Introduction and meaning of VVVF DRIVES A VSD works by converting the incoming electrical supply of fixed
frequency into a variable frequency output. This variation in frequency allows the
A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives
an electric motor by varying the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric
motor. Other names for a VFD are variable speed drive, adjustable speed
drive, adjustable frequency drive, AC drive, microdrive, and inverter.
Frequency (or hertz) is directly related to the motors speed (RPMs). In
other words, the faster the frequency, the faster the RPMs go. If an application
does not require an electric motor to run at full speed, the VFD can be used to
ramp down the frequency and voltage to meet the requirements of the electric
motors load. As the applications motor speed requirements change, the VFD can
simply turn up or down the motor speed to meet the speed requirement.
Electric induction motors run at fixed speeds and are ideally suited to
applications where a constant motor output speed is required. However, there are
some applications where varying motor output speeds are preferable, better
meeting the requirements of the load1. While equipment like conveyors may be
fine for a fixed speed, there are some applications which are better suited to
running at variable speeds, such as fans, pumps, winders and precision tools.
Historically, there have been a number of different methods of controlling
processes without changing the fixed speeds of the motors driving them. For
example:
1. The flow rate produced by fans and pumps can be controlled by opening
and closing dampers and valves
2. The speed of winders and stirrers can be controlled by gears and pulleys.
Although the flow or speed is reduced by using these methods, the
consequent power reduction of the motor is small and so the method is not as
energy efficient as it could be.
A variable speed drive (VSD), also known as a frequency converter,
adjustable speed drive or inverter, is an electronic device that controls the
characteristics of a motors electrical supply. Therefore, it is able to control the
speed and torque of a motor, achieving a better match with the process
requirements of the machine it is driving. So in applications where variable
control is desirable, slowing down a motor with a VSD does reduce energy use
substantially.
drive to control the way in which the motor operates a low frequency for a
slow speed, and a higher frequency for a faster speed. The output can also be
changed to enable the motor to generate more or less torque as required. So, the
motor and drive combination might be used for turning a large load at fairly slow
speeds, or turning a lighter load at high speeds, maximising efficiency.
VSDs are supplied in a wide range of sizes from 0.18kW through to
several MW and may be optimised to suit particular applications.
VSDs are typically 9295% efficient with 58% losses being due to
additional heat dissipation caused by the highfrequency electrical switching and
the additional power required by the electronic components. The losses are
usually more than compensated for by the savings at the motor.
The motor itself also has various internal losses and, if it is attached to a
transmission system of some sort (for example, a gearbox or pulley), then this
introduces further losses in the form of friction. So, typically, only 7580% of the
energy supplied to the motor system is transmitted to the enduse equipment.
The majority of these losses appear as heat.
A drive can be located inside an enclosure, some distance away from the
motor itself, or it can be directly attached to it. One thing to remember is that if
equipment is located in a particularly dirty or badlyventilated area, then it is
advisable to relocate the drive to a suitably protected area. This should be an area
which is clean, dry and of a suitable temperature to allow adequate cooling. Larger
drives can generate quite a lot of heat, and this needs to be removed or the unit
will eventually overheat and fail.
AC Adjustable Speed Drives can be thought of as electrical control
devices that change the operating speed of a motor. ASDs are able to vary the
operating speed of the motor by changing the electrical frequency input to the
motor.
The speed an AC induction motor operates is given by the following equation:
Synchronous Speed = 120 x Frequency / Number of Poles
Where:
Frequency = Electrical frequency of the power supply in Hz.
Number of poles = Number of electrical poles in the motor stator.
Changing the Motor Speed
Motors speed can be changed by altering the electrical frequency, the number of
poles, or both. Motor speed can be also changed by altering the number of poles
in a motor from 4 to 2:
4 pole motor operating on 60 hertz = 1800 rpm.
2 pole motor operating on 60 hertz = 3600 rpm.
We really CHANGED speed rather than varied speed!
Motor speed can be changed by altering the frequency of the electrical supply:
4 pole motor operating on 50 hertz = 1500 rpm.
4 pole motor operating on 40 hertz = 1200 rpm.
By varying frequency, we can adjust the speed over a wide range or vary the
speed precisely using precise changes in the electrical frequency input to the
motor.
Power and Torque
ASDs actually control both frequency and voltage simultaneously to
maintain a constant volts/hertz ratio which keeps current flow similar to full
speed conditions. This allows the motor to draw full current at any speed and
produce full torque as motor speed changes.
How do variable-speed drives work? Principle of operation
Although variable-speed drives can differ in design, they all provide the
same essential function - they change the fixed frequency and voltage of an
