Controls for heating ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) cover a broad range of The development and use

e of computers and microprocessors has caused great

products, functions, and sources of supply. We define control as the starting and changes in the HVAC controls industry. Minicomputers were installed on jobs to
stopping or regulation of heating, ventilating, and air conditioning. Our concern collect data to provide centralized control. Then, microprocessors were used for
here is control devices and systems to control larger commercial and industrial remote data-gathering panels to gather data and provide direct digital control.
HVAC systems, not residential heating and cooling, except in a few cases where Computers are now used as on-site central controllers with operator interfaces and
residential controls crossover into light commercial controls. as computer assisted engineering (CAE) tools in the design of system programs,
databases, and documentation. Microprocessors are still used in remote data
The application of HVAC controls starts with an understanding of the building and gathering, yet also in small unit controllers and in smart thermostats.
HVAC systems, and the use of the spaces to be conditioned and controlled. The type
of HVAC system determines the control sequence. Several types of control products HVAC systems. HVAC systems are classified as either self-contained unit packages
such as pneumatic, electric, analog electronic, or electronic direct digital control or as central systems. Unit package describes a single unit that converts a primary
(DDC) can then do the basic control sequence. energy source (electricity or gas) and provides final heating and cooling to the
space to be conditioned. Examples of self-contained unit packages are rooftop
The way buildings are used determines the benefits you can obtain from additional HVAC systems, air conditioning units for rooms, and air-to-air heat pumps.
controls.
Central systems are a combination of central supply subsystem and multiple end
Background. At one time, draft dampers (followed by thermostat control of the use subsystems. End-use subsystems can be fan systems or terminal units. If the
dampers) controlled heating. The use of mechanical stokers for coal firing required end use subsystems are fan systems, they can be single or multiple zone type. With
another step in the use of control. When oil burners were introduced, the concept central systems, the primary conversion from fuel such as gas or electricity takes
of combustion safety control became necessary. This involved the sensing and place in a central location, with some form of thermal energy distributed
proof-of-flame in the proper time sequence of introducing draft, fuel, and ignition. throughout the building or facility.

The use of steam and hot water radiators led to the concept of zone control and There are many variations of combined central supply and end use zone systems.
individual room control (IRC). Forms of zone control included closed loop control The most frequently used combination is central hot and chilled water distributed
using zone thermostats and open loop control with outside conditions setting the to multiple fan systems. The fan systems use water-to-air heat exchangers called
rate of heat delivery to the zone. Both of these forms of control were used to coils to provide hot and/or cold air for the controlled spaces. Another combination
regulate the delivery of heat. The means of regulation included the following: central supply and end use zone system is a central chiller and boiler for the
Valves to control the flow of steam or hot water, controlling pumps to circulate hot
conversion of primary energy, as well as a central fan system to delivery hot
water, and controlling boiler operation. When IRC was used the central supply was and/or cold air. The multiple end use zone systems are mixing boxes, usually called
maintained and radiator valves were controlled by room thermostats. VAV boxes. The typical uses of central systems are in larger, multistoried buildings
where access to outside air is more restricted. Typically central systems have lower
The use of fans to deliver ventilation as well as heated air was controlled by operating costs.
dampers, which varied the source and volume of air. The typical control of unit
ventilators was by pneumatic controls and included the following features: Besides packaged unitary and central systems, there are a variety of special-
minimum outside air, discharge air, low-temperature lim, and thermostats with purpose systems. These include the following:
lower night settings activated by compressed supply pressure level. The increased
usage of air conditioning led more complex control sequences in larger systems to 1. Heat pump cycles on chillers that use rejected heat or tower cooling.
central monitoring and control. 2. Thermal storage.
3. Cogeneration of electricity and heat.
 Basic control. Basic control regulates the amount of heating or cooling Energy management programs originally in the central computer of a building
necessary to meet the load in conditioned spaces. Minimum outside air needed for automation system are now placed in remote data-gathering panels; or even in
ventilation is provided whenever a space is occupied. When outside air stand-alone DDC controllers. This has led people to use DDC to describe all
temperature is a suitable source for free cooling, it's controlled as needed at values microprocessor-based control systems' functions.
greater than the minimum.
Energy management application programs are different than local loop
The approach in packaged unitary equipment is to control the generation control and are named for their specific function, such as start or demand control.
of heating or cooling by space thermostats. The approach in central systems is to The considerations of which energy management application programs should be
control the delivery of heating and cooling by the end use zones to match the load used rely upon the type of building and HVAC system. For instance, optimum start-
in the space. The supply is controlled to match the load imposed by all the zones. A stop programs are not appropriate for a hospital that has 24-hour operation. Load
typical method of doing this is for room thermostats to control zones, and reset of supply temperatures is appropriate for systems that supplying heating and
discharge controllers to control central supplies. Discharge temperature cooling simultaneously, such as reheat systems or hot and cold deck mixing box
controllers control the rate of primary conversion (chillers or boilers), and systems.
pressure controls determine the delivery rate of the pumps or fans distributing the
central supply. In many cases there are multiple boilers and/or chillers and pumps, Optimizing. The concept of optimizing control is not only to control space
which are put on or off line as necessary to provide proper capacity. Those online conditions, but also to do it in a manner that minimizes the energy and costs when
are modulated as necessary to meet load needs. The controls to put units online different forms of energy are available. An optimizing strategy is generally to
and off-line would normally be applied to meet the system needs. improve the efficiency of primary supply equipment or to reduce the losses of
energy in end-use systems. The sizing of equipment is to meet maximum loads, but
Supervisory control. The role of supervisory control is to control the the equipment is usually run at less than maximum load. This means that the part
scheduling and interaction of all the subsystems to meet building needs. load characteristics of the equipment determines the efficiency in meeting a given
Supervisory control systems have many names; each used for a particular load.
emphasis. Among the names their acronyms are the following:
When there are multiple chillers or boilers, an optimizing strategy would
1. BAS: Building automation system. be to choose the most efficient equipment that has the capacity to meet the load at
any given time. Also, with some types of end use systems, energy wasted by
2. EMCS: Energy monitoring and control system. bucking heating against cooling can be minimized by resetting supply temperature
levels to be no more than is necessary to meet a given load condition. Another way
3. FMS: Facility management system. to optimize is to use the thermal storage of a building to make use of energy stored
at low cost and used when needed. Moving heat from one area of a building to
4. EMS: Energy management system. another can be an optimizing opportunity as well.

