111=11
70 I I I 1I IFIErnillifilir
I I
i Ii INr I
60 MN I

Sand fraction, i FMI Er

mean gradation of
I-
Percent Passing

50 I 41 samples of coral "1"61/ I

Fineness modulus = 2.87 AlliBMINOr
.
40
i Irffir
I I I A
r-
30 I I ',M.
AWAII Mean gradation of 41 samples
of coral detritus from dredge
20 AM" stockpiles at Mulinuu
MAIEWAVAV I
MIMI/AM --rI- 1 I
ANIIRIKAIN I
I
10 I Alr. I I I
...
i 1--- ,.,Ain. I I 1
I 1111.:-...~ J'AMIIIIIIMMI II i I I I II
0 11 I1) ill i 1 111 I I Ii1111 I I I II II I ___I III.
___ ,. Iri An an inn 9nn Ann Ann
4 6 10 20 40 60 100
Part cle Size (mm)
Particle Size (pm)
SAND GRAVEL BOULDERS
SILT COBBLES
CLAY MEDIUM COARSE FINE MEDIUM COARSE
FINE MEDIUM COARSE FINE

Fig. 1 Average gradation of coral detritus from 41 samples taken from dredge stockpiles

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 1 2, No. 1, March 1982

18
 VINES CORAL DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE

The aggregates were proportioned to similar com-
bined gradings to fit within the U.K. Transport and
Road Research Laboratory (1947) 'ideal' grading
curves. No attempt was made to optimise each grad-
ing and it became clear that results from each were
not strictly comparable. However, the results were
indicative of several interesting features. It was found
that:
(a) coral sand contributed more plasticity to a mix
than crushed lava sand;
(b) coral sand required about 280 L of water to 1 m3
of concrete, as compared to 250 L for the lava
sand, for a slump of about 40 mm, irrespective of
cement content;
(c) concrete density was about 130 kg/m3 less at
2.370 t/m3 when using coral;
(d) strength at 28 days was higher for coral sand
despite much higher total water-cement ratios;
and
(e) lower cement contents per unit volume of con-
crete were required when using coral, for a given
workability and strength. This reflected the
coarse grading of the crushed lava sand, and did
not indicate that coral, per se, contributes
towards better strength.
The tests indicated that good concrete could be
made with coral sand.
The high water absorption and low specific gra-
vity of coral make it difficult to compare concretes on
the basis of water-cement and aggregate-cement
ratios. Furthermore, the similar gradation of com-
bined aggregates by weight does not necessarily
give validly comparable conditions when using
materials of different specific gravity, particle shape,
etc. It was decided that future comparisons would be
based on concrete of similar cement content and
workability, with aggregates combined to give an ap-
proximate balance of good workability and low water
content.
SERIES II
A few tests were made with various ratios by weight
of sand to total aggregate before it was decided that
about 40 per cent of coral sand to total aggregate
was close to the optimum requirement. Series II was
then undertaken to determine mix design data.
This series used coral sand passing 4.75 mm and
crushed lava aggregate, passing 22 mm, the most
readily available materials at the time, with various
amounts of cement ranging from 260 to 410 kg/m,of
concrete and with slumps of 25, 75 and 150 mm. The
results are shown in Table I and Fig. 2.
The following points were noted.
(a) For concrete with 75 mm slump, 320 L of
water/m3 of concrete were required; this is 32
per cent of the fresh concrete volume.

7.0

c7) 6.0
E
U
CO
rr
5.0

4.0

50 50
Tested under standard
conditions at p 1 day
45 45
Cylinder Strength at 28 days (MPa )

3 days
O 7 days
40 40
28 days
+ 91 days
0 35 35
2 O`5
ck4<s''
I 30 '15) c5C) `s>oc
30 ,s
_c o
cs 25
25
Ntt
cn O
20 20

15 15

10 O
10

0 I I
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 300 350 400
Total Water-Cement
Cement Content (kg/m3 )
Fig. 2 Test results of Series II mixes

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol. 12, No. 1, March 1982

19
 VINES - CORAL DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE

TABLE I

TRIAL MIX SUMMARY -SERIES II

CRUSHED LAVA AGGREGATE AND CORAL SAND DESIGN DATA

Agg./ Water/ Mass of Materials in 1 m 3 Compressive Strength Crushed Lava 22 mm -9 mm 60%

Mix Cement Cement Slump Density
C.Agg. Sand (MPa)
Cement Water Days Coral Sand passing 9 mm 40%
(kg) (kg)
No. (mm) (t/m3) (%) (%) (%) (%) 1 3 7 28 91 Notes

