2/19/2017 JurisprudenceNotesLegalConcepts(RightsandDuties,OwnershipandPossession)|DesiKanoonLaw,EconomicsandPolitics

JurisprudenceNotesLegal
14thAugust2012
Concepts(RightsandDuties,
OwnershipandPossession)

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u9kD0MbWD8U/U2uu8XUwdSI/AAAAAAAAA6s/Ms9uVXpvojU/s1600/Library_books.jpg]

LegalConcepts
LegalRightsandDuties

Legalrightsare,clearly,rightswhichexistundertherulesoflegalsystemsor
by virtue of decisions of suitably authoritative bodies within them[1]
[file:///C:/Users/Suyash%20Verma/Documents/CSE%202014/Desi%20Kanoon/Topics/Ju
risprudence/Legal%20Concepts/Final.docx#_ftn1] .

Accordingtopositivists,legalrightsareessentiallythoseinterestswhichhave
been legally recognized and protected. John Austin made a distinction
betweenlegalrightsandothertypesofrightssuchasNaturalrightsorMoral
rights.Bylegalrights,hemeantrights which are creatures of law, strictly
orsimplysocalled.Hesaidthatotherkindofrightsarenotarmedwithlegal
sanctionandcannotbeenforcedjudicially.

On the other hand, Salmond said that a legal right is an interest recognized
andprotectedbyruleoflawandviolationofsuchaninterestwouldbealegal
wrong.Salmondfurthersaidthat:

1.Alegaldutyisanactthatobligestodosomethingandact,theoppositeof
whichwouldbealegalwrong.
2.Wheneverlawascribesdutytoaperson,acorrespondingrightalsoexists
withthepersononwhomthedutyisimposed.

3.Therearetwokindsofduties:MoralDutyandLegalDuty.

4. Rights are said to be the benefits secured for persons by rules regulating
relationships.

Salmond also believed that no right can exist without a corresponding duty.
Every right or duty involves a bond of legal obligation by which two or more

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persons are bound together. Thus, there can be no duty unless there is
someone to whom it is due there can be no right unless is someone from
whomitisclaimedandtherecanbenowrongunlessthereissomeonewho
iswronged,thatistosay,someonewhoserighthasbeenviolated.

Thisisalsocalledasvinculumjuriswhichmeansabondofthelaw.Itisa
tie that legally binds one person to another[2]
[file:///C:/Users/Suyash%20Verma/Documents/CSE%202014/Desi%20Kanoon/Topics/Ju
risprudence/Legal%20Concepts/Final.docx#_ftn2] .

Ontheotherhand,AustinsaidthatDutiescanbeoftwotypes:

a.RelativeDutyThereisacorrespondingrightexistinginsuchduties.
b.AbsoluteDutyThereisnocorrespondingrightexisting.

Austinconceivesthisdistinctiontobetheessenceofarightthatitshouldbe
vestedinsomedeterminatepersonandbeenforceablebysomeformoflegal
process instituted by him. Austin thus starts from the assumption that a right
cannot vest in an indeterminate, or a vague entity like the society or the
people. The second assumption with which Austin starts is that sovereign
createsrightsandcanimposeorchangetheserightsatitswill.Consequently,
thesovereigncannotbetheholderofsuchrights.

According to Salmond, there are five important characteristics of a Legal

Right[3]
[file:///C:/Users/Suyash%20Verma/Documents/CSE%202014/Desi%20Kanoon/Topics/Ju
risprudence/Legal%20Concepts/Final.docx#_ftn3] :

1.Itisvestedinapersonwhomaybedistinguishedastheowneroftheright,
thesubjectofit,thepersonentitled,orthepersonofinherence.

2.Itavailsagainstaperson,uponwhomliesthecorrelativeduty.Hemaybe
distinguishedasthepersonbound,orasthesubjectofduty,orastheperson
ofincidence.

3. It obliges the person bound to an act or omission in favour of the person

entitled.Thismaybetermedthecontentoftheright.

4.Theactoromissionrelatestosomething(inthewidestsenseofthatword),
whichmaybetermedtheobjectorsubjectmatteroftheright.

5.Everylegalrighthasatitle,thatistosay,certainfactsoreventsbyreason
ofwhichtherighthasbecomevestedinitsowner.

Some jurists hold that a right may not necessarily have a correlative duty.
They say that legal rights are legal concepts and these legal concepts have
theircorrelativeswhichmaynotnecessarilybeaduty.