electric motor to achieve the required speed for the process in hand.
But how exactly do variable-speed drives work? The most common drives are
those applied to AC induction motors and their fundamental design consists of
four elements:
1. Rectifier Stage
This component transforms the incoming alternating current (AC) supply
to direct current (DC) and can also control the direction of power flow. The type of
rectifier used can vary depending on the type of performance required from the
drive. and The rectifier design will determine the effect of electrical harmonics on
the incoming supply.
A full-wave power diode based solid-state rectifier converts three-phase
50 Hz power from a standard 220, 440 or higher utility supply to either fixed or
adjustable DC voltage. The system may include transformers for high voltage
system.
2. Intermediate circuit
The rectified DC supply is then conditioned in the intermediate circuit,
normally by a combination of inductors and capacitors. Over 98% of drives
currently in the marketplace use a fixedvoltage DC link. Ie; Most modern drives
use a fixed-voltage DC link.
3. Inverter Stage
The rectified and conditioned DC back is converted into AC variable
frequency and voltage by the inverter. This is achieved by generating a high-
frequency pulse width modulated signal of variable frequency and effective
voltage. This is normally done with a semiconductor switch. and whilst there are
different types available, the most common is the Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor (IGBT).
Variable-speed drives are often referred to simply as inverters or inverter
drives.
Power electronic switches such as IGBT, GTO or SCR switch the DC power
from rectifier on and off to produce a current or voltage waveform at the required
new frequency. Presently most of the voltage source inverters (VSI) use pulse
width modulation (PWM) because the current and voltage waveform at output in
this scheme is approximately a sine wave. Power Electronic switches such as
IGBT; GTO etc. switch DC voltage at high speed, producing a series of short-width
pulses of constant amplitude. Output voltage is varied by varying the gain of the
inverter. Output frequency is adjusted by changing the number of pulses per half
cycle or by varying the period for each time cycle.
The resulting current in an induction motor simulates a sine wave of the
desired output frequency. The high speed switching action of a PWM inverter
results in less waveform distortion and hence decreases harmonic losses.
4. Control unit System
This element manages the entire operation of the VSD. the control unit
gives and receives signals to the rectifier, the intermediate circuit and the inverter
to correctly operate the equipment.
Its function is to control output voltage i.e. voltage vector of inverter
being fed to motor and maintain a constant ratio of voltage to frequency (V/Hz). It
consists of an electronic circuit which receives feedback information from the
driven motor and adjusts the output voltage or frequency to the desired values.
Control system may be based on SPWM (Sine Wave PWM), SVPWM (Space Vector
modulated PWM) or some soft computing based algorithm.
Schematic of a VSD
Why should I use a VFD? Benefits of VFD/ Advantages
1. Reduce Energy Consumption and Energy Costs : If you have an
application that does not need to be run at full speed, then you can cut
down energy costs by controlling the motor with a variable frequency
drive, which is one of the benefits of Variable Frequency Drives.
2. VFDs allow you to match the speed of the motor-driven equipment to the
load requirement. There is no other method of AC electric motor control
that allows you to accomplish this.
3. Optimizing motor control systems by installing or upgrading to VFDs can
reduce energy consumption in your facility by as much as 70%.
4. Additionally, the utilization of VFDs improves product quality, and
reduces production costs.
5. Increase Production Through Tighter Process Control : By operating your
motors at the most efficient speed for your application, fewer mistakes
will occur, and thus, production levels will increase, which earns your
company higher revenues. On conveyors and belts you eliminate jerks on
start-up allowing high through put.
6. Extend Equipment Life and Reduce Maintenance : Your equipment will
last longer and will have less downtime due to maintenance when its
controlled by VFDs ensuring optimal motor application speed.
7. Because of the VFDs optimal control of the motors frequency and voltage,
the VFD will offer better protection for your motor from issues such as
electro thermal overloads, phase protection, under voltage, overvoltage,
etc..
8. When you start a load with a VFD you will not subject the motor or driven
load to the instant shock of across the line starting, but can start
smoothly,
9. thereby eliminating belt, gear and bearing wear.
10. It also is an excellent way to reduce and/or eliminate water hammer
since we can have smooth acceleration and deceleration cycles.
11. Energy Savings
Improved Process Control
Reduced Voltage Starting
Lower System Maintenance
Bypass Capability
Multi-motor Control
Merits of using Variable Frequency Drives
Energy Saving
Primary function of VFD in industry is to provide smooth control along
with energy savings. The variable speed motor drive system is more efficient than
all other flow control methods including valves, turbines, hydraulic transmissions,
dampers, etc. Energy cost savings becomes more pronounced in variable-torque
ID fan and pump applications, where the loads torque and power is directly
proportional to the square and cube of the speed respectively.