370 320 1 1 2 3 1
139 4.40 0.86 80 2.32 42.1 28.1 17.2 24.4 26.5 31.8 30.8 Trial Mixes at 70 to 90 mm slump.
16.0 13.8
Unwashed sand. All mixes gave good
353 317 1 1 2 3 1
140 4.70 0.90 90 2.33 42.7 28.5 17.1 21.7 25.4 28.5 29.5 workability but tended to stiffen
15.2 13.6
quickly. Plasticity was excessive at
337 320 1 3 3 1
143 5.00 0.95 90 2.34 43.2 28.8 15.7 22.3 27.5 27.9 low aggregate-cement ratios.
14.4 13.6
Optimum sand content expected to vary
319 319 1 3 3 1
145 5.30 1.00 75 2.32 43.6 29.0 13.5 21.7 24.9 26.6 from 37 to 42% with increasing
13.7 13.7
aggregate-cement ratio. No aggregate
305 308 1 1 2 3 1
146 5.60 1.01 80 2.32 44.2 29.4 14.9 20.0 21.8 25.9 28.1 segregation or bleeding.
13.1 13.3

290 319 1 1 2 3 1
149 5.90 1.10 75 2.32 44.3 29.5 11.2 17.0 18.2 21.0 23.9
12.5 13.7

276 318 1 1 2 2 1
150 6.18 1.15 70 2.31 44.5 29.7 10.2 17.2 16.8 19.5 22.5
12.0 13.8

262 319 1 1 2 3 1
110 6.62 1.22 80 2.31 44.8 30.1 7.9 11.9 14.4 17.6 22.1
11.3 13.8

289 306 1 1 2 3
167 6.00 1.06 25 2.33 44.7 29.8 13.1 18.4 20.3 25.6 Trail mixes at 25 mm slump.
12.4 13.1
All mixes gave excessive plasticity.
337 305 1 1 1 2
168 5.00 0.91 25 2.33 43.4 29.0 18.2 25.2 26.0 31.5
14.5 13.1

408 304 1 1 2 2
169 4.00 0.75 25 2.34 41.8 27.8 24.9 25.6 31.8 37.4
17.4 13.0

392 346 1 2 2 1
157 3.97 0.88 150 2.29 43.0 24.8 16.1 27.6 32.3 33.1 Trial mixes at 140 mm to 150 mm
17.1 15.1
slump. All mixes gave good
375 337 1 1 2 1
158 4.20 0.90 150 2.29 41.3 27.6 15.2 24.2 26.3 30.2 workability with moderate to high
16.4 14.7
plasticity.
270 339 1 2 3
165 6.20 1.25 150 2.28 44.0 29.3 11.4 13.7 14.2
11.8 14.9

318 337 2 3 1
166 5.20 1.06 140 2.31 43.0 28.6 18.4 22.3 24.3
13.8 14.6

1,2,3 Strengths are average of number of tests indicated, rounded to 0.1 MPa.

(b) The slump varied by 25 mm for each 2 per cent
variation in the total water content.
(c) The concrete density was 2.320 t/m3 at 75 mm
slump.
(d) The concrete was moderately to highly plastic,
increasing with higher cement contents. The op-
timum sand content would appear to be about 42
per cent with 260 kg of cement/m3 of concrete,
giving about 17 MPa at 28 days, ranging to 37
per cent with 395 kg of cement to give 34 MPa,
all at 75 mm slump.
(e) The concrete tended to stiffen quickly and no
bleeding was observed. This is attributed to the
porous nature of the coral.
Concrete bars were made with coral and
volcanic beach sands to measure drying shrinkage.
They showed coral concrete to shrink 0.343 to 0.060
per cent, compared with 0.038 to 0.051 per cent for
volcanic beach sand concrete. These were
measured after drying in an oven at 55C for about
two months. The results are of similar order but
further testing would be required to determine strictly
comparable shrinkage properties. However, the coral
bars lost more weight and lost it faster than the
volcanic sand concrete (10 per cent against 5.5 per
cent by weight respectively).
As the diurnal temperature range throughout the
year is only 10 or 1 2C, durability is hardly affected
by variation of the ambient temperature and weather
conditions. However, the tests indicated that coral
concrete probably had a much higher permeability to
water than normal concrete and that durability

