Because of the decisive role that luminaires play in the overall efficiency of the lighting system and its

ability
to satisfy the design intent and owners operational needs, designers must select luminaires carefully, taking
into account many factors. These include efficiency, components, construction, optical and glare control,
distribution pattern, aesthetics and architectural integration, ease of installation and maintenance, special
concerns such as safety and hazardous conditionsto name a few! Once the application needs are
understood, the right combination of these factors can be determined and good luminaire candidates
identified.

This section begins with an in-depth discussion of the photometric report, a staple tool that provides
standardized testing data describing a given luminaires light distribution, which can be used in lighting
design calculations. Using the photometric report, the designer can quickly analyze the direction and
intensity of light emitted by the luminaire, and determine how much light will be delivered to task and space
surfaces. The designer can also determine spacing criteria for some interior luminaires, luminaire and overall
application efficiency, and the likelihood of the luminaire producing offensive direct glare to users. Because
photometric reports do not take into account light loss factors such as ballast factor, these are provided and
explained so that proper adjustments can be made.

Besides photometric performance, other selection criteria are also critically important, including ease of
maintenance, cost and sustainability aspects such as durability of materials and components, luminaire
recycling, packaging waste and use of energy and toxic materials in manufacturingall of which are
explored in this section. Aspects that are particularly important for new solid-state products (such as LED
luminaires) are thoroughly explored, such as glare, color and thermal management.

Performance Criteria
Lighting specifiers have the confusing task of choosing among the vast number of luminaires on the market.
Advanced lighting design involves evaluating the luminaires construction, ease of installation, durability and
performance against the lighting quality criteria.
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Photometric Data
"Photo" means light; "metric" means measurement. Photometric data describe the luminaires light
distribution, the direction and intensity of light emitted by a luminaire. This information is used in lighting
design and calculations.
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Maintenance & Durability

The most beautiful, energy-efficient lighting system will soon be worthless if it cannot be easily maintained.
It makes no sense to mount a luminaire with short lamp life over a staircase, where relamping requires
expensive scaffolding. Street lighting with an historic look will soon be replaced with more common cobra
heads if the utility maintenance person cannot get his or her gloved hand into the optical chamber to
unscrew the burned-out lamp.
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Luminaires & Sustainability

Although energy consumption has the greatest overall impact to the environment with regard to lighting
 use, there are other sustainability issues to consider when selecting a luminaire.
More

LED Luminaire Issues

Light emitting diodes (LED) or solid state lighting (SSL) can often be evaluated with many of the same tools
and guiding principles used for traditional non-LED source technologies. There are, however, unique
aspects of SSL luminaires that do require evaluation when they are considered for any particular
application.
More

Cost Strategies
Energy-efficient lighting can be a hard sell because the initial cost of purchasing and installing the lighting
equipment and controls is likely to be higher than the cost of a less-efficient system.
More

Contents

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1 General Performance Criteria

2 Photometric Data

3 Cost Strategies

4 Maintenance & Durability

5 Manufacturing Waste & Disposal Issues

Luminaire selection should not be based solely on their efficiency since some additional issues have to be
considered emphasizing comfort and ambiance. Thus selection criteria should include:

Luminance distribution on the surfaces. Harsh shadows, non-alignment with architectural details,

disturbing scallops should be avoided. (see Figure 1)

Illuminance distribution on the working surface. Sufficient light levels to perform the task are needed

with necessary uniformity ratios.

Visual comfort. Direct or reflected should have to be avoided by proper selection of luminaire

photometric properties. Flicker should minimized as well.

Appearance of luminaires. Aesthetic integration with building interior image

Modeling. Enhancing 3d appearance of objects using a combination of direct and diffuse lighting. (see

Figure 2)

Efficiency including possible use of sensors to reduce operation time or emitted light flux.

Maintenance easiness with relocation abilities when task position changes are expected

On top of the above mentioned criteria all luminaires should comply with a set of standards regarding safety
requirements. Thus all luminaires can classified to different categories according to:

1. Luminus flux distribution

2. Protection against solid objects, liquids and mechanical impact (the last one is usually omitted) also
known as IP rating.

3. Degree of flammability

4. Electrical protection
Photometric Data

Fig.1

Selecting luminaires can be a tedious process with the designer trying to find the optimum solution combining
desired light levels and distribution, glare reduction, energy efficiency and cost. Luminaire's photometric report
is used to shorten this process by narrowing possible choices. Key characteristic is a graph presenting
luminaire's intensity distribution (photometric curve, polar intensity curve) in cd/klm permitting direct comparison
of various types of luminaires even if different lamp wattages have been used. For simplicity usually only
longitudinal and transverse distributions are presented on a 2D graph (see Figure 1). The shape of the curve can
help the design to select a narrow or a wide beam luminaire. High intensity values in angles between 0-30
degrees can cause veiling glare while above 60 direct glare issues might arise

Other diagrams that can be presented in photometric reports are:

Fig.2 Illuminance Cone Diagram

Cartesian, instead of polars, especially for floodlights since the represent more efficiently beam

characteristics.