There are three main types of load:

Variable torque. On loads of this type (for example, fans and pumps),
any speed reduction will save large amounts of energy (that is, a 20% speed
reduction will result in a 50% power saving). This is because the torque varies
with the speed squared, and the power varies with the speed cubed. This means
that variable torque loads offer the greatest potential for energy saving.
Opportunities to look for:
Fans
Pumps.

Constant torque. On loads of this type (for example, conveyors and air
compressors), torque does not vary with speed, and the power is directly
proportional to speed. In essence, this means that the power consumed will be in
direct proportion to the useful work done (that is, a 50% speed reduction will
result in 50% less power being
consumed). Although the potential energy savings from speed reduction are not
as large as that with variable torque loads, they are still worth investigating as
halving
the speed can halve the energy consumed. Opportunities to look for:
Conveyors
Air compressors
Crushers.
Constant power. On loads of this type (for example, machine tools and
centre winders), torque varies with speed, but power is constant. In essence, this
means that there will rarely be any energy saving for any reduction in speed.
Opportunities to look for:
Machine tools
Centre winders.
Figure 2 illustrates the relative energy saving potential of the three load types
explained above.
Increased Reliability
Adjustable speed motor-drive systems are more reliable than traditional
mechanical approaches such as using valves, gears, louvers or turbines to control
speed and flow. Unlike mechanical control system they dont have any moving
parts hence they are highly reliable.
Speed Variations
Beyond energy saving, applications such as crushers, conveyors and
grinding mills can use the motor and VFDs packages to provide optimal speed
variations. In some crucial applications, the operating speed range can be wide,
which a motor supplied with a constant frequency power source cannot provide.
In the case of conveyors and mills, a VFD and motor system can even provide a
crawl speed foe maintenance purposes eliminating the need for additional
drives.
Soft Starting
When Variable Frequency Drives start large motors, the drawbacks
associated with large inrush current i.e. starting current (winding stress, winding
overheating and voltage dip on connected bus) is eliminated. This reduces
chances of insulation or winding damage and provides extended motor life.
Extended Machine Life and Less Maintenance
The VFDs greatly reduce wear to the motor, increase life of the
equipment and decrease maintenance costs. Due to optimal voltage and frequency
control it offers better protection to the motor from issues such as electro thermal
overloads, phase faults, over voltage, under voltage etc. When we start a motor saved through slip recovery scheme.In this scheme slip power is first collected
(on load) with help of a VFD, the motor is not subjected to instant shock hence through brushes of WRIM. This slip power recovered is then rectified and
there is less wear and tear of belt, gear and pulley system. inverted back to line frequency and is injected into supply through coupling
transformer.The scheme is shown in figure below.
High Power Factor
Power converted to rotation, heat, sound, etc. is called active power and is Applications of Variable Frequency Drive
measured in kilowatts (kW). Power that charges builds magnetic fields or charges
capacitor is called reactive power and is measured in kVAR. The vector sum of the 1. They are mostly used in industries for large induction motor (dealing with
kW and the kVAR is the Apparent Power and is measured in KVA. Power factor is variable load) whose power rating ranges from few kW to few MW.
the ratio of kW/KVA. Typical AC motors may have a full load power factor ranging 2. Variable Frequency Drive is used in traction system. In India it is being used by
from 0.7 to 0.8. As the motor load is reduced, the power factor becomes low. The Delhi Metro Rail Corporation.
advantage of using VFDs is that it includes capacitors in the DC Bus itself which 3. They are also used in modern lifts, escalators and pumping systems.
maintains high power factor on the line side of the Variable Frequency Drive. This 4. Nowadays they are being also used in energy efficient refrigerators, ACs and
eliminates the need of additional expensive capacitor banks. Outside-air Economizers.
5. few more major applications are given below with explanations such as
Slip Power Recovery FANS
The fundamental power given to rotor by stator is called air gap power P g. PUMPS
The mechanical power developed is given by AIR COMPRESSORS
The term 'sP' is called slip power.

Fans
Although dampers are often used to regulate the output of fans, reducing
the speed of the fan is a much more energy efficient way of achieving the same
effect. This is illustrated by the graph below (Figure 4).

If the slip is very large i.e. speed is low then there is ample waste of
power, a common example is kiln drives of cement industry. This power can be
 With damper control, the input power reduces as the flow rate decreases.
However, under VSD control, the variable torque characteristic of the fan means
that the relationship between flow and the speed of the fan is such that the input
power reduces in a cube law relationship with the speed reduction. This can be
seen by the graph, where the energy expended using a VSD is significantly less
than that of dampercontrolled motors. It also shows one of the limitations of a
VSD, in that it will not normally be able to reduce the flow all the way to zero, but
will only slow down as far as 2030% (depending on the specification of the VSD
and motor).