20 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 12, No. 1, March 1982

 VINES - CORAL DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE

therefore may well be inferior. Consequently, con-
crete made with coral should not be used without
careful consideration and precautions where:
(a) low permeability is required;
(b) alternate wetting and drying occurs by tidal
movements of seawater;
(c) surfaces are exposed to hard abrasive wear;
(d) there may be corrosive or harmful substances as
in factory effluents, sewerage works and in
swamps.
Greater care in compaction and a thicker cover over
reinforcing were suggested to reduce possible cor-
rosion.
As the results of the two series of tests became
available and showed that it was feasible to make
good concrete with coral sand, a screening plant was
set up to process the coral detritus. This separated
the material on 20 mm and 9.5 mm screens. The
demand for sand at this stage was such that even if
undesirable properties had shown up in testing, the
project would have been hard put to guide the use of
coral. The material larger than 20 mm found a ready
demand as fill, there being little local alternative in
Apia from volcanic sources. The 20 mm to 9.5 mm
material found some use as 'clean hardstand covering
and was tried, unsuccessfully, for road sealing. The
coral was too soft or brittle for the latter use.
SERIES III AND SERIES VI
Failure of the existing coarse aggregate supply
caused by a breakdown in crushing equipment
caused another crisis and the usefulness of the
coarser coral for aggregate was queried. Series III
investigated this aspect. Series VI later tested these
materials again under slightly different conditions.
Series III used equal quantities of both coarse
and fine coral aggregate in a damp condition as taken
from the '20 mm to 9.5 mm' and the 'passing 9.5 mm'
stockpiles. Series VI used the coarse aggregate in a
saturated condition with 42.5 to 47 per cent sand for
better workability. The mixes contained cement at
the rate of 270 to 420 kg/m3 of concrete, and were
aimed at various slumps. Results are shown in Tables
// and /// and Fig. 3.

TABLE II TRIAL MIX SUMMARY -SERIES III

CORAL AGGREGATE AND SAND DESIGN DATA
Agg./ Water/ Mass of Materials in 1 m 3 Compressive Strength Coarse aggregate Coral 20 mm-9 mm 50%
Mix Cement Cement Slump Density
(MPa)
C.Agg. Sand CementWater Days Sand Coral passing 9 mm 50%
(kg)
No. (mm) W m') (%) (%) (k9)(%) (%) 1 3 7 28 91 Notes

395 377 1 2 3
210 3.30 0.96 90 2.07 31.4 31.4 13.9 22.0 24.2 Aggregate moisture content not
19.0 18.2
controlled, generally damp, cement
370 370 1 2 1
212(a)3.60 1.00 60 2.07 32.1 32.1 12.3 20.3 23.3 fairly old and of doubtful quality.
17.9 17.9
Workable concrete, very high
369 378 2
212(b)3.60 1.02 50 2.08 32.0 32.0 23.1 plasticity, excessively stiff, does
17.8 18.2
not flow easily, hard to compact.
348 376 1 2
213(a)3.90 1.08 100 2.08 32.6 32.6 17.6 20.6 Unwashed materials.
16.7 18.1
All compression tests (except at one
352 371 1 1 1 1
213(b)3.90 1.05 125 2.10 32.8 32.7 12.8 18.1 19.9 23.3 day) in wet condition according to
16.8 17.7
Australian Standard.
327 382 1 2 1
211(a)4.20 1.17 115 2.08 33.0 33.0 10.6 17.1 20.5
15.7 18.3

328 375 2
211(b)4.20 1.14 75 2.08 33.1 33.1 20.1
15.8 18.0

304 375 1 2 3
202 4.50 1.23 80 2.05 33.4 33.4 8.6 15.4 17.1
14.9 18.3

303 390 3 2
200 4.52 1.29 120 2.06 33.1 33.3 14.6 15.7
14.7 18.9

290 359 2
199 5.00 1.24 40 2.11 34.5 34.6 16.7 19.3 50% sand
13.8 17.1

279 385 1 1 2
209(a)5.10 1.38 65 2.09 34.1 34.1 7.7 14.5 17.1 50% sand
13.4 18.4

276 389 2 2
209(b)5.10 1.41 90 2.08 34.0 34.0 15.1 16.2 50% sand
13.3 18.7

335 387 2 2
201(a)4.00 1.15 120 2.06 35.8 29.2 15.2 17.9 45% sand
16.3 18.7

337 380 2
201(b)4.00 1.13 125 2.06 35.9 29.3 17.0 19.52 45% sand
16.3 18.5

1,2,3: Strengths are average of number of tests

a andb subscripts indicate different batches made to obtain test cylinders for
indicated, rounded to 0.1 MPa. other purposes, i.e. not enough cyls. could be made from a single batch.

