Formal learning

Formal learning, normally delivered by trained teachers in a systematic intentional way within
a school, academy/college/institute or university. Organized and guided by a formal curriculum.It
leads to a formally recognized credential such as a high school completion diploma or a degree,
and is often guided and recognized by government at some level. Teachers are usually trained as
professionals in some way.

Formal learning theory

Formal learning theory is the formal study of inductive problems and their intrinsic solvability for
both ideal and computable agents. Modal operator theory has very little to do with formal learning
theory especially with respects to

1. The significance of method and methodological recommendations.

2. The idea of weakening the convergence criterion in order to get more problems within the
scope of reliable inquiry.

The origin of formal learning theory

Research on logical reliability theory was first pursued under the name formal
learning theory, given to the discipline by (Osherson et al. 1986). This name is
somewhat misleading, as it suggests a study of how cognizers learn. With this in
mind, Kevin Kelly renamed the approach computational epistemology (1991,
1996), which reflects its historical roots in computability theory while avoiding
misinterpretation.

Computer scientists are in the business of recommending and providing programs and
algorithms for various empirical purposes. From this perspective learning is about reliable
convergence to correct answers on various empirical questions. Thus learning theory is the
formal study of inductive problems and their complexity and solvability for both ideal and Turing-
computable agents.

In the middle of 1960s, (Gold 1967) applied formal learning theory to theories of language
acquisition in which a child is asked to reliably converge to a grammar for its natural language.
Very briefly, languages are modeled as recursive enumerable sets (or r.e sets) and a child is
conceived as a function required to converge to a correct r.e index for a given set over all
possible enumerations of the set. About the same time H.Reicherbanch's students, Hilary
Putnam (Putnam 1963) applied learning theory to criticize Carnap's confirmation theory. Putnam
at tempted to show Carnap's justification standards for a probabilistic theory of confirmation,
there exists a hypothesis the Carnapian extrapolation algorithm cannot learn even given every
possible instance of the hypothesis. Further mathematical treatments of the problems of
induction were provided by (Blum and Blum 1975) and (Angluin 1980).

Formal learning theory never really caught on among philosophers, perhaps because
philosophers found it hard to see how the formal results concerning induction apply to classical
philosophical. Due to the work of Kevin T. Kelly, Clark Glymour, Dan Osherson and others, formal
learning theory has been adapted to questions in philosophy of science, methodology and
epistemology.
Informal learning

Informal learning is by default any learning that is not formal learning or non-formal
learning. Informal learning is organized differently than formal and non-formal learning
because it has no set objective in terms of learning outcomes and is never intentional from the
learners standpoint. Often, it is referred to as learning by experience or just as experience.
For all learners this includes heuristic language building, socialization, inculturation, and
play. Informal learning is a pervasive ongoing phenomenon of learning via participation or
learning via knowledge creation, in contrast with the traditional view of teacher-centered
learning via knowledge acquisition. The term is often conflated, however, with non-formal
learning, and self-directed learning. It is widely used in the context of corporate training and
education in relation to return on investment (ROI), or return on learning (ROL). It is also
widely used when referring to science education, in relation to citizen science, or informal
science education. The conflated meaning of informal and non-formal learning explicates
mechanisms of learning that organically occur outside the realm of traditional instructor-led
programs, e.g., reading self-selected books, participating in self-study programs, Kitchen
Table science, navigating performance support materials and systems, incidental skills
practice, receptivity of coaching or mentoring, seeking advice from peers, or participation
in communities of practice, to name a few. Informal learning occurs in community, where
individuals have opportunities to observe and participate in social activities. No formal
curriculum and no credits earned. The teacher is simply someone with more experience such as a
parent, grandparent or a friend. A father teaching his child to play catch or a babysitter teaching a
child their ABCs is an example of informal education.

These may be overly simplified explanations. There are times when the lines between each type of
learning get blurred, as well. It isnt always as cut and dry as it seems, but these definitions give
you a general idea of each type of learning.

Merriam et al. (2007) state: "Informal learning, Schugurensky (2000) suggests, has its own
internal forms that are important to distinguish in studying the phenomenon. He proposes three
forms: self-directed learning, incidental learning, and socialization, or tacit learning. These differ
among themselves in terms of intentionality and awareness at the time of the learning
experience. Self-directed learning, for example, is intentional and conscious; incidental learning,
which Marsick and Watkins (1990) describe as an accidental by-product of doing something else,
is unintentional but after the experience she or he becomes aware that some learning has taken
place; and finally, socialization or tacit learning is neither intentional nor conscious (although we
can become aware of this learning later through 'retrospective recognition') (Marsick & Watkins,
1990, p. 6)" (p. 36). More recently, Bennett (2012) extended Schugurenksky's (2000)
conceptualization of informal by recommending four modes of informal learning: a) self-directed,
which is conscious and intentional, b) incidental, which is conscious and unintentional, c) tacit,
which replaces socialization and is both nonconscious and unintentional, and d) integrative,
which is nonconscious and intentional. Drawing upon implicit processing literature, she further
defined integrative learning as "a learning process that combines intentional nonconscious
processing of tacit knowledge with conscious access to learning products and mental images"
(Bennett, 2012, p. 4) and she theorized two possible sub-processes: knowledge shifting and
knowledge sublimation, which describe limited access learners have to tacit knowledge.

Nonformal learning
Non-formal learning is a loosely defined term covering various structured learning situations,
such as swimming sessions for toddlers, community-based sports programs and conference
style seminars, which do not either have the level
of curriculum, syllabus, accreditation and certification associated with 'formal learning', but have
more structure than that associated with 'informal learning', which typically take place naturally
and spontaneously as part of other activities. These form the three styles of learning recognised
and supported by the OECD.

Examples of non-formal learning include swimming sessions for toddlers, community-based

sports programs, and programs developed by organisations such as the Boy Scouts or the Girl
Guides, community or non-credit adult education courses, sports or fitness programs,
professional conferences and continuing professional development. The learners objectives may
be to increase skills and knowledge, as well as to experience the emotional rewards associated
with increased love for a subject or increased passion for learning. Organized even if it is only
loosely organized, may or may not be guided by a formal curriculum. This type of education may
be led by a qualified teacher or by a leader with more experience. Though it doesnt result in a
formal degree or diploma, non-formal education is highly enriching and builds an individuals skills
and capacities.