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Roscoe Pound also gave an analysis of such legal conceptions. He believed

that legal rights are essentially interests recognized and administered by law
and belong to the science of law instead of law. He proposed that such
Rightsareconceptionsbywhichinterestsaregivenforminordertosecurea
legalorder.

HohfeldsSystemofFundamentalLegalConceptsorJuralRelations

1 2 3 4

Right Privileg Power Immunit
Jural
Opposites
e y
No Disabilit
Right Duty y Liability
Jural Right Privileg Power Immunit
Correlativ e y
es
Duty Liabilit
No y Disabilit
Right y
Jural Correlatives represent the presence of in another. Thus, right is the
presenceofdutyinanotherandliabilityisthepresenceofpowerinanother.

Jural Opposites represent the absence of in oneself. Thus, no right is the

absenceofrightinoneselfanddisabilityistheabsenceofpowerinoneself.

ConclusionderivedfromHohfeldsSystem

a.Asapersonsrightisanexpressionofawishthattheotherpersonagainst
whomtherightorclaimisexpressedhasadutytoobeyhisrightorclaim.

b. A persons freedom is an expression of a right that he may do something

againstotherpersontochangehislegalposition.

c.Apersonspowerisanexpressionofarightthathecanalterotherpersons
legalposition.

d.Apersonsdisabilityisanexpressionofawishthatanotherpersonmustnot
alterthepersonslegalposition.

SalmondonRightsandDuties

Salmond said that a perfect right is one which corresponds to a perfect duty
and a perfect duty is one which is not merely recognized by law but also
enforcedbylaw.Inafullydevelopedlegalsystem,therearerightsandduties

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which though recognized by law are not perfect in nature. The rights and
duties are important but no action is taken for enforcing these rights and
duties. The rights form a good ground for defence but duties do not form a
good ground for action. However, in some cases, an imperfect right is
sufficienttoenforceequity.

Salmondgavefollowingclassificationsofrights.

1.PositiveandNegativeRights
2.RealandPersonalRights
3.Rightinremandrightinpersonam
4.ProprietaryandPersonalRights
5.InheritableandUninheritableRights

SalmondsClassificationofPositiveandNegativeRights

PositiveRights
1 Apositiverightcorrespondstoa
corresponding duty and entitles
its owners to have something
done for him without the
performance of which his
enjoyment of the right is
imperfect.
2 Inthecaseofpositiverights,the
person subject to the duty is
boundtodosomething.
3 The satisfaction of a positive
rightresultsinthebettermentof
thepositionoftheowner.
4 In case of positive rights, the
relation between subject and
object is mediate and object is
attainedwiththehelpofothers.
5 Incaseofpositiverights,aduty
is imposed on one or few
individuals.
NegativeRights
Negative rights have negative
duties corresponding to them
and enjoyment is complete
unless interference takes place.
Therefore, majority of negative
rights are against the entire
world.
Whereas, in case of negative
rights, others are restrained to
dosomething.
Whereas in case of a negative
right,thepositionoftheowneris
maintainedasitis.
Whereas in case of negative
rights, the relation is immediate,
there is no necessity of outside
help. All that is required is that
others should refrain from
interfering case of negative
rights.
In case of negative rights, the
duty is imposed on a large
numberofpersons.