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol. 12, No. 1, March 1982

21
 VINES - CORAL DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE

TABLE M

TRIAL MIX SUMMARY -SERIES VI

CORAL AGGREGATE (SATURATED) AND CORAL SAND

Agg./ Water/ Mass of Materials in 1 m 3 Compressive Strength Coral agg. 20-9 mm at 14% to 16% MC
Mix Cement Cement Slump Density
C.Agg. Sand Cement Water (MPa)
Days Coral sand passing 9 mm at 12% to 16%
(k9) (kg) MC
No. (mm) (t/m3) (%) (%) (%) (%) 1 3 7 28 91 Notes

422 401 1 1 2 3 1
234 2.97 0.95 65 2.08 34.7 25.7 9.1 16.3 19.9 25.8 29.6 42.5% sand
20.3 19.3

392 392 2 3 1
233 3.29 1.00 75 2.07 35.4 26.8 18.2 24.1 28.0 43.1% sand
18.9 18.9

362 391 z 4 1
232 3.65 1.08 75 2.07 35.5 28.2 16.7 23.5 25.7 44.2% sand
17.5 18.8

335 395 1 3
228 4.09 1.18 15 2.10 35.9 29.3 19.0 23.3 45.0% sand
16.0 18.8

329 398 1 3
229 4.09 1.21 75 2.07 35.7 29.2 17.7 21.3 45.0% sand
15.9 19.2

300 391 2 4 2
230 4.60 1.30 65 2.07 36.0 30.7 12.9 16.6 19.7 46.0% sand
14.5 18.8

273 396 z 4 2
231 5.11 1.45 11)0 2.07 35.8 31.8 10.5 15.9 18.7 47.0% sand
13.2 19.2
Note: All cylinders tested at 28 and
91 days were removed from water
bath at 7 days . Testing was in
airdried state.

Strengths are average of number of tests indicated, rounded to 0.1 MPa.

Notes These tests showed:

Coral aggregate 20 to 9 mm and unwashed coral sand - 9 mm
Series III damp coarse aggregate 50% sand (a) the concrete required 375 to 400 L of water/m3
All cylinders water cured and tested wet of concrete, i.e. 37.5 to 40 per cent of the fresh
Series VI saturated coarse aggregate 42.5 to 47% sand
All cylinders water cured to 7 days. Cylinders air concrete volume;
dried from 7 to 28 days then tested dry
30
(b) the fresh mix was too plastic and sticky at 50 per
o 7 days Series III cent sand content, and water absorption by the
0 28 days Series I II
7 days Series VI unsaturated aggregate caused it to stiffen
28 days Series VI quickly;
+ 90 days Series VI
(c) the density of fresh concrete was about 2.075
t/m3;
(d) the cement requirements with all coral aggreg-
Cylinder Compressive Strength (MPa )

25
ates were much higher than when rock aggreg-
ates were used, but because of lower aggregate
costs, coral concrete was cheaper (Fig. 4) to
produce for strengths up to 20 MPa.

As a result of these series of mixes it was recom-

20
mended that coral-only concrete should be limited to
low-load bearing applications, requiring up to 20
MPa compressive strength. The limitations sug-
gested following Series I and II were also recom-
mended.

15 SERIES IV
Series IV was carried out to check the effect of cur-
ing and testing methods on coral concrete. The tests
are not reported here in detail but some results are of
relevance to this paper.
10
0 9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Two similar mixes were made, one containing all-
Total Water-Cement Ratio by weight volcanic aggregates (beach sand and crushed lava
coarse aggregates), the other containing all-coral
Fig. 3 -Coral aggregates strength v. water-cement ratio - aggregates. They were each made in several batches
Series III and VI aimed at 75 mm slump and with 329 to 338 kg/m3 of

22 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 12, No. 1, March 1982

 VINES CORAL DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE

35

..........
... . ...... .....
........
. - ...
.............. .....

