Introduction to Semiconductors UNIT and Semiconductor Theory UNIT OBJECTIVE tthe completion of this unit, you will be able to understand and apply basic semiconductor theory using circuits on the SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES circuit board. DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS Almost all electronic equipment today includes diodes, transistors, inte- grated circuits, and other so-called "solid state” devices. These components, are constructed from crystals of semiconductor material. They perform the many tasks necessary to generate and amplify signals for communication, to perform decision-making chores in computers, and to make possible such ‘common devices as "quartz" watches. Early electronic equipment was operated by the control of electron flow in vacuum tubes. Today, semiconductors provide the capability to control electron flow in solid elements. The term semiconductors isa more accurate expression for describing these devices than the phrase solid state, as we shall see. However, before you can understand how semiconductors operate, you need to understand more about the atoms in semiconductor crystals, ‘The arrangement of the electrons in any atom is very important. Physicists have shown that electrons remain in very specific orbits around their nucleus. These orbits are called rings or shells, and they exist at specific distances from the nucleus of their atoms, Shells have well-defined capacities and are filled from the inside out. The composition of the valence 19, oF outer shell, determines how the atom behaves in its relationships with other atoms. It also determines the electrical characteristics of the atom. Atoms of different elements have differing numbers of rings, but the ‘composition of the outer shell always determines whether a material is 2 conductor, a semiconductor, or an insulator. Figure 1-1 shows the simplified atomic structures of the elements germa- nium and silicon, These illustrations show only the valence ring electrons. because the inner shell electrons are not important to this discussion, Silicon and germanium form the basis of most semiconductor devices manufactured today. Both elements have four electrons in their outer shells, although the shells theoretically have a capacity for eight electrons. vatence___” BAND (2) GERMANIUM ATOM (8) SILICON ATOM Figure 1-1. Simplified atomic structures of germanium and silicon. 4Introduction to Semiconductors and Semiconductor Theory 12 When many atoms of silicon or germanium occur near each other, something interesting happens. Each atom seems to share its valence electrons with four of its neighbors. This apparent merging of outer shells develops strong bonds between adjacent atoms, resulting in the formation of, crystals, The sharing of outer shell electrons among atoms is called covalent bonding andisillustrated in Figure 1-2. Silicon and germanium atoms each form covalent bonds with four neighboring atoms; the shared electrons seem to complete the eight-electron outer shell of each atom. covatent ‘BONDS Figure 1-2. Silicon crystal showing covalent bonds. At room temperatures, crystals of pure silicon or germanium are neither good insulators ner good conductors. This is why they are called semiconductors. fan impurityhaving too many or too few valence electrons is introduced into a semiconductor material through doping, the resistance of the crystal will be reduced. For example, if atoms of arsenic or phosphorus (elements which have five valence electrons) are combined into a silicon crystal, four of the valence electrons from each atom will form covalent bonds with adjacent silicon atoms. The “extra” electrons provided by the impurity are not bound into the crystal structure, as shown in Figure 1-3, and they can be moved with much less force. These extra electrons, called free electrons, allow current to flow more readily than is possible through pure semiconductor material. The degree of resistance reduction in the doped material depends on several factors, most importantly the number of impurity atoms intro- duced into the crystal, Note that impurity atoms become a permanent part of the orystal's structure; only the free electrons can transfer a current through the material FREE ELECTRON ARSENIC ATOM Figure 1-3. Silicon crystal with arsenic doping (N type material).UNIT Aluminum and gallium are elements with only three valence electrons. When one of these impurities is incorporated into a silicon erystal, an incomplete covalent bond is formed in the region of the impurity atom. This missing link in the crystal structure acts asa positive charge and attracts free electrons, Because the attraction is small, an electron is moved with relatively little force. Ifthe electron comes from a nearby region of the crystal, ‘an unsatisfied covalent bond remains at that region If we could follow the progress of a single electron through