SalmondsClassificationofRealandPersonalRights

RealRights
1 A real right corresponds to a
duty imposed upon persons in
general.
2 A real right is available against
thewholeworld.
3 All real rights are negative
rights. Therefore, a real right is
nothingmorethana right to be
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PersonalRights
A personal right corresponds to a
duty imposed upon determinate
individuals.
A personal right is available only
againstaparticularperson.
Most personal rights are positive
rights although in a few
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leftalonebyothers.Itismerely
a right to their passive non
interference.
Inrealright,therelation is to a
thing. Real rights are derived
from some special relation to
theobject.
4 Realrightsarerightinrem.
SalmondsClassificationofRightinremandRightinpersonam
Rightinrem
1 It is derived from the Roman
term actio in rem. An action in
rem was an action for the
recoveryofdominium.
2 The right protected by an action
in rem came to be called jus in
rem.
3 Jusinremmeansarightagainst
orinrespectofathing.
4 Arightinremisavailableagainst
thewholeworld.
SalmondsClassificationofProprietaryandPersonalRights
ProprietaryRights
1 Proprietary rights means a
persons right in relation to his
own property. Proprietary rights
have some economic or
monetaryvalue.
2 Proprietaryrightsarevaluable.
3 Proprietary rights are not
residualincharacter.
4 Proprietary rights are
transferable.
5 Proprietary rights are the
elementsofwealthforman.
6 Proprietary rights possess not
merelyjudicialbutalsoeconomic
importance.
SalmondsClassificationofInheritableandUninheritableRights
InheritableRights
Arightisinheritableifitsurvivesthe
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exceptional cases they are
negative.
Inpersonalright,itistherelationto
otherpersonswhoowetheduties
whichisimportant.Personalrights
arederivedfromspecialrelationto
the individual or individuals under
theduty.
Personal rights are right in
personam.
Rightinpersonam
It is derived from the Roman
term action in personam. An
action in personam was one for
the enforcement of obligato i.e.
obligation.
A right protected by action in
personam came to be called as
jusinpersonam.
Jus in personam means a right
againstorinrespectofaperson.
A right in personam is available
against a particular individual
only.
PersonalRights
Personalrightsarerightsarising
out of any contractual obligation
orrightsthatrelatetostatus.
Personalrightsarenotvaluable.
Personalrightsaretheresiduary
rights which remain after
proprietary rights have been
subtracted.
Personal rights are not
transferable.
Personal rights are merely
elementsofhiswellbeing.
Personal rights possess merely
judicialimportance.
UninheritableRights
A right is uninheritable if it dies with
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owner. theowner.

Ownership

SalmondonOwnership

Ownership denotes the relationship between a person and an object forming

the subjectmatter of his ownership. It consists in a complex of rights, all of
which are rights in rem, being good against the entire world and not merely
against specific persons[4]
[file:///C:/Users/Suyash%20Verma/Documents/CSE%202014/Desi%20Kanoon/Topics/Ju
risprudence/Legal%20Concepts/Final.docx#_ftn4] .

IncidenceofOwnership

1.Theownerhastherighttopossessthingsthatheowns.

2.Theownernormallyhasarighttouseorenjoythethingowned,therightto
manageit,therighttodecidehowitshallbeusedandtherightofincomefrom
it.However,Righttopossessisnotarightstrictusensu because such rights
areinfactlibertiesastheownerhasnodutytowardsothersandhecanuseit
in any way he likes and nobody can interfere with the enjoyment of his
ownership.

3. The owner has the right to consume, destroy or alienate the things. The
righttoconsumeanddestroyareagainstraightforwardliberties.Therightto
alienate i.e. the right to transfer the existing rights involves the existence of
power.

4.Ownershiphasthecharacteristicofbeingindeterminateindurationand
Ownership has a residuarycharacter. Salmond contrasted the rights of the
owner with the lesser rights of the possessor and encumbrancer by stating
that the owner's rights are indeterminate and residuary in a way in which
theseotherrightsarenot.

AustinsConceptofOwnership

Ownership or Property may be described accurately enough, in the following

manner:the right to use or deal with some given subject, in a manner,
ortoanextent,which,thoughisnotunlimited,isindefinite.

Now in this description it is necessarily implied, that the law will protect or
relieve the owner against every disturbance of his right on the part of any
other person. Changing the expression, all other persons are bound to
forbearfromactswhichwouldpreventorhindertheenjoymentorexerciseof
theright.

AustinfurthersaidthatOwnershiporProperty,is,therefore,aspeciesof
Jus in rem. For ownership is a right residing in a person, over or to a

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person or thing, and availing against other persons universally or

generally.Itisarightimplyingandexclusivelyrestinguponobligations
whichareatonceuniversalandnegative.

DiasonOwnership

After referring to the views of Salmond and other Jurists, Dias came to the
conclusionthatapersonisownerofathingwhenhisinterestwilloutlast
theinterestsofotherpersonsinthesamething.Thisissubstantiallythe
conclusion reached by many modern writers, who have variously described
ownershipastheresiduary,theultimate,orthemostenduringinterest.

According to Dias, an owner may be divested of his claims, etc., to such an

extent that he may be left with no immediate practical benefit. He remains
owner nonetheless. This is because his interest in the thing, which is
ownership,willoutlastthatofotherpersons,orifheisnotpresentlyexercising
any of his claims, etc., these will revive as soon as those vested in other
personshavecometoanend.