330 Kg cement/m' of concrete

Air Temperature During Tests Time measured from instant of
water addition to mix.
25 Test Start Max Finish
a) a ordinary cement, coral sand
26% 28' 27'
b) b low heat cement, coral sand
b) 29 31 30' ordinary cement, beach sand (volcanic)
d) d low heat cement, beach sand

20 I , I , I I
0 100 200 300 400 500
Elapsed Time (min)

Fig. 6 Setting temperatures v. elapsed time Series V (330 kg cement/m3 of concrete)

35

a
Temperature (C)

30

390 Kg cement/m.3 of concrete

25
Time measured from instant
Air Temperature During Tests of water addition to mix
Test Start Max Finish a ordinary cement, coral sand
b low heat cement, coral sand
a) 29
c) c ordinary cement, beach sand (volcanic)
b) d low heat cement, beach sand
26' 31' 29'
d)

20 I I I I

100 200 300 400 500

Elapsed Time (min)

Fig. 7 Setting temperatures v. elapsed time Series V (390 kg cement/m3 of concrete)

The following points were noted. concrete about 0.2.) The results are not con-
clusive but generally pointed to the release of
(a) There was an initial temperature rise caused by more heat.
hydration and solution of small amounts of
(g) The temperature gradients are similar; the test
material, such as quicklime, in the cement.
conditions were not controlled rigorously
(b) This heat was dissipated until the temperature enough to confirm from the results that heat may
have been generated at different rates.
again started to rise steadily after about 2 hours.
It seems that some research under rigidly con-
(c) The temperature peaked between 420 and 480
trolled conditions would be required to explain the
minutes after mixing commenced for the coral
phenomenon. This was outside the bounds of the
sand mixes and between 350 and 400 minutes for
project work and the matter was not followed further.
the volcanic sand.
However, it was recommended that coral should not
(d) Higher temperature rises were recorded when be used without careful consideration and precau-
using coral sand. tions when high temperatures are to be avoided as in
mass concrete.
(e) Low heat cement with coral sand produced high- SERIES VII
er temperatures than the ordinary cement and
volcanic sand mixture. As soon as Alafua quarry started to produce coarse
aggregate a series of trials was performed to obtain
(f) The higher water content in coral concrete mix design data for use of this material with coral
would presumably provide a better heat sink and sand. These materials were expected to become
thus the initial temperatures would be expected standard for concrete use, with lava aggregate being
not to rise as high. (Specific heat of water -= 1, of of secondary importance.

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol. 12, No. 1, March 1982 23

 VINES -CORAL DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE

TABLE IV

TRIAL MIX SUMMARY -SERIES V

SETTING TEMPERATURES: CORAL AND VOLCANIC SANDS
Agg./ Water/ Mass of Materials in 1 m 3 Compressive Strength Crushed lava 22-9 mm
Mix Cement Cement Slump Density
(MPa) Mixes with 40% coral sand and
C.Agg. Sand Cement Water Days
(kg) (kg) 47.5% volcanic sand
No. (mm) (t/m 3) (%) (%) (%) (%) 1 3 7 28 91 Notes

278 328 2 2
216 6.44 1.18 15 2.39 44.8 29.9 14.7 19.9 Ordinary cement, coral sand
11.6 13.7

270 270 2 2
218 7.40 1.00 25 2.54 41.3 37.4 13.8 20.6 Ordinary cement, volcanic sand
10.6 10.6

282 309 2 2
217 6.38 1.10 40 2.39 44.9 30.4 13.2 20.1 Low heat cement, coral sand
11.8 12.9

273 275 2 2
219 7.35 1.01 25 2.55 41.0 37.6 6.5 14.8 Low heat cement, volcanic sand
10.7 10.7

335 324 2 2
220 5.08 0.97 40 2.36 43.3 28.8 22.4 30.2 Ordinary cement, coral sand
14.2 13.7

331 271 2 1
222 5.87 0.82 65 2.55 40.1 36.3 23.1 34.6 Ordinary cement, volcanic sand
13.0 10.6

337 325 2
221 5.08 0.96 75 2.38 43.3 28.8 25.0 Low heat cement, coral sand
14.2 13.7

337 275 2 2
223 5.87 0.82 75 2.59 40.1 36.3 12.1 27.0 Low heat cement, volcanic sand
13.0 10.6

399 327 z 2
224 4.17 0.82 65 2.39 41.8 27.8 28.0 35.3 Ordinary cement, coral sand
16.7 - 13.7

390 270 2 1
226 4.84 0.69 75 2.55 38.9 35.2 30.2 41.5 Ordinary cement, volcanic sand
15.3 10.6

402 329 2 2
225 4.17 0.82 90 2.41 41.8 27.8 21.4 31.1 Low heat cement, coral sand
16.7 13.7

393 277 2 2

227 4.84 0.71 100 2.57 38 8 35.1 17.7 33.6 Low heat cement, volcanic sand
15.3 10.8

1,2,3: Strengths are average of number of tests indicated, rounded to 0.1 MPa.

7 day strengths on 150 mm cubes

28 day strengths on 150 mm diam cyls.