a crystal, we would notice that a positive charge appears at each point vacated by the electron. These positive charges can be thought of as holes in the crystal, structure, as shown in Figure 1-4. These positive charges migrate through the crystal just as electrons do, but they fiow in the opposite direction. ALUMINUM ATOM HOLE Figure 1-4, .on erystal with aluminum doping (P type material). Although the introduction of impurities reduces the resistance of semi- conductor base material, an external force and a complete external circuit are required before a current will flow. The force may be generated by heat, light, or (mast commonly) an electrical voltage, Useful semiconductor devices are constructed from highly purified semi- conductor crystals that are treated, or doped, with precise amounts of impurities. Material doped with impurities containing excess electrons is called N type material, named for the extra negative charges. Ifthe impurity has too few valence electrons, the doped semiconductor is called P type material Electrons are the majority carriers in N type material, whereas holes are the majority carriers in P type material. In reality, you may consider electrons to be the active current carriers in either type of material, The labels referto the state of the crystal when no external force is applied—free electrons will not ordinarily remain in P type material, nor will holes remain in N type material when the external force is remaved. Only the so-called majority carriers remain Most semiconductor devices depend on PN junctions, which are formed when an N type anda P type impurity are introduced into adjacent areas of @ single semiconductor erystal. A diode, for example, consists of a single PN junction. Transistors have three layers and two junctions and may be manufactured in PNP or NPN arrangements. Figure 1-5 illustrates an ideal PN junction with electrons confinad to the N. type material and positive charges confined to the P type material. In practical devices, a few electrons migrate to the P type material ina region 13Introduction to Semiconductors and Semiconductor Theory 14 close to the junction, while a few positive charges move into the N type material. Because these relocated charges tend to neutralize the effect of ‘majority carriers on either side of the junetion, a narrow depletion region is created, as shown in Figure 1-6. JUNCTION POINT Nn P ++ ++ +t +H tht +4ee Figure 1-5. An idealized PN jun DEPLETION REGION Figure 1-6. A practical PN junction showing depletion region. Several semiconductor devices have been developed to perform specialized ‘tasks in electronics. Explaining all of these components is beyond the scope of this unit. For more detailed information, refer to manufacturers’ literature, textbooks, and reference materials, including the sources listed in the bibliography at the end of this volume. NEW TERMS AND WORDS amplify — to increase or magnify voltage, current, or power. anode — the diode region doped with P type material base — the center region of a transistor. The base is always doped with a ‘material opposite in polarity to the emitter and collector doping. It is usually very thin, bipolartransistor— a three layer transistor constructed by NPN or PNP doping: more commonly called junction transistors. Bipolar refers to the use of both N and P doping materials. cathode — the diode region doped with N type material collector — the end of a transistor opposite the emitter. Physically, the collector area is usually the largest area of a transistor because it is ‘the region where most power is dissipated. covalent bond — the linkage that occurs between the outer electron rings of atoms under certain conditions, Covalent bonds can be formed between atoms of the same material or between atoms of different materials (such as hydrogen and oxygen to form water).UNIT 1 depletion region — an area very close to @ PN junction where a few ‘charges from adjoining areas tend to cross the border and neutralize each other. diodes — semiconductor devices consisting of P type material and N type material doping — the deliberate introduction of a specific type of impurity into very pure base material. Doping is accomplished by many different processes, but it is always carefully controlled to produce semi conductors with specific properties, emitter — the end of a transistor opposite the collector. The emitter is doped with the same type of impurity as the collector. field-effect transistors (FETs) — a family of transistors having one PN junction or no junction at all. Field-effect transistors differ in operating principles from the junction (bipolar) transistors described in this volume. free electrons — "extra" valence ring electrons that are not incorporated into covalent bonds. These electrons result from doping pure base material with an N type impurity, and they act as current carriers in N type semiconductor