5. BAS: Building automation system. (The most generic of these terms.) These optimizing principles are used for specific types of HVAC. The
variable in all of these circumstances is the amount of heating or cooling load and
DDC (direct digital control), is sometimes used to describe everything a
the control action to make some change in the way a load is supplied. This process
computer or microprocessor-based control system does. The original use of the
has led to the use of the terms load reset and dynamic load control to describe this
term providing closed-loop control of local loops by a digital computer or
general approach to optimizing control. The selection of the most efficient
microprocessor.
combination of chillers to supply a cooling load has been called optimized chiller
selection.
We implement direct digital control in stand-alone panels in intelligent
data-gathering panels that are the remote panels building automation system.
 History of HVAC controls. Before World War II, the main suppliers HVAC
controls in commercial buildings were companies that promoted pneumatic
controls. The predominant idea at that time was that controls for commercial
buildings were too complicated to sell over the counter and had to be installed and
supervised by the controls manufacturer. This concept included having branch
offices with installers and service people.
Electric control systems for commercial buildings were modulating type
controls. They were sold on a supervised basis. When several other companies
entered the commercial controls market with electric and electronic controls, some
of their distribution was through distributors and branches. Some of the
newcomers, who started with electric and electronic controls, expanded into
pneumatic controls either by their own development or by association with foreign
companies.
It's important to study the location of the room thermostat or humidistat as to the
effect of conditions at the thermostat. Remember, the thermostat responds only to
what is going on at its location. If there is a ceiling diffuser blowing air at the
location where the thermostat is mounted, there is going to be cycling of the
system.
Sometimes installers and others are concerned about the way thermostats
and humidistats are mounted on the wall; that is, whether they should be mounted
in a horizontal or a vertical position. Generally, aside from writing on the unit's
face, either horizontal or vertical mounting is fine. There is, however, one
important exception: when the thermostat is electric and has a mercury bulb
switch contact. This type is common in residential and commercial buildings and
requires the thermostat to be mounted a certain way. Some of these require the
installer to use a level to mount it properly.