Inthecaseoflandandchattels,iftheownerisnotinpossession,ownership
amounts to a better right to obtain the possession than that of the
defendant.Itis'better'inthatitlastslonger.Itisapparentthattheaboveview
of Dias substantially agrees with that of Salmond. According to Dias it is the
outlastinginterestandaccordingtoSalmond,ownershiphasthecharacteristic
of being indeterminate in duration and residuary in nature[5]
[file:///C:/Users/Suyash%20Verma/Documents/CSE%202014/Desi%20Kanoon/Topics/Ju
risprudence/Legal%20Concepts/Final.docx#_ftn5] .

TypesofOwnership

CorporealOwnership IncorporealOwnership
1. Corporeal Ownership signifies ownership 1. Incorporeal Ownership is a right or an
inaphysicalobject. interest.
2.Corporealthingsarethingswhichcanbe 2.Incorporealthingscannotbeperceivedby
perceivedbysenses. sensesandareintangible.
SoleOwnership CoOwnership
When an individual owns, it is sole When there is more than one person who
ownership ownstheproperty
TrustOwnership BeneficialOwnership
1.Thereisnocoownership. 1.Therecanbecoownership.
2. The person on whom the responsibility 2.Thepersonforwhomthetrustiscreated
liesforthebenefitoftheothersiscalledthe iscalledtheBeneficiary.
Trustee.
3. The trustee has no right to the beneficial 3.TheBeneficiaryhasthefullrightstoenjoy
enjoymentoftheproperty. theproperty.
4. Ownership is limited. A trustee is merely 4.Ownershipiscomplete.
anagentuponwhomthelawhas conferred
thedutyofadministrationofproperty.
5.Trusteeshipmaychangehands. 5.BeneficialOwnersremainthesame.

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LegalOwnership EquitableOwnership
Legalownershipisthatownershipwhichhas Equitable ownership comes from equity
itsbasisincommonlaw. divergenceofcommonlaw.Thus,distinction
between legal and equitable ownership is
verythin.
VestedOwnership ContingentOwnership
1. Ownership is vested when the title is 1.Ownershipiscontingentwhenitiscapable
perfect. of being perfect after fulfilment of certain
condition.
2.Vestedownershipisabsolute. 2. Contingent ownership becomes vested
whentheconditionsarefulfilled.
AbsoluteOwnership LimitedOwnership
Ownership is absolute when possession, Limited Ownership is subjected to the
enjoyment, disposal are complete and limitationsofuse,disposalorduration.
vestedwithoutrestrictionssaveasrestriction
imposedbylaw.

Possession

SalmondonPossession

Salmond said that in the whole of legal theory there is no conception more
difficultthanthatofpossession.Thelegalconsequenceswhichflowfromthe
acquisition and loss of possession are many and serious. Possession, for
example,isevidenceofownershipthepossessorofathingispresumedtobe
the owner of it, and may put all other claimants to proof of their title. The
transferofpossessionisoneofthechiefmethodsoftransferringownership.

Salmondalsosaidthatpossessionisofsuchefficacythatapossessormayin
manycasesconferagoodtitleonanother,eventhoughhehasnonehimself.

Healsomadeadistinctionbetweenpossessioninfactandpossessioninlaw.

1. Possession may and usually does exist both in fact and in law. The law
recognizesaspossessionallthatissuchinfact,andnothingthatisnotsuchin
fact,unlessthereissomespecialreasontothecontrary.

2. Possession may exist in fact but not in law. Thus the possession by a
servantofhismasterspropertyisforsomepurposesnotrecognizedassuch
by the law, and he is then said to have detention or custody rather than
possession.

3.Possessionmayexistinlawbutnotinfactthatistosay,forsomespecial
reason the law attributed the advantages and results of possession to
someone who as a matter of fact does not possess. The possession thus
fictitiouslyattributedtohimistermedconstructive.

InRomanlaw,possessioninfactiscalledpossessionaturalis,andpossession
inlawaspossessiocivilis.

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CorporealandIncorporealPossession

Corporeal Possession is the possession of a material object and Incorporeal

Possessionisthepossessionofanythingotherthanamaterialobject.

CorporealpossessionistermedinRomanlawpossessiocorporis.Incorporeal
possessionisdistinguishedaspossessiojuris, the possession of a right, just
asincorporealownershipistheownershipofaright.