Illuminance cone diagrams for presenting spotlight maximum illuminance in relation to distance

together with the beam diameter. The latter is defined according to beam's angle at which light intensity is
50% of the peak intensity. (see Figure 2)

Isolux diagram with the distribution of illuminance on a reference plane and specific luminaire mounting

position

Other photometric data are:

Utilization factors denoting light flux percentage that reaches working plane. Manufacturers provide

these factors for various combinations of room indexes and surface reflectances.

Luminaire's Maintenance factors

Maximum spacing to height ratio for both transverse and axial directions

Luminaire's efficiency

Glare metrics
Cost Strategies

Cost effective building is probably easiest to tell than to design it. Firstly because there are various
interpretations of cost-effectiveness and secondly because building industry is guided mainly by minimum
initial cost approach.

Among various alternative solutions concerning lighting schemes which are equal in terms of efficiency and
initial cost , the more cost-effective is the one that has the lower life-cycle cost. Thus a proper economic
method based on life-cycle cost analysis can offer comparison of the possible solutions based upon net present
value. Although the method is solid it is often quite difficult to estimate accurately real costs or in many cases,
where quality issues are involved , perks cannot weighted promptly.

For example an underestimation of some costs may lead the design team to a solution that cannot
characterized as cost-effective. Such costs are in relation to:

Specific constructions due to seismic protection

Asbestos false ceiling

Necessary wiring

Prior upgrade of the lighting system

Among benefits, HVAC savings should be estimated in detail as well as any possible impact in productivity.
During the initial phase of the selection activity simple economic performance measures such as Payback
Period or Return Of Investment can be used. If the lighting investment under examination has negative ROI or
there are alternatives with higher values of ROI then this investment should not be undertaken.

Maintenance & Durability

Lighting systems maintenance should be performed with easiness and simplicity and this should be taken into
account during the initial design phase. That affect not only luminaire selection but their placement as well
since use of excessive scaffolding to replace a small number of lamps is not cost-effective. Problems in minor
components such as sockets and/or wiring might cause problems due to corrosion and the difficulty that might
cause during regular service actions (e.g. relamping). Lack of maintenance can have a serious impact on
lighting quality affecting peoples productivity in office environment. The best method to maintain proper light
levels and designed uniformity is a maintenance schedule which will prevent light loss due to:

Lamp lumen depreciation

Lamp and ballast failures. Lamp failure rate is related to lamp operating time between starts, ballast

type and installation. Ballasts have larger life expectancy than lamps but this can reduced significantly if
there is an increase in operating temperature.

Dirt accumulation on lamps and luminaires

Reduction of room surfaces reflection factors due to dirt.

All the above mentioned parameters should be carefully predicted in order a proper maintenance strategy to be
developed. For large installations group relamping usually occurs at 70% of lamps rated life matching the costs
with budget allocation a year before.

Durability depends on the materials used for luminaire construction. See 5.3.4 for more information on
degradation of luminaire properties due to corrosive environments. Cleaning should be performed with products
that dont deteriorate luminaires parts or cause secondary effects like development of static electricity in
plastics (which in turn increases dirt accumulation).

Manufacturing Waste & Disposal Issues

During the production line of a modern luminaire there are waste material that have to be handled with caution.
The same applies when a lighting system has reached the end of service life and need to be disposed. Many
light sources contain hazardous materials and these may be harmful to both environment and man if an
improper waste management strategy is followed.

Toxic substances that is possible to be found in a luminaire are:

Toxic solvents in housing paints

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) containing ballasts

Mercury and lead in discharge lamps (fluorescent, metal halide, mercury vapor etc)
Recycling is the proper environmental method to treat lighting waste. There are specialized organizations for
this task. Another important fact is the waste caused by luminaire packaging. Cardboard packaging and
cornstartch foam pellets can be recycled easily.

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Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) Lift Drive

Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) Lift Drive employs frequency inverter technology which
regulates input voltage and frequency throughout the journey, drawing much less current during
acceleration and deceleration.

Operating characteristics of different motor drives.

When compared with other modes of drives, one can see that the VVVF drive offers low starting
current (approximately 1.8x of the rated current), high power factor (i.e. better efficiency in power
supply) with good ride quality and floor leveling. It can reduce motor starting currents by as much as
50 to 80% compared with conventional motor drives. Further, wear and tear of the equipment can
also be less during start/stop of the motor by using VVVF motor drive.
One example in Hong Kong using VVVF technology can be found at Po On Market and WSD Staff
Quarters at Kwai Fong. It has been shown that this low noise level drive enables over 40% of energy
saving with improved riding comfort.

A local example of VVVF drive in lift application.

An adjustable speed drive (ASD) is a device used to provide continuous range process speed
control (as compared to discrete speed control as in gearboxes or multi-speed motors).

An ASD is capable of adjusting both speed and torque from an induction or synchronous
motor.

