THERMODYNAMICS

AND STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS
Thermodynamics
Thermal Expansion
When a solid is subjected to a rise in temperature T, its
increase in length,L is proportional to its initial length Lo
multiplied by T.
coefficient of linear expansion
(depends on the material)

Area Expansion
coefficient of area expansion
(equivalent to 2 for isotropic solids)

Volume Expansion
coefficient of volume expansion
(equivalent to 3 for isotropic solids)
Thermal Expansion
Example
A cylinder of diameter 1cm at 30 deg C is to be slid into a
hole in a steel plate. The hole has a diameter of 0.99970
cm at 30 deg C. To what temperature must the plate be
heated? For steel = 1.1 x 10-5 / deg C
Ideal Gases

Ideal Gas Law

The absolute pressure P of n kilomoles of gas contained in
a volume V is related to the absolute temperature T by:
R universal gas constant ( 8314 J/kmol-K)

Special Cases
Ideal Gases
Absolute Zero
The temperature at which P and V would reach zero

Standard Temperature and Pressure (S.T.P.)

T = 273.15 K
P = 1.013 x 105 Pa = 1atm

Daltons Law of Partial Pressures

The total pressure of a mixture of ideal, nonreactive gases
is the sum of the partial pressures of the component
gases.
Combined Gas Law
Ideal Gases
Example
The density of nitrogen is 1.25kg/cu.m at STP. Determine
the density of nitrogen at 42 deg C and 730mm of
mercury
Heat Quantities

Thermal Energy random kinetic energy of the

particles composing a system
Heat thermal energy in transit from a system at one
temperature to a system that is in contact with it, but
at a lower temperature.
(cgs) 1 cal = 4.184 Joules
(imp) 1 BTU = 1054 Jjoules
Specific Heat (c ) the quantity of heat required to
change the temperature of unit mass of the
substance by one degree
For water, c = 4180J/kg-OC = 1 cal/g-OC
Heat Quantities
Heat Gained(or Lost)
Q heat change
Positive heat gained
Negative heat lost
m mass
T change in temperature (final temp
initial temp)

Heat of Fusion(Lf) quantity of heat required to melt a

unit mass of solid at constant temperature
For water at 0oC Lf = 335 kJ/kg = 80 cal/g
Heat of Vaporization(Lv) = heat required to vaporize a
unit mass of liquid at constant temperature
For water at 100oC Lv = 2.26 MJ/kg = 540 cal/g

Calorimetry
Sum of heat changes for all objects = 0, assuming no
thermal energy is lost
Heat Quantities
Example
Determine the temperature Tf that results when 150g of
ice at 0 oC is mixed with 300g of water at 50 oC.
Heat Transfer

Conduction occurs when thermal energy moves

through a material as a result of collisions between
free electrons, ions, atoms, and molecules of the
material.
Q quantity of heat transmitted

t time it takes for heat to be

transmitted

T temperature difference

A cross sectional area

L distance travelled by the heat

kT thermal conductivity (W/m-K)

Heat Transfer

Convection occurs in fluid when warm material flows

so as to displace cooler material
Radiation mode of transport of radiant
electromagnetic energy through vacuum and the
empty space between atoms
Blackbody a body that absorbs all radiant energy
falling on it
P power radiated by a body
A surface area of the body
T absolute temperature of the body
Te absolute temperature of environment
emissivity (equal to unity for a blackbody)
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67x10-8 W/m2-K4)
Heat Transfer

Example
A beverage cooler is in the shape of a cube, 42 cm on
each inside edge. Its 3.0-cm thick walls are made of
plastic (kT = 0.050 W/m-K). When the outside temperature
is 20 oC, how much ice will melt inside the cooler each
hour?
Law of Thermodynamics

Zeroth Law If each of two objects is in thermal

equilibrium with a third body, then the two are in
thermal equilibrium with each other
Internal Energy (U) total energy content of the system
Work Done by a System(W) positive if the system does
work on its surroundings, negative otherwise.