TABLE V
SETTING TEMPERATURE TESTS -SERIES V
CONCRETE STRENGTHS (MPa)

Cement
Ordinary Cement Low Heat Cement
Sand 270 330 390 270 330 390
kg/m 3 kg/m 3 kg/m 3 kg/m 3 kg/m 3 kg/m 3

7 Days Cube Strength Coral Sand 14.7 22.4 28.0 13.2 - 21.4

Beach Sand 13.8 23.1 30.2 6.5 12.1 17.7

28 Days Cylinder Strength (MPa) Coral Sand 19.9 30.2 35.3 20.1 25.0 31.1

Beach Sand 20.6 34.6 41.5 14.8 27.0 33.6

All results were averaged from two tests. Cubes were cured in water. Cylinders were cured in water for 7 days then air dried to 28 days, and
tested dry.

24 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 12, No. 1, March 1982

 VINES CORAL DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE

cement. Test cylinders were cured in water for (e) Coral concrete showed no difference in 28 day
various periods before being air-dried or oven-dried strength whether cured for 3 days, 21 days or not
at 105C, and tested at 28 days. A close check was at all before being air dried. The volcanic ag-
kept on the weight of cylinders as they dried. gregate showed increasing strength with curing
time as expected.
Amongst others the following results were noted.
It was deduced that coral concrete is self-curing
(a) The coral concrete cylinders were oven dried to
owing to its high porosity and water storage
constant weight in 6 to 10 days; this state was
not quite reached in 26 days with rock aggregate capacity. However, failure strength was limited by
concrete despite a much lower water content. the aggregate strength and greatly reduced the
This is an indication of the relatively higher per- influence of water-cement ratio beyond a certain
meability of coral concrete. point.
(b) The amount of water evaporated from coral con- SERIES V
crete was about 50 per cent more than from the
other type, and indicated its higher porosity. This series of tests was commenced to determine
whether coral aggregates should be cleansed of
(c) Coral concrete was nearly 0.5 t lighter/m3 at 2.1 residual salts by washing. However, attempts to
t/m3 when made and it reduced to a little less measure the salt content with available facilities
than 2 t/m3 on air drying.
were not successful and comparative strength tests
(d) The 28 day strengths, tested under standard showed no significant difference. Efflorescence did
conditions were: not appear to be a problem.
(i) coral aggregate concrete 21 MPa, and
(ii) volcanic aggregate concrete 33 MPa. An initial test to determine comparative setting
temperatures was made and showed that higher tem-
peratures were reached in coral concrete. This was
28 found to be intriguing and Series V developed into an
examination of the heat release property of coral and
volcanic aggregate concretes.
26
28 Day Cy linder Strength (MPa )

Comparison of setting temperatures was made

24 using ordinary and low heat cement, three different
cement contents and sands of coral and volcanic
material with crushed lava coarse aggregate. Similar
22
workability was aimed at, but variations were ignored
to enable a standard mixing time to be used.
20
Relative costs of aggregates The concrete samples were made as 150 mm
Approx. unit rates April 1978
Coral aggregates WS S4/m3 (AS4.80)
cubes. A thermometer was placed in the middle of
18 20-9.5 mm each and read to 0.1 C every 10 minutes. Tests were
Passing 9.5 mm
Volcanic rock, crushed WS S10/m 3 (AS12) made in pairs on six different days, each pair allowing
20-9.5 mm
16 Passing 9.5 mm
direct comparison of the two types of sand with the
same amount and type of cement. The ambient tem-
peratures were not controlled but varied little, the
14 weather being showery at the time.
41 46 48 50 53 55
Cost (S Aust)
Details of the mixes and test results are given in
Fig. 4 Relative costs of concrete with coral and volcanic Tables IV , V and VI and the graphed temperatures
aggregates versus time are shown in Figs 5 , 6 and 7.

35
Temperature C)

30

270 Kg cement/m' of concrete

Air Temperature During Tests Time measured from instant
25
of water addition to mix
Test Start Max Finish a ordinary cement, coral sand
a) b low heat cement, coral sand
27" 31% 31'
c) c ordinary cement, beach sand (volcanic)
b) d low heat cement, beach sand
29' 32' 29'
d)

20 I
0 100 200 300 400 500
Elapsed Time (min)

Fig. 5 Setting temperatures v. elapsed time Series V (270 kg cement/m3 of concrete)