material. gain — a measurement of amplification expressed as the ratio of circuit, ‘or device output to input. holes — positive charges in semiconductors resulting from incomplete covalent bonds. Holes occur when pure base material is doped with a P type impurity. junction transistors — transistors constructed with two junctions in NPN or PNP configurations. Do not confuse this term with junction field-effect wansistors, which are completely different devices, light-emitting diode (LED) — a diode constructed to release energy in ‘the form of light when supplied with an electric current. The materials Used in the construction of an LED determine the color and brightness of the light, majority carriers — charges deliberately introduced into semiconduc- tors to act as current carriers. Electrons are the majority carriers in N type material; holes are considered to be the majority carriers in P type material. N type material — pure semiconductor material which has been doped with an impurity that introduces free electrons into the semiconduc- tor. The atoms of the doping material, referred to as donor material in some texts, usually have a valence ring that contains one electron more than those required to complete covalent bonds with base material atoms. P type material — pure semiconductor material which has been doped ‘with an impurity that introduces apparent positive charges (holes) into the semiconductor. The atoms of the doping material, called acceptor material in some texts, usually have a valence ring that lacks one electron from those necessary to complete covalent bonds with base material atoms. 15Introduction to Semiconductors and Semiconductor Theory PN junction — the point where P type material and N type material meet. PN junctions form the active regions of diodes, transistors, and most other types of semiconductors. semiconductor —a material, usually silicon or germanium, doped with impurities to createa compound whose electrical resistance is greater than that of conductors but less than that offered by insulators, Semiconductors are usually designed with one or more PN junctions and offer the ability to control the flow of an electric current. transistors — devices consisting of NPN or PNP semiconductor layers. Transistors allow a small current to control the flow of a larger current. valence ring — the outermost electrons surrounding the nucleus of any ‘atom. These electrons interact with the valence electrons of neigh- boring electrons and are the main influences on the electrical characteristics of the element zener —a diode designed to maintain a relatively constant voltage drop ‘over a range of current flows. Zeners are supplied in the same packages as “ordinary” diodes, but they operate in a different way. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED F.A.C.ET. Base Unit Power supply, 15 Vdc (2 required) SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES Circuit Board MEASUREMENT TOLERANCES Nominal values have been determined for all measurements in this unit. Measured values will differ from nominal due to normal circuit and instrument variations, Your measurements in the following exercises will be acceptable if your power voltages and circuit measurements lie within the following ranges from nominal unless otherwise noted in a procedure step: External power source settings: +15 Vde = +3 percent -16 Vdc = +3 percent POSITIVE SUPPLY and NEGATIVE SUPPLY settings: Stated value +0.2 Vde Multimeter voltage and current measurements: +8 percent Multimeter resistance measurements: +20 percent 16Semiconductor Component EXERCISE 1 7 1 Identification EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to identify various semiconductor devices. You will verify your knowledge by locating several devices on the trainer, DISCUSSION Semiconductor devices can be grouped into many categories. The first classification is diodes. All diodes have a common characteristic: two electrical connections. Diodes are sometimes calléd two-terminal devices. The word diode includes the prefix di-, which means two. Most semiconductor diodes are constructed from germanium or silicon, although some very high-frequency diodes and certain other diodes are constructed with special materials or methods. Common diodes have a single PN junction, and an electrical connection is attached to each type of material. The P type material in a diode is called the anode, and the N type materials called the cathode. Figure 1-7(a) shows the physical construction of a common diode and Figure 1-7(b} shows its corresponding schematic symbol. Diodes are usually identified by the letters CR (such as CR15) on schematic drawings. — Js DEPLETION REGION FS re) earvons —7 noe SUNCTION (a) DIODE CONSTRUCTION e+ +0 +| ++ 4 caTHoDE ANODE () DIODE SCHEMATIC. SYMBOL CATHODE ANODE (OTe THE Z-SHAPE) (c} ZENER DIODE SCHEMATIC SYMBOL CATHODE ANODE (d) LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE SCHEMATIC SYMBOL Figure 1-7. Diode symbols.Semiconductor Component Identification Diodes are designed to perform specific tasks, The physical size of the semiconductor pellet and the outer package are made larger for diodes designed to pass high currents. Diode packages are constructed from plastic, glass, or a combination of metal and glass or ceramic. All diode packages are tightly sealed to prevent contamination of the semiconductor by airborne gasses or moisture. Figure 1-8 illustrates several diode packages. Diode packages identify the cathode end with a dot or band of color. High current diodes are usually stamped with a diode schematic symbol. © © ¥ CATHODE ~ caTHODE ——*]] “Lass SEAL (a) TYPICAL 1 AMP DIODE (0) TYPICAL, 3. AMP DIODE PLASTIC PACKAGE METAL PACKAGE co cuss seat [OP — care Nore syweo. —] CATHODE, J (WoTE LEAD LENGTH DIFFERENCE! (c} TYPICAL, 30 AMP DIODE (2) TYPICAL LEDs METAL PACKAGE PLASTIC PACKAGES Figure 1-8. Diode packages. 1aEXERCISE 1 . 1 The diode family includes some devices which have become more familiar by other names. For example, light-emitting diodes are usually called LEDs, and a type of constant voltage diode is commonly called a zener. Figure 1-7 shows the schematic symbols for these devices, and Figure 1-8 shows some typical packages for these devices. Note that zener diodes are in packages that are identical to those of ordinary diodes [Figures 1-8), (b), and {c)] and that the cathode of typical LED packages is the shorter of the two leads. ‘The second major semiconductor category, transistors, can be divided into two major families. Field-effect transistors are described in another volume; this volume provides information on junction transistors, or bipolar transistors. Junction transistors have three terminals and, in general, function by allowing one current to control. second current. Because the controlling signal can be weaker than the controlled current, transistors. have the very important ability to amplify signals, a property called gai The word transistor was formed by combining the word resistor with the prefix frans-, which means across or through. In effect, transistors operate by controlling current that passes through the resistance of a semiconductor. Junction or bipolar transistors are constructed from N type and P type silicon. ‘or germanium material joined into three regions. The two types of transistors can be N-P-N or P-N-P. Note that in either case, two junctions are present, as indicated by the dashes. The dashes are not usually used when describing transistor types—the transistors are referred to simply as PNP or NPN. Figure, 1-9 illustrates both types of transistors with their schematic symbols. As — JcouLector coLLector —>~ n -| BASE BASE eee EMITTER (e) NPN TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION _(b) NPN TRANSISTOR SCHEMATIC SYMBOL EF COLLECTOR COLLECTOR —e}+ p 4} ++ 4 Base = N=} BASE r++ EMITTER ely p+ eee EMITTER (c) PNP TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION _{¢) PNP TRANSISTOR SCHEMATIC SYMBOL Figure 1-9. Transistor symbols. 19Semiconductor Component Identification indicated on the figure, one end of the transistor is called the emitter, the middle region is called the base, and the other end is called the collector. Each of these elements of a transistor has an electrical connection to the outside of the package. Note that NPN transistors are schematically drawn with the emitter arrow pointing away from the base, while PNP transistors have the emitter arrow pointing toward the base. Because many packages are available for transistors, stating a simple rule for determining which lead is the base, which lead is the emitter, and so forth, would be nearly impossible. The only sure way to identify the leads of, an unfamiliar transistor is to refer to manufacturers’ diagrams or to standard packaging diagrams, You must confirm transistor lead connections, for a transistor connected improperly into a circuit can be destroyed, Like diodes, transistors are designed for specific applications. Power transistors are physically larger than transistors designed to operate at low power levels. Some transistors are designed to work well at very high frequencies, while still others are designed for high voltage circuits. Transistors are usually identified by the letter Q (such as Q7) on schematic, drawings. Transistor packages are made from plastic or metal/glass combinations. They are tightly sealed for the same reasons diode packages are tightly sealed. Figure 1-10 shows @ selection of transistor packages; many other packages are also available. = BASE COLLECTOR @) EMITTER (a) SMALL SIGNAL TRANSISTOR (o} SMALL SIGNAL TRANSISTOR PLASTIC PACKAGE METAL PACKAGE, LN) l ny go 8 | eac (e) MEDIUM POWER TRANSISTOR (a) HIGH POWER TRANSISTOR {40.100 WATTS) (00-300 WATTS), PLASTIC AND METAL PACKAGE METAL PACKAGE Figure 1-10. Transistor