This type of fan application could be used in industrial cooling,

commercial ventilation systems and combustionair control systems for boilers.

As well as being a more efficient use of power, using VSDs in fan

applications can also result in reduced noise in heating and ventilation airduct
systems due to the elimination of dampers. Making flowrate changes in a damper
system can lead to unwanted vortexes appearing in the airflow, which create
noise and vibration in addition to the mechanical noise generated from the
damper changing position. In a VSD system, making flowrate changes generally
only results in slight changes to the noise levels, which are normally undetectable
to the ear. Figure 5, overleaf, demonstrates this.
In the first diagram (a), flow is controlled by a damper, which is informed
by a sensor (in some applications this could be a flow meter). The motor
continues to operate at a constant speed regardless of flow required. In addition,
some kinds of dampers, such as butterfly valves, can cause adverse vortexes in the
flow.
In the second diagram (b), the pressure sensor is connected directly to
the VSD which slows the motor when required. As well as leading to better
automatic control of the motors speed, the adverse flow conditions are also
improved.
Pumps
In a similar way to using damper control in fan applications, using
throttle control for pumping applications results in a poor efficiency as the pump
is not being run at its design point. This is particularly true for applications with a
steep flow/head characteristic, where there is a high static head such as in
underfloor heating circuits, geothermal pumps and for small pumps. Further
details on this will be available from equipment suppliers.
Using a VSD to control the pump rather than using simple throttle control
can result in significant power and therefore cost savings. This is illustrated
in the graph, right, where the broken line indicates the power input to a fixed
speed device and the solid line indicates the power input to a VSD. The shaded
area represents the power saved by using a VSD for a given flow.
Air compressors
The potential for energy savings from using VSDs for air compressors will
depend on the control system being replaced. The following diagram (Figure 7)
illustrates the energy savings generated from fitting a VSD as compared to other
methods of flow control.
Most air compressors are a constanttorque load and, therefore, have less
scope for energy savings than fan and pump applications, which are variable
torque loads. Therefore, it is less likely to be economic to retrofit a VSD to a
compressor unless it is very lightly loaded for long periods of time.
Air compressors tend to be used for industrial rather than commercial
applications.

It is important to note that on systems with a high static head (for

example, boiler feedwater pumps), where the pump must overcome the inherent
resistance of the system before any flow starts, the benefits of using VSDs will be
slightly reduced. This is because the additional resistance affects the relationship
between the speed of the pump and the flow. Factor this into any calculations and
consult an equipment supplier for further information if needed.