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol. 12, No. 1, March 1982

25
 VINES CORAL DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE
TABLE VI
EXTENT AND DURATION OF TEMPERATURE RISE DURING
SETTING OF CONCRETE: SERIES V
Ordinary Cement
Test 1
270 kg /m3
Coral 5.1C
100-420 min
Volcanic 2.8C
100-350 min
Low Heat Cement
Test 4
270 kg/m3
Coral 3.9C
160-440 min
Volcanic 2.4C
140-400 min
Test readings were taken in the middle of 150 mm cubes on wo samples of each concrete
simultaneously, in pairs on six different days. The results summarised above are means of two individual
results which in all cases agreed closely. The figures are strictly comparable only within each test.
OTHER TRIALS
Although coral provided much needed relief to the
sand supply problems, its limitations for certain con-
crete applications required alternatives. This was
particularly so for high-grade concrete such as used
in bridges. Various trial mixes were made for specific
jobs, and it was found that the best quality sand was
found in river and beach deposits of volcanic
alluvium. It was recommended that these deposits be
reserved for use in special concrete where high
strength and durability are necessary. A special
series of trial mixes was proposed to allow mix
design charts to be drawn up.
Some work was done on proportioning of
materials for concrete masonry blocks using coral
sand. The quantity of blocks required by the PWD
was small and it was found convenient to have the
laboratory make them in small quantities during spare
time or slack periods with a manually-operated block
machine. It was found difficult with this machine to
obtain a density high enough to give the strength re-
quired by Australian and other standards. It was
finally decided that a 3:1 sand to cement ratio by
weight would give an adequate product if the water
content was made fairly high; the density was very
sensitive to moisture content and the strength was
more dependent on density than water-cement ratio.
APPLICATION OF LABORATORY
TRIALS
As expected, the trials showed that the best
materials available for concrete were well-graded
river, beach and estuarine deposits of volcanic
materials. Fig. 8 indicates the strength versus cement
content relationships between concretes made with
various materials. The use of coral sand with crushed
dolerite coarse aggregate would ensure a great im-
provement in the supply of materials and provide
good quality concrete for most construction require-
ments in Samoa.
26
Test 2 Test 3
330 kg/m3 390 kg/m3
3.0C 4.1C
120-480 min 100-420 min
2.0C 2.7C
160-360 min 100-360 min
Test 5 Test 6
330 kg /m3 390 kg/m3
2.7C 6.0C
100-420 min 120-440 min
1.4C 4.2C
220-390 min 140-390 min
Results of the trial concrete mixes were widely
distributed in information bulletins, which gave mix
design charts and described the general properties
of concrete made with the various materials. Efforts
were made to improve concreting practice and
engender some understanding of the technology;
these were met with limited and slow acceptance for
many reasons, not the least of which was the low
level of technical background of construction staff.
Many problems could be traced to the equipment
in use for mixing and placing concrete. Although
water metering devices were fitted to the larger mix-
ers, these were invariably out of action. Water was
commonly measured by hand, in 'one gallon' paint
cans dipped from an open oil drum. No check was
made on the workability by slump test, and the
amount of water added was generally controlled by
advice from the placing team. Aggregates were
measured in boxes of 56.6 L capacity. On one job 66
L boxes, and on another 85 L boxes were used for
coarse aggregate with the 56.6 L boxes used for
sand. Of course the inevitable mix-ups occurred. The
shovelling of coarse aggregate into boxes was more
difficult than handling the sand and during long pours
it was not uncommon for a short measure of this
material to be batched. As batches were mostly made
with either one or two full bags, mistakes in measur-
ing cement were rare. The tendency, overall, was for
excessive use of cement in concrete.
Little could be achieved in improvements to
equipment; the workshops were fully extended to
keep motorised equipment in operation without
worrying about attachments of minor mechanical im-
portance. There was general inertia to the sugges-
tion of using 50 L boxes (a logical step when using 50
kg bags of cement), probably due to the pressure of
other work on carpenters. Improvements were
achieved in placing and curing of concrete and in in-
stilling an awareness of the need for better materials.
Concreting practice should improve slowly and with
due regard to the problems of technical staffing and
backup facilities.
AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 12, No. 1, March 1982
 VINES CORAL DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE

45--

40

28Day Cylinder Strength (MPa)

35 O

egz"
e "a`Nc31 Slumps from 60-90 mm
30
cpzIs
\CP
\''' a
co-s'e 2,\ 52'`\
25 sri` ates
A egg

Corm

20

A
A
15 1
260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420
Cement Content (kg/m3 )