When computer-based supervisory control systems came to market, some Room thermostats and humidistats are devices that control automatic
larger companies with computer-based products entered the HVAC controls valves and dampers in a control system. These devices have built in sensors as well
market; but eventually gave up. As international business developed and as moving parts that control the device. An example is a pneumatic thermostat that
companies became multinational, some foreign-based controls companies has a bimetalic sensor and a relay. Usually the complete package is under one cover
expanded into the U.S. markets directly or through associations with smaller U.S. on the wall, and all action takes place at the thermostat. There are, however,
control companies. During the 1970s, some small companies evolved with limited sensors that are mounted under the cover in the room that have no actuators
product lines for energy management functions. When DDC became accepted, some (relays) under the same cover. They usually transmit the temperature information
small companies developed microprocessor- based DDC controllers and to another device at a remote location that does the controlling with relays, and so
supervisory systems. on. Normally this principle is used in electronic control systems involving a wire
wound resistor mounted under a cover that reads the temperature in the space and
The full line control companies that started out as major players currently transmits that information to an electronic controller in an equipment room.
remain as major players but with more competitors that have limited systems.
Some major HVAC systems manufacturers have acquired or developed control Often, there is confusion with the terms thermostat and sensor. The
capabilities. They market packaged HVAC systems with controls and supervisory concept of a sensor under a cover in the room is new and came about because of
control systems. Some companies provide products for specific applications. The the advent of electronic control systems. Room sensors are used with other control
selection of a source of supply should consider the life cycle needs and costs as well systems and are sometimes called transmitters. In the case of pneumatic controls,
as the track record of suppliers. the transmitters use a sensor and a special relay that transmits a pneumatic air
signal proportional to the medium being sensed. An example is a transmitter under
Room thermostats. The mounting of room thermostats and room a room thermostat cover that transmits an air signal based upon the temperature
humidistats has been the subject of much discussion, and for many years the being sensed in the room.
industry standard has been for the thermostat to be mounted near the door of a
room 5 ft from the floor. The problem is that if the room is full of children, the The transmitter may look like a thermostat, but it does no controlling by
thermostat is not controlling the temperature where the occupants are. itself: it depends upon a receiver controller in a different location to take the action
on the controlled device. The dials of these devices are only used for calibration,
and are not moved once they are. These transmitters come in standard ranges and
send out an a signal based on the medium being sensed. An example is a room
transmitter with a range of 30 DegrF to 80 DegrF that sends out a signal of 9 psi the
temperature being sensed is 55 DegrF. In this case, the transmitter produces a
signal of 8-15 psi as its sensed temperature goes from a low of 30 DegrF to 80
DegrF. Transmitters are not strictly sensors but are sometimes classified as such,
since they are devices that do not do the controlling themselves.
Dampers. Automatic dampers have two classifications: The parallel blade,
and the opposed blade. The parallel blade types were the first ones used.
The air that is being controlled can be considered an incompressible fluid
at pressures below 12 in. of water. Above that, compressibility should be
considered. Gases (air) can bend so that the volume will not be affected, and may
not be controlled at all. Air can easily stratify in duct. Therefore, a damper can be
considered a poor control device at best. At the same time, dampers can be as good
at control as valves, provided they are sized properly.
Smoke dampers, on the other hand, are not required by all codes. They are
manufactured by vendors that supply automatic dampers, and in some cases are
used as both control and smoke dampers. With these dampers, as with fire
dampers, there are codes that apply, but they usually are not as stringent as those
for fire dampers. Smoke dampers to stop the propagation of smoke and the
resulting panic in event of a fire. Generally, they are involved with the central
control and monitoring systems.
Manual Dampers. Manual dampers are an important part of the overall
system, in particular the ability to balance the system and assist the control system
to work better. They are used primarily to balance constant volume systems
correct amount of air is distributed to the various places at the rate. They can be of
the splitter type or the usual closure type. Splitter dampers try to split the air and
redirect it to various sections ductwork. Balancing dampers try to apportion the air
to the different sections of ductwork so the correct amount gets to the correct p all
times.

Parallel versus opposed blade dampers. Parallel blade dampers tend to
bend the air during the first few degrees of rotation as they go from full open to
closed, and thus do little controlling in the first 20%-30% of movement. They bend
the streams, rather than modulate them. But bending there are instances where
this bending of air is useful, as when mixing air streams.
Static control dampers. Static control dampers are different from the usual
control dam in that they maintain the static pressure in the duct work base the
action from a static pressure controller. Since static pressure is usually difficult to
control in a system, static control dampers need to be the best available for their
applications.