First Law of Thermodynamics states that if an amount

of heat flows into a system, this energy increases the
internal energy for the system and/or work done by
the system
Law of Thermodynamics
Isobaric Process process carried out at constant
pressure
Isovolumic Process process carried out at constant
volume

Isothermal Process process carried out at constant

temperature

Adiabatic Process process where there is no transfer

of heat

Efficency of Heat Engine

Law of Thermodynamics

Example
How much work is done by an ideal gas expanding
isothermally from an initial volume of 3.00 liters at 220 atm
to a final volume of 24 liters?
Law of Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter to a colder
object
No heat engine that cycles continuously can change all
its heat-in to useful work-out
If a system undergoes spontaneous change, its entropy
will either increase or remain constant
Entropy measure of disorder of a system
S entropy

Q heat

T absolute temperature

Third Law of Thermodynamics the entropy of a

perfect crystal at absolute zero temperature is exactly
equal to zero
Law of Thermodynamics

Example
Twenty grams of ice at precisely 0 oC melts to water with
no change in temperature. By how much does entropy of
the 20-g mass change in this process?
Strength of
Materials
Stress and Strain
(Tension and Compression)

Normal Stress the intensity of normal force per unit

area for an axially loaded object

Normal Strain the amount of elongation per unit

length
Stress and Strain
(Tension and Compression)
Hookes Law
stress
strain
E modulus of Elasticity (Youngs
Modulus)
Stress and Strain
(Tension and Compression)
Stress and Strain
(Tension and Compression)
TERMS
Proportional Limit - the maximum stress that may be
developed such that the stress is a linear function of
strain.
Elastic Limit - the maximum stress that may be developed
such that there is no permanent or residual deformation
when the load is entirely removed
Yield Point the point in the stress-strain diagram at which
there is an increase in strain with no increase in stress
Ultimate Strength the maximum point on the stress strain
diagram
Modulus of Resilience - work done on a unit volume of
material, as a simple tensile force is gradually increased
from zero to such a value that the proportional limit of the
material
Stress and Strain
(Tension and Compression)
Modulus of Toughness - work done on a unit volume of
material as a simple tensile force is gradually
increased from zero to the value causing rupture
Working Stress maximum safe stress a material may
carry (less than the proportional limit)
Coefficient of Linear Expansion ()- as the change of
length per unit length of a straight bar subject to a
temperature change of one degree

Poissons ratio () - the ratio of the strain in the lateral

direction to that in the axial direction
Stress and Strain
(Tension and Compression)
Example
Two prismatic bars are rigidly fastened together and support a
vertical load of 45 kN. The upper bar is steel having length 10 m
and cross-sectional area 60 cm2. The lower bar is brass having
length 6 m and cross-sectional area 50 cm2. For steel E = 200 GPa,
for brass E = 100 GPa. Determine the maximum stress in each
material.
Specific Weight of Brass = 84 kN/m3
Specific Weight of Steel = 77 kN/m3
Stress and Strain
(Shear Forces)
Shearing Stress () stress caused by a force acting in
parallel to a plane area passing through a body

Shear Strain ()- change of angle at the corner of an

originally rectangular element due to a shearing force
Shear Modulus (G) ratio of shear stress to the shear
strain; also known as Modulus of Rigidity
Stress and Strain
(Shear Forces)
Example
Low-carbon structural steel has a shearing ultimate
strength of approximately 300 MPa. Determine the force
P necessary to punch a 2.5-cm-diameter hole through a
plate of this steel 1 cm thick. If the modulus of elasticity in
shear for this material is 82 GPa, find the shear strain at
the edge of this hole when the shear stress is 143 MPa.
Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
(Cylindrical)
Axial Stress
pD (pi po)D
a = a =
2t 2t

Longitudinal Stress
pD (pi po)D
l = l =
4t 4t

p = pressure inside the

vessel
pi = external pressure
po = internal pressure

D = diameter of cylinder
t = thickness
 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
(Spherical)
Stress in Spherical Vessel

pD
t =
4t

(pi po)D
t =
4t
 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
(Spherical)
Example
A 20-m-diameter spherical tank is to be used to store gas.
The shell plating is 10 mm thick and the working stress of
the material is 125 MPa. What is the maximum permissible
gas pressure?
Torsion
Torsion stress occurring in a rigid object undergoing a
torque

= torsional shearing stress

T = torque applied
= radius
J = polar moment of inertia
Do = outside diameter
Di = inside diameter
Torsion

Torsion stress occurring in a rigid object undergoing a

torque

= torsional shearing stress

T = torque applied
= radius
J = polar moment of inertia
Do = outside diameter
Di = inside diameter
Torsion

Angle of Twist ()

T = torque applied
L = length of object over wich the torque is applied
J = polar moment of inertia
G = shear modulus
Torsion

Example
If a twisting moment of 1100 N m is impressed upon a
4.4-cm-diameter shaft, what is the maximum shearing
stress developed? Also, what is the angle of twist in a 150-
cm length of the shaft? The material is steel for which G =
85 GPa.