Fig. 8 Comparative strengths of various concretes

On several occasions two concrete test cylin- (d) It loses more weight and at a faster rate as it
ders were taken from each of five or six batches of a dries out; it is inferred that the concrete per-
pour to determine the variation in quality, so that the meability is considerably higher and that
target strength could be designed with a realistic durability is reduced in certain applications.
margin above the required characteristic strength. (e) It reached higher temperatures in tests during
These tests gave a surprisingly low quality variation. the cement hydration period. As the high water
Errors in batching by volume generally caused ex- content would significantly increase the specific
cessive use of cement. Interest increased in testing, heat value of the plastic concrete it is inferred
particularly on large and more important jobs super- that more heat is generated than in normal con-
vised by expatriate consultants. The Building Section crete for the same cement content per unit
of PWD also showed much interest in improving con- volume, and the same workability.
crete technology. (f) It would be more vulnerable to damage by cycli-
cal wetting and drying and exposure to certain
In July 1978, the Special Projects Development substances; this arises from the inference of in-
Corporation imported a small batching plant and two creased permeability (see (d) ). The low diurnal
small transit mixers. This action should solve many of temperature range in Western Samoa, at least at
the quality control problems and further relieve the low altitudes, ensures that durability would be
plant workshops of much repair and maintenance on comparable with rock aggregate concrete for
the numerous small mixers in use. A concrete pro- most applications.
ducts plant was installed recently for use mainly in
(g) It is inferior in strength. If made with a mixture of
making culvert pipes. Results of the laboratory trials
coarse rock aggregate and coral sand, an ac-
allow mixes to be designed accurately for !patching
ceptable quality is obtained for most purposes.
by weight in these plants.
Concrete containing aggregates of coral is
suitable for use in low-load bearing conditions.
For strengths up to 20 MPa the cost of materials
is lower.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
It is concluded that the use of coral sand for con-
In comparison with concrete made of rock aggreg- crete in Western Samoa is desirable because:
ates, concrete containing coral has the following (a) it is abundant and cheaper than crushed rock
properties. sand;
(b) it relieves the burden of supply from natural sand
(a) It requires an unusually large amount of water to
give a desired workability. This is due to the high deposits on rivers and beaches, thus reducing
the environmental impact; and
absorption of coral materials. The concrete
volume contains up to 40 per cent of water as (c) it does not require alienation of land, an impor-
compared to 20 to 25 per cent for rock aggreg- tant factor in a country with a fast growing
ate concrete, with the same cement content and population.
workability.
The limited quantities of good quality volcanic
(b) It has a lower density. alluvium sand should be reserved for high grade con-
crete such as in bridge works, water reservoirs and
(c) It has a tendency to self-cure due to the high dams. The use of crushed lava sand is unnecessary
water content. This is an advantage in areas of and to be avoided on the count of poor quality and
low technology. excessive cost.

AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol. 12, No. I , March 1982 27

 VINES CORAL DETRITUS AS CONCRETE AGGREGATE

REFERENCES TRANSPORT AND ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY (1947). Design of concrete mixes.
Road Note 4. (Now replaced by TEYCHENNE, D.C. et al. Design of normal concrete
mixes. Joint Pub. of TRRL, Build. Res. Estab. and Cement Conc. Assoc. London, HMSO,
1975.)
VINES, F.R. and FALCONER, G. (1980). Experience with coral and volcanic road construc-
tion materials in Western Samoa. Aust. Rd Res. 10(1), pp. 32-38.

FURTHER READING VINES, F.R. (1976). The use of coral sands for the construction of the Vaitele access road.
Technical Report appended to July 1976 monthly report for Western Samoan-
Australian Workshop and Road Maintenance Project.
(1977). Use of coral sand in concrete. Technical Report appended to the July 1977
monthly report for Western Samoan-Australian Workshop and Road Maintenance Pro-
ject.
(1977-78). Materials Laboratory Bulletins 1 to 12. Issued from the Western Samoan
Public Works Department Materials Laboratory. Information based on laboratory and
field work, dealing with concrete, road pavement, aggregates, explosives, etc.

Mr Vines has worked in the materials

/---
investigation and testing field since
1940. He worked on the Kiewa and
Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric
Schemes until 1971 when he joined
the Snowy Mountains Engineering
Corporation at its inception. Since
then he has spent six years on road
construction and training projects as
F.R. VINES Materials Investigation Officer in In-
donesia, Western Samoa and
Bangladesh. Mr Vines' particular in-
terests are related to the occurrence,
production and use of construction
materials, especially those of poor
quality and unique properties, and the
development and application of
materials technology.

28 AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH, Vol 1 2, No. 1, March 1982