Opposed blade dampers are usually used where better control of the Damper motors. Damper motors are not motors in the true sense of the
airstreams are desired and we want to prevent large amounts of stratification in word, but the term has been used and has stuck with the industry. Damper motors
the ductwork. Some dampers are not used for control or to maintain comfort are are the devices (both pneumatic and electric) that operate the dampers in a system
used for safety. These are the fire and smoke dampers. from the control signal of a device.

Fire and smoke dampers. Fire dampers are put in the ductwork to stop the
spread of fires, and to confine any fires to one area of a system. As such, they need
to be made of rugged material that can withstand heat. They are seldom pivoted in
the middle like an automatic damper, although they can be similar. They are almost
always held in the open position by a linkage system that can be fused and is
designed to melt and close when the temperature reaches about 165 DegrF. The
closure is accomplished by springs or weights, and the dam must never be of the
type that can be easily opened during a fire situation. In all cases, the dampers
must meet the requirements of such organizations as the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) and Underwriters Laboratories (UL). The locations of the
dampers are clearly spelled out in most codes that apply to a particular type of
system.
 HVAC Control systems

Sensors
Resistance sensors are Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs)and are
used in measuring temperature. Examples are BALCO elements, Copper, Platinum,
10K Thermistors, and 30K Thermistors.
Voltage sensors could be used for temperature, humidity and pressure.
fig (1): HVAC control system elements Typical voltage input ranges are 0 to 5 Vdc (Volts direct current), 1 to 11 Vdc, and 0
to 10 Vdc.
HVAC control system, from the simplest room thermostat to the most complicated
computerized control, has four basic elements (see fig.1): Current sensors could be used for temperature, humidity, and pressure.
1. Sensors. The typical current range is 4 to 20 mA (milliamps).
2. Controllers. Temperature Sensors which include:
3. Controlled devices. 1. Bi-Metallic Strip.
4. Source of energy. 2. Sealed Bellows.

1- Sensors 3. Bulb & Capillary Sensors.

Sensor measures actual value of controlled variable such as temperature, Electronic Sensors which include:
humidity or flow and provides information to the controller. 1. Resistance Temperature Devices (RTD).
2. Thermistors.
Type of Sensors
3. Thermocouples.
Different types of sensors produce different types of signals as follows:
Relative Humidity Sensors which include:
Analog sensors are used to monitor continuously changing conditions. 1. Resistance Relative Humidity Sensor.
The analog sensor provides the controller with a varying signal such as 0 to 10V. 2. Capacitance Relative Humidity Sensor.
Digital sensors are used to provide two position open or closed signal 3. Temperature Condensation.
such as a pump that is on or off. The digital sensor provides the controller with a
4. Condensation & Wetting.
discrete signal such as open or closed contacts.
5. Quartz Crystal Relative Humidity Sensor.

Classification of Sensors Pressure Sensors which include:

Typical sensors used in electronic control systems are: 1. Variable Resistance
2. Capacitance
 Flow Sensors which include: 4- Source of energy
1. Orifice. Source of energy is needed to power the control system. Control systems
2. Venturi Tube. use either a pneumatic or electric power supply.