packages.EXERCISE 1 o 1 PROCEDURE 1 Locate the SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES circuit board. You do not need to turn on the power sources or connect the circuit board to the base unit for this procedure, What type of packaging material is used for the diodes in the DIODES AND ¥% WAVE RECTIFICATION circuit block? Which end of CR1 is at the top in this circuit block? ‘What part of the symbol for CR1 in the ZENER DIODE REGULATOR circuit block differs from the symbol for CR1 in the DIODES AND ¥% WAVE RECTIFICATION circuit block? This difference indicates that the first diode is what kind of diode? What type of transistor is used in the TRANSISTOR LOAD LINES AND GAIN circuit block—PNP or NPN? ‘The schematic symbol for Q1 on the TRANSISTOR LOAD LINES AND GAIN circuit block differs from the symbol for Q1 on the PNP DC BIAS circuit block in that the emitter arrow in the latter circuit, blockis pointing toward what? What kind of transistors indicated by the arrow? What kindof diode does the symbol in the PNP DC BIAS circuit block. indicate?Semiconductor Component Identification 8, What packaging material is used for Q2 in the TRANSISTOR JUNCTION circuit block? CONCLUSION Inthis exercise, you learned that diodes and transistors are constructed from semiconductor materials, You located common diodes, a zener, and a light- emitting diode on the circuit board, and you noted the difference in their ‘schematic symbols. You located PNP and NPN transistors, noting that the ‘emitter arrow symbol points toward the base on PNP transistors and away from the base for NPN transistors, REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Semiconductor packages are tightly sealed to improve electrical conductivity. protect the semiconductor from contamination. maintain a high vacuum. prevent the escape of free electrons, 2. How many electrical connections do transistors have? a, two b. three cc. four d. five 3. The base region of a junction transistor is, between the emitter and collector. always N type material, always P type material. None of the above. 4, The two elements of a diode are the ‘a. anode and cathode. b. emitter and cathode. ©. base and cathode, 4d. emitter and collector. 5. A junction transistor is made with three junctions two doped regions. pure silicon or germanium, two junctions.Control of a Semiconductor EXERCISE 1-2 Switch EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to turn a light- emitting diode on and off using a transistor as a switch. You will verify your results by observing the illumination of an LED. DISCUSSION Transistors are used in thousands of ways to perform thousands of different tasks every day, Transistors in a television receiver are used to amplify the antenna signal, which may be only a few millionths of a volt, until it reaches the strength necessary to control the picture tube display. Transistors in computer circuits can perform millions of arithmetic operations in a single second. In short, transistors can perform so many jobs that an attemptto list just the “regular” uses of these devices would require hundreds of pages. ‘Once you learn how transistors operate, however, you will easily understand from a few basic rules how even complicated circuits function. In this exercise, we won’ttry to explain the operation of a transistor; instead, we will demonstrate how a transistor may be used to switch a current on or off. A second concept that will be demonstrated is the use of a light-emitting diode (LED) to transform an electric current into visible light. Incandescent lamps produce light by heating a wire (the filament) to a very high temperature in a glass bulb filled with an inert gas. Because LEDs produce light at low temperatures and without delicate filaments, they are very long-lasting. A complete understanding of how an LED operates requires a study of quantum mechanics, but you can easily understand the basic idea of an LED without knowing any special physics (just as you can use a light bulb without understanding all the principles of electricity). ‘The electrons in an atom normally are found at specific, stable energy levels. The electrons in the atoms of an LED are temporarily excited into higher energy levels by the flow of an electric current. When these electrons return to their stable energy levels, they release the extra energy in the form of tiny packets of light called photons. Individually, photons represent such tiny amounts of light that they would be invisible except to very sensitive measuring equipment. In an LED, hundreds of millions of electrons continuously switch back and forth between stable and excited levels, and easily visible light is produced The materials and doping concentrates are selected to maximize light production in an LED; otherwise, an LED differs very little from an ordinary diode. The packaging material for LEDs is clear or tinted translucent plastic, or