Salmond further said that corporeal possession is clearly some form of

continuingrelationbetweenapersonandamaterialobject.Itisequallyclear
thatitisarelationoffactandnotoneofright.

What,then,istheexactnatureofthatcontinuingdefacto relation between a

personandathing,whichisknownaspossession?

According to Salmond, the possession of a material object is the continuing

exerciseofaclaimtotheexclusiveuseofit.

Itinvolvestwodistinctelements,oneofwhichismentalorsubjective,theother
physicalorobjective.

Thementalelementcomprisesoftheintentionofthepossessorwithrespect
to the thing possessed, while the physical element comprises of the external
factsinwhichthisintentionhasrealised,embodied,orfulfilleditself.

TheRomanscalledthementalelementasanimusandthesubjectelementas
corpus.Thementalorsubjectiveelementisalsocalledasanimuspossidendi,
animussibihabendi,oranimusdomini.

TheAnimusPossidendi The intent necessary to constitute possession is

theintenttoappropriatetooneselftheexclusiveuseofthethingpossessed.It
is an exclusive claim to a material object. Salmond made following
observationsinthisregard.

1.Itisnotnecessarilyaclaimofright.
2.Theclaimofthepossessormustbeexclusive.
3.Theanimuspossidendineednotamounttoaclaimofintenttousethething
asowner.
4.Theanimuspossidendineednotbeaclaimononesownbehalf.
5.Theanimuspossidendineednotbespecific,butmaybemerelygeneral.It
does not necessarily involve any continuous or present knowledge of the
particularthingpossessedorofthepossessorsrelationtoit.

TheCorpusPossessionisTheclaimofthepossessormustbeeffectively
realized in the facts that is to say, it must be actually and continuously
exercised. The corpus possessionis consists in nothing more than the

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continuingexclusionofalieninterference,coupledwithabilitytousethething
oneselfatwill.Actualuseofitisnotessential.

ImmediateandMediatePossession

The possession held by one man through another may be termed mediate,
while that which is acquired or retained directly or personally may be
distinguishedasimmediateordirect.

TherearethreekindsofMediatePossession:

1. Possession that is acquired through an agent or servant who claims no

interestofhisown.

2. The direct possession is in one who holds both on the actual possessors
accountandonhisown,butwhorecognizestheactualpossessorssuperior
righttoobtainfromhimthedirectpossessionwheneverhechoosetodemand
it.

3. The immediate possession is in a person who claims it for himself until

some time has elapsed or some condition has been fulfilled, but who
acknowledges the title of another for whom he holds the thing, and to whom
heispreparedtodeliveritwhenhisowntemporaryclaimhascometoanend.

ConcurrentorDuplicatePossession

1.MediateandImmediatePossessioncoexistinrespectofthesamethingas
alreadyexplainedabove.
2.Twoormorepersonsmaypossessthesamethingincommon,justasthey
mayownitincommon.Thisalsocalledascompossessio.

3.CorporealandIncorporealPossessionmaycoexistinrespectofthesame
materialobject,justascorporealandincorporealownershipmay.

IncorporealPossession

In Incorporeal Possession as well, the same two elements required, namely

theanimusandthecorpus.Inthecaseofincorporealthings,continuingnon
useisinconsistentwithpossession,thoughinthecaseofcorporealthingsitis
consistentwithit.

Incorporeal possession is commonly called the possession of a right, and

corporealpossessionisdistinguishedfromitasthepossessionofathing.The
distinctionbetweencorporealandincorporealpossessionisclearlyanalogous
tothatbetweencorporealandincorporealownership.

Corporeal possession, like corporeal ownership, is that of a thing while

incorporeal possession, like incorporeal ownership, is that of a right. In

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essence,therefore,thetwoformsofpossessionareidentical,justasthetwo
formsofownershipare.

Hence, Possession in its full compass and generic application means the
continuingexerciseofanyclaimorright.

PatononPossession

Paton said that even though Possession is a concept of law still it lacks a
uniformapproachbythejurists.Somejuristsmakeadistinctionbetweenlegal
and lawful possession. Possession of a thief is legal, but not lawful. In some
cases,wherepossessioninthepopularsenseismeant,itiseasytousesome
such term as physical control. Possession is also regarded as prima facie
evidenceofOwnership.