An electric ASD is an electrical system used to control motor speed.

ASDs may be referred to by a variety of names, such as variable speed drives, adjustable
frequency drives or variable frequency inverters. The latter two terms will only be used to
refer to certain AC systems, as is often the practice, although some DC drives are also based
on the principle of adjustable frequency.

drive refers to the electric ASD

Application concerns in connecting electric or mechanical ASDs have similar effects on the
driven load, and these are covered in this guide.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRIVES
Adjustable speed drives are the most efficient (98% at full load) types of drives. They are
used to control the speeds of both AC and DC motors. They include variable
frequency/voltage AC motor controllers for squirrel-cage motors, DC motor controllers for DC
motors, eddy current clutches for AC motors (less efficient), wound-rotor motor controllers
for wound-rotor AC motors (less efficient) and cycloconverters (less efficient).

Other types of drives include mechanical and hydraulic controllers. Examples of

mechanical drives are adjustable belts and pulleys, gears, throttling valves, fan dampers and
magnetic clutches. Examples of hydraulic drives are hydraulic clutches and fluid couplings.

In this guide, emphasis is on AC variable frequency drives, or inverters, which are used to
control industrys workhorse, the standard AC induction motor. This is because this motor is
replacing the DC motor for many applications. In addition, some information is provided on
the DC motor/drive system, since it remains the most suitable choice for certain
applications.

Drives may be classified according to size ranges (horsepower, voltage) for which
increasing specifications are required in designing an ASD driven system:
- Less than 500 HP.
- Medium sized (up to 2000 HP).
- Motors rated 4kV and up.

An output transformer between the drive and motor, common mode voltage is isolated
from the motor and put on the drive side transformer winding.

PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
Variable frequency AC drives are comprised of many electrical circuits and components
usually arranged within a cabinet that provides heat dissipation and shielding.

Drives vary greatly in size, depending upon their horsepower

and voltage rating and type.

Electrical cables connect the motor to the drive, which might

involve a considerable distance.

Small AC drives may be built on to their associated motors.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Both AC and DC drives are used to convert AC plant power
to an adjustable output for controlling motor operation.
DC drives control DC motors, and AC drives control AC
induction and synchronous motors.

Variable Speed Control

The simplest and least expensive way to control the speed of a process or piece of equipment is
to
operate all the equipment at full speed.
C Many applications require the speed of a process or piece of equipment to be varied.
C Prior to the advent of the AC Adjustable Speed Drive, many technologies have been used,
although each has its inherent advantages and disadvantages.

Types of Variable Speed Control:

Control Valves, Dampers and Vanes
Fossil Fuel Engines
Eddy Current Clutches
Hydraulic Couplings
Variable Pitch Sheaves
DC Solid State Controllers
AD Adjustable Speed Drives

AC Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs)

AC Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs) have become very popular variable speed control devices
used in industrial, commercial and some residential applications.
C These devices have been available for about 20 years and have a wide range of applications
ranging from single motor driven pumps, fans and compressors, to highly sophisticated multi-
drive machines.
C They operate by varying the frequency of the AC voltage supplied to the motor using solid
state electronic devices.
C These systems are fairly expensive but provide a higher degree of control over the operation
and in many cases, reduce the energy use enough to a least offset if not more than pay for the
increased cost.
C ASDs allow precise speed control of a standard induction motor and can result in significant
energy savings and improved process control in many applications.
C Can control the speed of a standard squirrel cage NEMA type B induction motor.
C Suitable not only for new applications, but also for retrofit on existing motors.

Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD) Function

AC Adjustable Speed Drives can be thought of as electrical control devices that change the
operating speed of a motor. ASDs are able to vary the operating speed of the motor by changing
the electrical frequency input to the motor.

C The speed an AC induction motor operates is given by the following equation:

Where: Frequency = Electrical frequency of the power supply in Hz.

Number of poles = Number of electrical poles in the motor stator.

C Motors speed can be changed by altering the electrical frequency, the # of poles, or both.
C Motor speed can be changed by altering the # of poles in a motor from 4 to 2:
4 pole motor operating on 60 hertz = 1800 rpm.
2 pole motor operating on 60 hertz = 3600 rpm.
C We really CHANGED speed rather than varied speed!
C Motor speed can be changed by altering the frequency of the electrical supply:
4 pole motor operating on 50 hertz = 1500 rpm.
4 pole motor operating on 40 hertz = 1200 rpm.
C By varying frequency, we can adjust the speed over a wide range or vary the speed precisely
using precise changes in the electrical frequency input to the motor.

Power and Torque

ASD's actually control both frequency and voltage simultaneously to maintain a constant
volts/hertz ratio which keeps current flow similar to full speed conditions.

C This allows the motor to draw full current at any speed and produce full torque as motor
speed changes.

C What happens to the Horsepower when we lower the speed and torque using frequency?

C Reduced Horsepower = Reduced Energy Use = Energy Savings!!!!!!!!!!!