3. Flow Nozzles.
Aims of HVAC Control Systems:
4. Vortex Shedding Sensors.
5. Positive Displacement Flow Sensors. HVAC Control Systems are used for the following benfits:
6. Turbine Based Flow Sensors. 1. Lower energy cost.
7. Magnetic Flow Sensors. 2. Lower operations cost.
8. Ultrasonic Flow Sensors. 3. Increase flexibility.
Air Flow Measurements which include: 4. Ensure quality building environment.
1. Hot Wire Anemometers. Type of Control Systems
2. Pitot Static Tube. there are (5) different type of HVAC Control Systems as follows:
1- Direct Acting Systems
Liquid Level Measurements which include:
The simplest form of controller is direct-acting, comprising a sensing
1. Hydrostatic Sensors.
element which transmits power to a valve through a capillary, bellows and
2. Ultrasonic Sensors. diaphragm. The measuring system derives its energy from the process under
3. Capacitance Sensors. control without amplification by any auxiliary source of power which makes it
simple and easy to use. The most common example is the thermostatic radiator
2- Controllers
valve which adjusts the valve by liquid expansion or vapor pressure.
Controller receives input from sensor, processes the input and then
produces intelligent output signal for controlled device.
2- Electric / Electronic Systems
Controller Types:
1. Temperature Controllers.
2. Relative Humidity Controllers.
3. Enthalpy Controllers.
4. Universal Controllers.
3- Controlled devices
Controlled device acts to modify controlled variable as directed by
controller.
Controlled Devices Types
1. Control Valves.
2. Heating and Cooling Coils.
3. Dampers.
4. Actuators.
5. Pumps & Fans.
 Electric controlled devices provide ON / OFF or two-position control. In Pneumatic controls use clean, dry & oil free compressed air, both as the
residential and small commercial applications, low voltage electrical controls are control signal medium and to drive the valve stem with the use of diaphragms
most common. A transformer is used to reduce the 115 volt alternating current
(AC) to a nominal 24 volts. This voltage signal is controlled by thermostats, and can
open gas solenoid valves, energize oil burners or solenoid valves on the DX cooling, 4- Microprocessor Systems
control electric heat, operate two position valves and damper or turn on-off fans
and pumps.
A relay or contactor is used to switch line voltage equipment with the low
voltage control signal. An electronic control system can be enhanced with visual
displays that show system status and operation.

3- Pneumatic Systems

The most popular control system for large buildings historically has been
pneumatics which can provide both On-Off and modulating control. Pneumatic Direct Digital Control (DDC) is the most common deployed control
actuators are described in terms of their spring range. system today. The sensors and output devices (e.g., actuators, relays) used for
electronic control systems are usually the same ones used on microprocessor-
Compressed air with an input pressure can be regulated by thermostats based systems. The distinction between electronic control systems and
and humidistat. By varying the discharge air pressure from these devices, the microprocessor-based systems is in the handling of the input signals. In an
signal can be used directly to open valves, close dampers, and energize other electronic control system, the analog sensor signal is amplified, and then compared
equipment. The copper or plastic tubing carry the control signals around the to a set point or override signal through voltage or current comparison and control
building, which is relatively inexpensive. The pneumatic system is very durable, is circuits. In a microprocessor-based system, the sensor input is converted to a
safe in hazardous areas where electrical sparks must be avoided, and most digital form, where discrete instructions (algorithms) perform the process of
importantly, is capable of modulation, or operation at part load condition. While comparison and control. Most subsystems, from VAV boxes to boilers and chillers,
the 24-volt electrical control system could only energize a damper fully open or now have an onboard DDC system to optimize the performance of that unit. A
fully closed, a pneumatic control system can hold that damper at 25%, 40% or 80% communication protocol known as BACNet is a standard protocol that allows
open. This allows more accurate matching of the supply with the load. control units from different manufacturers to pass data to each other.
5- Mixed Systems computer to process the control functions as the controllers have their own
internal processors.. These microprocessors, communication network in addition
Combinations of controlled devices are possible. For example, electronic to central controller constitute what is called a direct digital control DDC system.
controllers can modulate a pneumatic actuator. Also, proportional electronic
signals can be sent to a device called transducer, which converts these signals into What is DDC?
proportional air pressure signals used by the pneumatic actuators. A sensor-
transducer assembly is called a transmitter. It is a control system that uses a computer or many computers linked
together via a network that controls the infrastructure of a building. DDC control
The definitions for Transducer and Transmitter will be as follows: consists of microprocessor-based controllers with the control logic performed by
software. Most systems distribute the software to remote controllers to eliminate
Transducer changes the sensor signal to an electrical signal (e.g. a the need for continuous communication capability. The computer is primarily used
pressure into a voltage) to monitor the status of the system, store back-up copies of the programs and
record alarming and trending functions. Complex strategies and energy
Transmitter is the electronic circuitry to enable a suitable strength management functions are readily available at the lowest level in the system
voltage proportional to the sensed parameter to be sent to a controller. architecture. The central diagnostic capabilities are also a significant asset.