According to Paton, for English law there is no need to talk of mediate and
immediatepossession.TheBaileeandthetenantclearlyhavefullpossession:
Salmond'sanalysismayhenecessaryforsomeothersystemsoflaw,butitis
notneededinEnglishlaw.

OliverWendellHolmesandVonSavignyonPossesion

Savigny with other German thinkers (including Kant and Hegel) argued that
possession, in the eyes of the law, requires that the person claiming
possession intend to hold the property in question as an owner rather
thanrecognizethesuperiortitleofanotherperson,sothatinproviding
possessory remedies to lessees, Bailees, and others who lack such
intentions,modemlawsacrificesprincipletoconvenience.

TothisHolmesrespondedthathecannotseewhatisleftofaprinciplewhich
avowsitselfinconsistentwithconvenienceandtheactualcourseoflegislation.
Thefirstcallofatheoryoflawisthatitshouldfitthefacts.Itmustexplainthe
observed course of legislation. And as it is pretty certain that men will make
lawswhichseemtothemconvenientwithouttroublingthemselvesverymuch
what principles are encountered by their legislation, a principle which defies
convenience is likely to wait some time before it finds itself permanently
realized[6]
[file:///C:/Users/Suyash%20Verma/Documents/CSE%202014/Desi%20Kanoon/Topics/Ju
risprudence/Legal%20Concepts/Final.docx#_ftn6] .

Holmes also criticised Savigny and other German theorists by saying that
they have known no other system than the Roman. In his works, Holmes
proved that the AngloAmerican Law of Possession derived not from Roman
law,butratherfrompreRomanGermanlaw.

OneofHolmes'scriticismsoftheGermantheorists,signallyincludingSavigny,
isthatthey"haveknownnoothersystemthantheRoman,'.6andhesetsout
to prove that the AngloAmerican law of possession derives not from Roman
law,butratherfrompreRomanGermanlaw.

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Next: Theories of Juristic or Corporate Personality

[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2014/05/jurisprudencenotes
theoriesof.html]

CompleteListofJurisprudenceNotes

1.JurisprudenceNatureandScopeofJurisprudence
[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/08/jurisprudencenotesnatureandscope
of.html]

2.JurisprudenceTheNatureofLaw
[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/08/thenatureoflaw.html]

3.JurisprudenceAdministrationofJustice
[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/08/jurisprudencenotesadministration
of.html]

4.JurisprudenceTheSourcesofLaw
[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/08/jurisprudencenotessourcesoflaw.html]

A.MaxwellonInterpretation[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2014/05/maxwellon
interpretationofstatutes.html]
B.InterpretativeProcess[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2014/05/interpretative
processhansgeorg.html]
C.Ratiodecidendi[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2014/05/jurisprudencenotesratio
decidendi.html]
D.SupremeCourtonratiodecidendi
[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2014/05/jurisprudencenotessupremecourtof.html]
E.ThreeTeststoDetermineratiodecidendi
[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2014/05/jurisprudencenotesthreeteststo.html]

5.JurisprudenceLegalConcepts
[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/08/jurisprudencenoteslegalconcepts.html]

6.JurisprudenceTheoriesofJuristicPersonality
[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2014/05/jurisprudencenotestheoriesof.html]

7.JurisprudenceSchoolofThoughts
[http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/08/jurisprudencenotesschoolof
thoughts.html]

[1]
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Posted14thAugust2012bySuyashVerma
Labels:Jurisprudence,LegalConcepts,ownershipjurisprudence,possession
injurisprudence,salmondonrightsandduties

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Abhijeet Kumar Srivastawa 4 days ago - Shared publicly

Even I couldn't understand this topic in my class...Many thanks...

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Raja shekar 3 months ago - Shared publicly

Thanks a lot.

Alex Yanganani 4 months ago - Shared publicly

Great lecture notes

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Tawonga Dowa 10 months ago - Shared publicly

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Tawonga Dowa 10 months ago - Shared publicly
this is such an insightful read

Abdulkarim Mussa 1 year ago - Shared publicly

thanks this help me in jurispudenve

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Prof Prabir Kumar Pattnaik 1 year ago - Shared publicly

Ist Sem Law Students should read this

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Vanessa Hogg 2 years ago - Shared publicly

Helped me alot. Thank you.

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Piyush Gupta 2 years ago - Shared publicly

THANKS a LOT MAN

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kisii university 1 year ago - Shared publicly

Exactly what a was looking for ..thanks alot

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