Typical examples of pump applications for VSDs include moving hot water in
HVAC systems, boiler feedwater pumps and product flow pumps, such as
chemicals or inks.
Factors To Be Considered While Selecting A Variable Speed conditions. If the damper is restricting flow for long periods of time, it will confirm
that the current system is operating at higher loads than necessary, that is, that
Drive
the motor is running harder than is required to achieve the desiredeffect. In this
case, consider contacting a VSD supplier to assess the potential energy savings
VSDs may be able to offer significant energy saving opportunities for
resulting from installation of a VSD.
specific applications. However, when considering fitting a VSD to a motor, care
must be taken to ensure that the drive is really needed, that it is used in the best
What size of VSD is required?
place and that it is being used correctly to provide the best energy saving Before installing a VSD, make sure that the system is as efficient as it can
advantages. This section provides guidance on issues to take into account when be. By minimising wastage first, it will be easier to size the VSD correctly for
considering the installation of a VSD as well as providing further ways to save maximum energy savings. To determine the size of the VSD required, survey the
energy through the use of variable speed control. When considering fitting a VSD system to identify existing wastage and take the necessary corrective action. For
to a motor, there are a number of issues to consider: example:
Isolate any redundant legs in pipework/ducting
Type of torque
Repair leaks
Whether a VSD is necessary
Remove unused dampers, throttles and valves
Size required
Repair faulty valves/dampers.
Type of control needed
Potential savings. What type of control is required?
While it is possible to control VSDs manually, in the majority of
These are discussed below.
applications VSDs are used as part of an automatic control loop. In a control loop,
a transducer monitors the flow-rate or pressure and then a process controller (or
What type of torque load will be controlled?
the VSD itself) generates the correct speeddemand signal automatically. This
As mentioned previously, the largest energy savings can be achieved from
has the advantage of corrections to performance being made quickly, minimising
variabletorque loads such as fans and pumps whose outputs have been regulated
wastage and maximising the energy savings. The decision on the type of control
in some way. Overall, the most appropriate applications for VSDs are those where
required should be made in consultation with the equipment supplier
the output is not 100% utilised by the process, such that the output of a pump or
fan is regulated, cycled on/off, recirculated or vented. Note that positive
displacement pumps are of a constant torque design and so may not realise as
How much energy and money will a VSD save?
A full costing exercise will reveal if a VSD will be viable. Gather as much
much energy saving from speed reduction. There may be some scope to achieve
data as possible on the existing fixedspeed system and work out approximately
energy savings in constanttorque load applications such as conveyors, agitators
how much energy it is consuming.
and crushers due to the directly proportional relationship of speed and power,
although a thorough examination will be required to confirm that savings would
A manufacturer will be able to help with calculating the potential energy
be made. In general, VSDs are rarely suitable for constantpower loads as they
savings most offer a monitoring service, where they will monitor equipment for
will be unlikely to save energy. Examples of this type of load are machine tools
a period of time before recommending a particular installation. They are then able
and traction control equipment, such as centre winders.
to calculate how much energy (and money) could be saved using the actual data
from the system.
Is a VSD necessary?
To determine whether a VSD is necessary, monitor existing equipment for
It may be that the reduction in speed may not be significant enough to
a period of time. The output of the fan or pump can be compared with the demand
provide any reasonable energy savings or that the installation of a VSD would not
required by checking the position of the damper during various running
be cost effective.
 Variable-frequency DRIVE - TYPES
There are three common types of VFDs.
Current source inversion (CSI) has been successfully used in signal
processing and industrial power applications. CSI VFDs are the only type that has
regenerative power capability. In other words, they can absorb power flow back
from the motor into the power supply. CSI VFDs give a very clean current
waveform but require large, expensive inductors in their construction and cause
cogging (pulsating movement during rotation) below 6 Hz.
Voltage source inversion (VSI) drives have poor power factor, can cause
motor cogging below 6 Hz, and are non-regenerative. Consequently, CSI and VSI
drives have not been widely used.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) VFDs are most commonly used in
industry because of excellent input power factor due to fixed DC bus voltage, no
motor cogging, higher efficiencies, and lower cost. A PWM VFD uses a series of
voltage pulses of different lengths to simulate a sinusoidal wave (Fig. 1 ). Ideally,
the pulses are timed so that the time average integral of the drive yields a perfect
sinusoid. The current method of choice to produce this waveform runs a triangle
wave and sine wave through a comparator, and outputs a voltage pulse whenever
the sine wave's value is greater than the triangle wave. The current electric
component of choice to generate the voltage pulse is the insulated gate bipolar
transistor (IGBT), although silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) can work as well.
In the near future, injection-enhanced gate transistors (IEGTs) will be used to
perform this task. Much more long term, memristors will probably become the
component of choice for this task.
What's the difference between a variable frequency drive (VFD) and a variable
speed drive (VSD)?
o A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD): is a drive that works on changing the
frequency of an AC motor, it always refers and can be used with AC drives only.
o A Variable Speed Drive (VSD): is a drive that works on changing the speed of a
motor by varying the voltage supplied to it regardless of its type, it always
refers to either AC Drives or DC Drives.
Variable Speed Drives
VSDs, also known as adjustable speed drives, works at different speeds to
help control the speed of the machinery that it is controlling. The ability to change
speeds helps when working on assembly lines, for example, because various parts
of the line may need to operate at different speeds. Additionally, not all
mechanical equipment is going to work at the same speed so a variable speed
drive can help. VSD types of drives can be mechanical, hydraulic,
electromechanical, or electronic.
It is also important to note that there may be a difference between a
variable speed drive and an adjustable speed drive. The adjustable speed drive
works within a preset range, but the operating speed on a variable speed drive
can be adjusted outside of those limits.
Variable Frequency Drives
VFDs operate equipment at different speeds as well, but it by varying the
voltage and/or frequency of the electric motor. This type of drive is beneficial
because it allows machinery to run at lower than full speed. This provides cost
efficiency and reduces energy consumption. Additionally, using a VFD may help to
improve the quality and lifetime of the equipment and can decrease production
costs.

As you can see, there are some differences between a VSD and a VFD, but
there are also many similarities. At times, a variable frequency drive varies the
speed of the equipment that it is operating, so it can actually be referred to as a
variable speed drive as well. Not all variable frequency drives work this way.

Disadvantages OF VSD

Initial Cost
Motor Heating at low Speeds
Maintenance
Output Harmonics
Induced Power Line Harmonics