Supervisory control (building automation) system The DDC is actually a distributed control system with several distributed
control components which are as follows:
The role of supervisory control is to control the scheduling and interaction
of all the subsystems inside a building to meet building needs with appropriate 1- Controllers
operator input.
Microprocessor based controllers in DDC system may be divided to two
Supervisory control systems have many names; each used for a particular types; Central (system) Controller and Dedicated Unit (Zone) Controllers as
emphasis. Among the names and their acronyms are the following: follows:

1. BMS: Building management system A- The central controller

2. EMCS: Energy monitoring and control system

3. FMS: Facility management system

4. EMS: Energy management system

5. BAS: Building automation system (The most generic of these terms)

BAS is where mechanical and electrical systems and equipment are joined
with microprocessors that communicate with each other and possibly to a
computer. This computer and controllers in the building automation system can be
networked to the internet or serve as a standalone system for the local peer to peer
controller network only. Additionally, the BAS controllers themselves do not need a controller
 Modern building management systems consist of a central computer,
which normally has a screen that an experienced operator can use to interpret and
alter performance. This is linked to controllers by a network, which operates as a
two-way channel for information and commands throughout the system. Local
controllers and sensors are connected to this data-bus and do the work of
controlling individual systems.
In some systems, there may not be any screen, but just box with a small
LCD readout.
Such systems normally have the capability of providing a full screen
readout. However, without such a screen they are very difficult for the
inexperienced operator to work with and represent a barrier between the building
manager, the energy manager, or any external consultant and the control system.
B- Dedicated Unit Controllers
Special modules are required to provide the I/O points and each system
has a limitation on the total number of points that can be connected. Naturally the
more points a system is capable of monitoring or controlling, the higher the system
costs. Analogue points are also usually more expensive than digital points.
The I/O is arranged in blocks to suit a computer addressing method so
they are usually purchased as standard I/O modules containing 4, 8, 16 or 32
points. Separate modules are usually required for the dedicated type of I/O i.e.
input, output, analogue, digital, range or voltage level etc. When new points are
required a complete module may have to be installed.
3- Network
The network is a communications system that connects the central
controller to the local controllers. Some systems use 'open' communication
protocols, which allow controllers of many manufacturers to talk to each other.
These systems are generally preferable to systems that are manufacturer-specific.

Introduction to DDC system design

There are six steps of DDC system design as follows:

Dedicated Unit Controllers 1- Draw a System schematic

Also called a terminal controller, it usually has limited capacity to execute
factory-loaded computer programs and to provide functional control for a terminal
or a piece of HVAC&R equipment. Unit controllers are often connected in a separate
network and supported by a system controller.

2- I/O Points
The information presented upon a BMS is derived from monitoring the
status of inputs and outputs. Input points provide information to the controls
system, e.g. temperatures, pressures etc. Output points are the control signals to
equipment. Each input or output
(Termed an I/O point) provides an electronic interface between the BMS
computer equipment and the wires in the building.
Inputs and outputs can be either:
1. Digital, i.e. on or off, such as the signal to turn a system on and off
at the beginning and end of a day; or
2. Analogue, i.e. continuously variable over a range, such as a
temperature signal.
 A System schematic Diagram is a schematic drawing of the arrangement of Each physical point on the project as well as key virtual points should be
the entire system to be controlled including all interacting components. The identified on a points list. The list should include important parameters such as
location of all control system inputs and outputs associated with the HVAC system sensor accuracy requirements, alarm limits, and trending requirements.
should be included on this diagram.
4- Draw DDC system architecture.
2- Write Control point designations.

3- Write Point list

5- Write Sequence of operation 6- Write Specifications

The performance and installation requirements for the sensors, actuators,

final control elements, controllers, workstations and other components that
comprise the control system are detailed in the specifications. Control damper and
control valve schedules are an important component of these specifications.

the sequence of operation describes the required HVAC control process in detail
including all operational and interlock requirements.
 The application of Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC)
controls starts with an understanding of the building and the use of the spaces to
be conditioned and controlled. All control systems operate in accordance with few
basic principles but before we discuss these, lets address few fundamentals of the
HVAC system first.

Why Automatic Controls?

The capacity of the HVAC system is typically designed for the extreme
conditions. Most operation is part load/off design as variables such as solar loads,
occupancy, ambient temperatures, equipment & lighting loads etc keep on
changing through out the day. Deviation from design shall result in drastic swings
or imbalance since design capacity is greater than the actual load in most operating
scenarios. Without control system, the system will become unstable and HVAC
would overheat or overcool spaces.
.