glass so that, of course, the light is not blocked from view. Although the packaging is usually tinted to emphasize a color, the color is primarily determined by the materials used to manufacture the diode. PROCEDURE 1. Adjust the de power sources to+15 Vie and -15 Vde. Turn the power sources off. Insert the SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES circuit board into the base unit. Do nat turn on the power sources at this time,Control of a Semiconductor Switch A Locate the PNPDC BIAS circuit block, and connect the circuit shown in Figure 1-11(a). ar Rt at ar at ro) Figure 1-11, Transistor switch—LED demonstration circuit. ‘Turn the power sources on. Is the LED on or off? Move the two-post connector as shown in Figure 1-11(b). Is the LED on or off? Inserting the two-post connector in step 4 provided a current to the base of Q1. Is the transistor on or off when base current is provided? Observe the LED as you insert and remove the two-post connector a few times. Can you compare the operation of the transistor with an electrically controlled switch? During a later study of this circuit, you will find that the current into the base through R1 [when the two-post connector is inserted as in Figure 1-11(b)] is about 1.4 mA. The current through the LED and the collector of Q1 is about 13 mA when the transistor is on. Does the transistor also provide current amplification?EXERCISE 1 e 2 8. Donotturn off the power sources. The F.A.C.E.T. setup will be used for a review question. CONCLUSION In this exercise, you observed a transistor operating as 2 switch by noting that current flowed through the transistor’s collector and the LED when base current was provided to the transistor. When base current to the transistor was removed, the transistor was switched off and the LED was off, You also concluded that a transistor can act as an amplifier because @ small base current can control a larger collector current. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Locate the PNP DC BIAS circuit block on the SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES circuit board. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1-12 and note that the LED is on. Place CM switch 10in the ON position to connect the base of Q1 to its emitter. The LED goes out because no current flows through R1 the current through R1 is diverted to common. Q1 has been shorted from collector to emitter. None of the above, A tt: Re a RI Figure 1-12. Transistor — LED review circuit. Turn CM switch 10 and the power sources off. Remove all circuit board connections. 2. The color observed when an LED is lit is a. always red. b. primarily determined by the current flow. c. primarily determined by the package color. d. primarily determined by the materials used in the diode.Control of a Semiconductor Switch ‘The primary purpose of Q1 in this exercise is to a, switch current on or off b. limit the current through the LED. ¢. increase the current through the LED. d. None of the above, An LED produces light because a. a small filament glows when current flows. b. the semiconductor gets very hot. . photons are emitted as electrons release energy. d._ it is made of fluorescent materials. Compared with incandescent lamps, LEDs are a, more resistant to breakage. b. cooler in operation, c. longer lasting d._Allof the above,UNIT TEST 1 Transistor junctions can be compared to diode PN junctions. pure semiconductor crystals. zener diodes, All of the above. High power transistors are physically large. physically small, not available. two-terminal devices, A zener diode is a type of a. constant current device. b. constant voltage device. c. light-emitting device. d. three-terminal device. You can distinguish an NPN transistor from a PNP transistor on a schematic drawing by noting the size of the symbol outline. shape of the cathode symbol. direction of the emitter arrow. width of the base symbol. You can distinquish a zener diode from an ordinary diode ona schematic drawing by noting the size of the symbol outline, shape of the cathode symbol direction of the emitter arrow. width of the base symbol. The emitter of @ PNP transistor is constructed from P type material N type material pure silicon pure germanium, The anode of a diode is constructed from P type material N type material. either P or N type material. pure silicon or germanium. (continued on next page) v78. In order to identify the base lead of a transistor with absolute certainty, you must a. remember a simple rule. b. refer to a diagram, c. locate the shortest lead. d._ identify the collector lead. 9. The reference designation CR in a parts list indicates that the component is some type of a. transistor. b. resistor. c. diode. d. capacitor. 10. If the base current to a junction transistor is removed, the transistor is a. on if the transistor is PNP. b. on if the transistor is NPN. c. permanently damaged. d. None of the above,